Human Biology

Activity Book

Human Biology Activity Book

Human Biology 314
This Human Biology Activity Book was prepared as a resource for the Human
Biology 314 course by a committee of teachers in 1999 while working at the Howard
S. Billings High School. This committee was funded by a P.D.I.G. grant. In 2001 the
Science Action Plan Committee (SAPCO) made this resource material available to our
English schools through the Science Resource Centre of the QESN Rcit.
1999 P.D.I.G Committee
Authors:

Marguerite Comley
Samira Spain
Jennifer Zakutney

Author and Editor:

Mark Watson

Table of Contents
Introduction ______________________________________________________ 4
Module 1 Nutrition _______________________________________________ 6
Part 1 The Distestive System & Nutrition ___________________________ 7
Part 2 The Respiratory System __________________________________ 14
Part 3 The Circulatory System___________________________________ 21
Part 4 The Cell & Its Functions __________________________________ 42
Part 5 The Excretory System ____________________________________ 51
Module 2 Relationships___________________________________________ 55
Part 1 Sensory Relationship _____________________________________ 57
Part 2 The Locomotor System ___________________________________ 72
Module 3 Reproduction __________________________________________ 84
Part 1 Structures & Functions ___________________________________ 85
Part 2 Procreation _____________________________________________ 91
Part 3 STDs & Contraception ___________________________________ 98
Biology Project __________________________________________________ 106

Introduction

Organization of the Body

Like all organisms, the human body is an incredibly complicated system. Each part of
the body plays a vital role in the survival of the whole. If we broke the body down to
its living components, we would find that the body is composed of cells. The cell is
the basic unit of life for all organisms. There are many organisms found in the world
that are made up of a single cell. The human body contains roughly 40 trillion (40
000 000 000 000) cells. These cells do not all look alike. There are many different
cells that perform different functions within the body. Even though the cells are
different shapes and sizes, they all contain the same basic structures.
Single celled organisms can rely on simple processes to obtain all the substances they
need for survival. All their surfaces are in direct contact with their environment. A
community of cells, like the human body, must be organized and specialized so that
all the cells can receive the nutrients they need and remove the wastes produced.
Scientists have classified different levels of organization in the body to make it easier
to study.
As we have mentioned before, the basic unit of life is the cell. There are many
different types of cells that perform specific functions. A group of specialized cells is
called a tissue. The main types of tissues are: epithelial tissue (skin), connective
tissue (bone and cartilage), muscle tissue, and nerve tissue. A group of different
tissues that work together to perform a particular function is called an organ. The
heart is an example of an organ. It is made up of epithelial cells, muscles cells, nerve
cells and connective cells. The function of the heart is to act as a pump. If you add
the blood vessels and arteries that move the blood around we now call this group of
organs a system.
Let=s use the digestive system as an example
Cell

Tissues
connective
epithelial
muscle
nerve

Organs
mouth
stomach
liver
pancreas
small intestine
large intestine
4

System
digestive

These systems are not entirely independent. While each has a highly specialized job
to do, they all rely on the other systems. Some organs are found in two or three
different systems because they have many complex tasks to perform. Our bodies, like
most animals and plants, require a number of systems to live. A group of systems that
works together like this makes up an organism. As we study the organism we call
humans, we will use systems to help organize the information. The systems we will
explore are:
1.

Digestive System

2.

Respiratory System

3.

Circulatory System

4.

Urinary or Excretory System

5.

Nervous System

6.

Skeletal System

7.

Muscular System

8.

Reproductive System

In the months that follow, we will explore how each of these systems, and all their
parts work to keep us alive. We will also look at how and why they sometimes fail
to work properly and the steps you can take to minimize your risk.

Module 1

Nutrition
6

Nutrition
In order for the body to work, it must receive a regular supply of materials to grow,
make energy and run its varied chemical reactions. The collective name for these
chemicals we supply our body with is nutrients.
Nutrients can be broken down into six categories, each with a separate and distinct
function. The categories are:
1.

Fat:

Used for energy production and storage.

2.

Protein:

Used as a building and maintenance material by the cells.

3.

Sugar:

Used for energy production.

4.

Minerals and Vitamins:

Used to regulate chemical reactions in cells.

5.

Water:

Essential to all cells. Maintains structure of the cell.

6.

Oxygen:

Used to burn sugar and fat to produce energy.

Most of these nutrients come to us in the food we eat. Oxygen is the only exception.
To keep our bodies healthy, we must make sure we take in the right amount of each of
these nutrients. If we take in too few, we can get sick and die. If we take in too many,
the effect can be the same.
We often measure the amount of food we eat in terms of kiloJoules (kJ). This is a
way of measuring the amount of energy we can get from foods. If we eat too much,
the body stores the excess energy as fat in our body. If we do not eat enough, the
body converts tissues from our body into sugars it can burn for energy. This is why it
is essential to eat a healthy, well balanced diet.
As we continue through the course, we will see a great many diseases that can be
caused by either overeating, or not eating enough. It should become clear to you just
how important a good diet is.
Fibre is also important for a healthy diet. It is not a nutrient because the body cannot
absorb it, but it does play a role in keeping your digestive system healthy and it
supplies us with vitamins.

Nutrition Activities
Some examples of activities you can have your students work on are:
1) Have students look into the effects of taking too many vitamins. Why are only
certain vitamins dangerous in high doses? What are the effects of getting too little
of the vitamins? History buffs might prefer to report on problems like scurvy or
beriberi that plagued us until we learned about vitamins.
2) Have students prepare a sample menu for a meal for four. The menu should take
into account the different dietary requirements of adults, adolescents, and children.
3) Have students conduct an analysis of different foods, testing for proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. The "Breath of Life" book has a good set up on pages
16-19.
4) Have students analyze the energy content of food. Using a Bunsen burner, have
students burn samples of equal mass of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. They
should see that it is a lot harder to burn fat than sugar, but that it burns a lot longer.
Protein also burns, and will be used for energy by your body if necessary. If you
have access to a calorimeter, you can actually calculate the number of kiloJoules in
your samples.
5) Students could research eating disorders like Anorexia or Bulimia and report on
the effects on your body of poor nutrition.

The Digestive System

Digestion is the breaking down of food into simpler substances so that it can be
absorbed into and used by the body. This breakdown can occur in two ways. The
breakdown can be mechanical, which means the food is broken down into smaller
pieces. It can also be chemical, which means the food is broken down into smaller
substances.
Digestion begins in the mouth. The food you put in your mouth is mixed with saliva,
which breaks down complex starches into simpler carbohydrates (chemical
breakdown). Mastication, or chewing is also important, because it breaks the food
down into smaller pieces (mechanical breakdown). The tongue is responsible for
moving the food around between the teeth, mixing it with saliva, and preparing it to be
swallowed. When the food is in small enough pieces and thoroughly moistened, the
tongue forms it into a ball (called a bolus), which is moved to the back of the mouth
and swallowed.
After the bolus is swallowed, it moves down into the pharynx and into the
esophagus. A series of rhythmic contractions help usher the food down into the
stomach. Throughout the digestive tract, muscles in the walls of the organs push the
food along. This process is called peristalsis. This is the main mechanical action in
the digestive system after the mouth.
The stomach receives the bolus of food from the esophagus and it is broken down
both physically and chemically here. The stomach is a muscular bag, and by
contracting these muscles, the food is mixed with gastric juices and broken down into
smaller bits. The gastric juices are called pepsin and hydrochloric acid. These
chemicals react with proteins and break them down into smaller chemicals. This
mushy mixture of food and gastric juices is called chyme and this is what passes into
the small intestine. Since the stomach is made of protein, it must be protected from
its own juices. A layer of mucous does this, a slimy layer coating the inside of the
stomach. If this layer is damaged, digestive enzymes will begin to attack the wall of
the stomach creating a wound called an ulcer.
The small intestine is made up of three parts: the pylorus, the jejunum, and the
ileum. Food enters the pylorus from the stomach and it is here that the very acidic
chyme is neutralized so the intestine will not be damaged. The mixture then enters
the jejunum where bile and pancreatic juices are added. These chemicals, when
10

added to the partially digested food in the small intestine, break the nutrients down
into their simplest forms:

Amino acids
Starches/Sugars Monoglycerides
Lipids Fatty acids & Glycerol
Proteins

In the last section of the small intestine, the ileum, these nutrients are absorbed into
the blood to be circulated around the body. When all the nutrients are absorbed, the
remains of the food you ate pass into the large intestine.
The large intestine is the last step of the digestive process. The remnants of the food
you ate and the various juices added during digestion pass into the large intestine. The
food you could not digest is called roughage or fibre and makes up the bulk of this
material, but there is also a lot of water and salts from the bile (this is why it is not the
same colour coming out as it had going in). In this organ bacteria live which can
partially digest the things you cannot. As disgusting as that sounds, they are vital
because they produce many of the vitamins we need to stay healthy. These vitamins
and the excess water are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine (also called the
colon). What=s left is passed out of the anus as feces. If an infection attacks the
colon, it may not be able to perform its job properly. Since its job is to absorb excess
water, the result is often diarrhea.
The liver and the pancreas are organs that help in digesting, but do not actually take
part in digestion directly. The liver produces a chemical called bile, which it stores in
the gall bladder. When food enters the small intestine the gall bladder releases bile
into the intestine. Bile is vital in breaking down fats, a process called emulsion. The
pancreas produces pancreatic juices, which are enzymes that break down the nutrients
when secreted into the small intestine (see small intestine).

11

Disorders and Diseases of the Digestive System

The following is an outline of what you should know about the problems of the
digestive system. You should not only know what each condition is and its
symptoms, but also what steps can be taken to avoid these problems.
1. Mouth:

Dental Caries, Root Canal, Gingivitis, Mumps

2. Stomach:

Ulcers, Gastrectomy

3. Small Intestine: Ulcers, Food Poisoning, Ascaris, Tape Worm, Appendicitis

4. Large Intestine: Constipation, Hemorrhoids, Diverticulitis
5. Liver:

Hepatitis, Jaundice, Cirrhosis

6. Gall Bladder:

Gall Stones

7. Pancreas:

Diabetes

8. General:

Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa

12

Structures and Functions of the Digestive System

Organ

Mouth

Action

Products
Secreted

Nutrients
Digested

Mechanical

teeth crush food

while tongue mixes
it with saliva

Chemical

Starches broken
down into simpler
carbohydrates

Saliva

Starches

Small
Intestine

Liver

Large
Intestine

Acid and
enzyme

Proteins

Chemical

Short chains of
amino acids
Peristalsis moves
food through the
intestine

Mechanical
Chemical

Pancreas

Food is churned into

chyme.

Mechanical
Chemical

Alcohol and
other drugs can
be absorbed
directly into the
blood from the
mouth.

Peristalsis moves
food to stomach.

Esophagus Mechanical
Stomach

Result

Nutrients
Absorbed

carbohydrates
proteins
lipids

simple sugars
amino acids
fatty acids + glycerol

bile

fats

Bile is sent to the

small intestines to
emulsify the fat

Pancreatic
Enzymes

carbohydrates
proteins
lipids

Enzymes are sent to

the small intestine to
help in digestion

Intestinal
Enzymes

Peristalsis moves
wastes through the
large intestine.
Bacteria digest some
waste.

Mechanical

13

All the simple

nutrients are
absorbed into
the blood from
the small
intestine

Water,
Vitamins and
Minerals

14

The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is a simple system designed to get oxygen into the body, and
to get rid of carbon dioxide and water. Air is drawn in through the nose or the
mouth. Behind the nose is the nasal cavity. It is here that the air is warmed, filtered
and moistened before continuing to the lungs. This is why, especially on a cold day, it
is better to breathe through the nose than the mouth.
As the air moves past the nasal cavity, it enters the pharynx, or back of the throat.
This is the intersection of the digestive and respiratory systems. The air we breathe
goes down a pipe called the trachea. Food does not often go down the trachea,
because it is covered when we swallow by the epiglottis. The trachea is lined with
little hairlike structures called cilia. These cilia sweep any tiny particles out of the air
and prevent them from entering the lungs. There are also mucous glands to catch
particles in their sticky film.
At the top of the trachea is a cavity that contains the vocal chords; it is called the
larynx. Air passing through the larynx vibrates the vocal chords and makes sounds.
Male vocal chords are usually longer than female, which explains why men usually
have deeper voices.
The trachea splits into two tubes called bronchi. They look just like the trachea, but
are smaller and take the air toward each of the lungs. Each bronchus divides again
and again, making smaller and smaller tubes. The smaller tubes are called
bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends in a single air sac called an alveolus. All the tiny
alveoli put together is what our lungs are made of.
Each alveolus is surrounded by tiny blood vessels called capillaries. It is here that
oxygen from the air diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide and water from the
blood diffuse into the alveolus. This waste gas is then exhaled.
How the air gets into the lungs is more complicated. There are no muscles attached to
the lungs to force them open. The muscles involved actually work by making the
chest bigger. The lungs then expand to fill up the empty space. When the muscles
relax, the chest gets smaller, and the air is forced out. The muscles at work here are
the muscles between the ribs, called intercostal muscles, and the muscle that runs
along the bottom of the rib cage, the diaphragm.
15

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following bone disorders and fill in the chart that follows:

Symptoms

Treatment

Pneumonia
Asthma
Emphysema
Pleurisy
Bronchitis
Write a 150-word report on the effects of smoking on the lungs; also relate the
problems of smoker versus non-smoker rights. This report is to be based on reading
and research - not on hearsay and "old wives' tales". Be both specific and scientific in
your description.

16

Respiration Review
1. Air first enters the
filtered before continuing.

. Here it is warmed moistened, and

makes sure that

2. In the pharynx a flap of tissue called the
only air continues on to the lungs, while food goes down to the stomach.
3. There are two types of tubes the air passes through to get to the lungs. The large tubes are
called

, and smaller tubes called

.
.

4. The lungs are actually made up of thousands of little air sacs called

5. The trachea and bronchi are also used to protect the lungs from infection. The two defense
mechanisms are

, and

.
into the body and

6. The lungs are responsible for bringing

removing

7. The process that is used to make this exchange is called _________________________.

.

8. Breathing in is called
9. Breathing out is called

10. Two sets of muscles are used to make us breathe. They are called
.

muscles and the

11. Gases pass from the lungs into the blood. The blood is found in small blood vessels
called

12. Impure or polluted air can lead to a variety of diseases including

_____________________, and ________________________.

17

13. The deposit of particles in the lungs can affect the exchange of gases in the alveoli by
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Plants are important to our breathing because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. It is important to have well ventilated rooms because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Poor ventilation can result in
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Smoking affects the cardiovascular system by
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

18

The Respiratory System

19

Respiration

20

21

The Heart and Circulation

The circulatory system is made up of six main parts:
The Heart, Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, and Veins
Each part has a special role to play in getting blood around the body:
Heart: The heart is a double pump. The right side, made up of an atrium and a ventricle,
is responsible for getting oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. The left side is responsible
for getting oxygen-rich blood around the body. The atria are responsible for
receiving blood from the veins and passing it to the ventricles. The ventricles are
responsible for pushing the blood out of the heart and into the arteries.
Based on what you read, which chamber of the heart do you think is the largest?
Arteries: Arteries are the large blood vessels that take blood away from the heart. There
are three arteries you have to know the names of:
takes blood from the heart to the lungs.
takes blood from the heart to the body.
takes blood around the heart.
Arterioles: As arteries branch and divide, they get narrower and narrower. The narrow
arteries are called arterioles.
Capillaries: Capillaries are the narrowest blood vessels. It is here that gases, liquids and
white blood cells are exchanged between the circulatory system and the rest of the
.
body by the process of
Venules: As capillaries combine together to make larger tubes, these tubes are called
venules.

22

Veins: Venules also combine to form larger vessels called veins. Veins are responsible
for bringing blood back to the heart. There are three veins you are responsible for
knowing:
brings blood to the heart from the body.
brings blood to the heart from the lungs.
brings blood around the heart.

On your diagrams, label the chambers of the heart and the direction of blood flow
through the circulatory system.

Define the Following

Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation

23

The Heart

24

Blood
Whole blood is composed of

1.________________
2.________________
3.________________
4.________________

What are the functions of blood?

1.
2.
3.
4.
The human body contains approximately _____ of blood.
Red blood cells are produced
________________________________.
The red blood cell is extremely small and
does not contain a _________________.

C ross S ection of a
R ed B lood C ell

The shape of the red blood cell is

____________________.
It is this shape because
.
25

T op V iew of a
R ed B lood C ell

The life span of a red blood cell is ________. After this time, the cells are
destroyed by the _________________________________________________.
Red blood cells contain a red pigment called _________________________.
This protein's job is:
____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.
Blood which is bright red contains ________________red blood cells. Blood
which is dark red contains _________________ red blood cells.
Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen transfer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Describe how the cell uses the oxygen in the blood.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
What happens to the red blood cells that contain carbon dioxide.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

26

White blood cells have two important roles:

White blood cell destroying an Antigen

Antigen

1.

___________________________
___________________________

2.

___________________________
___________________________

Note: There are different types of white blood cells which have different functions,
but you are not responsible for those details.
Immunity
When a germ enters your body, it sets off a chain reaction that will prevent it from
feeling too welcome. The first step is that one type of WBC recognizes that it is
not supposed to be there. It sounds the alarm. Other WBCs are responsible for
.

marking it with a special protein called

Once it has been flagged, the biggest white blood cells come in and literally eat the
.

germ. This process is called

Occasionally, something goes wrong in our bodies and parts of our body are
labelled as "foreign." The immune system attacks that part of the body and can
destroy it. When this happens, the person is said to have an autoimmune disease.
27

Some kinds of Arthritis and possibly Lupus are examples of this disease.
In order to decrease the time it takes for the big white blood cells to move in and
destroy invaders, often you will be given injections called

These force your immune system to produce antibodies against germs before they
enter your body. They are usually made of special inactive versions of the same
germs that would make you sick.
Platelets
Give the definition of coagulation:
____________________________________________
What is the role of platelets in the blood?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is hemophilia?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Plasma
Plasma makes up approximately ______ of whole blood. Its main components are:
1. ________________
2. ________________
Plasma has 5 essential functions which are:
1.
__________________________________________________________
2.
__________________________________________________________
3.
__________________________________________________________
4.
__________________________________________________________
5.
__________________________________________________________

28

Blood Answer Guide

Whole blood is composed of

1.
2.
3.
4.

plasma
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets

What is the function of blood?

1.
It carries substances that have been broken down and absorbed by the
digestive system to the body=s cells
2.
It carries the oxygen that has been taken up by the respiratory system
and transports it to the cells
3.
It removes waste that is produced in the cells .
4.
It protects the body against infection.
The human body contains approximately 5-6 L of blood.
Red blood cells are produced
by bone marrow of some bones.
The red blood cell is extremely small
and does not contain a nucleus.
he shape of the red blood cell is
Biconcave (concave on both sides).
Cross Section of a
Red Blood Cell

29

Top View of a
Red Blood Cell

It is this shape because it can pick up oxygen and it can move easily in the small
capillaries.
The life span of a red blood cell is 120 days. After this time, the cells are destroyed
by the spleen or white blood cells.
Red blood cells contain a red pigment called hemoglobin.
This protein's job is:
to enable the cell to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the
body.
Blood which is bright red contains oxygen-rich red blood cells. Blood which is dark
red contains oxygen-poor red blood cells.
Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen transfer.
1. oxygen moves from the alveoli to the red blood cell in the capillaries
2. the red blood cell then moves throughout the body to deliver the oxygen
to the cells
Describe how the cell uses the oxygen in the blood.
1. the red blood cell give up the oxygen
2. the oxygen moves from the plasma into the body=s cells
3. the oxygen is used in cellular respiration where glucose is burned to
produce energy
4. carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular metabolism is removed from
the cell and is picked up by the plasma
What happens to the red blood cells that contain carbon dioxide.
1. the red blood cell is circulated to the lungs where it releases the carbon
dioxide and picks up an oxygen
2. the oxygenated red blood cell leaves the lungs to distribute oxygen
3. the carbon dioxide moves to the alveoli where it is exhaled
30

White blood cell destroying an Antigen

Antigen

White blood cells have two important roles:

1. they phagocytize (engulf and destroy) dead or damaged cells, old red
blood cells and bacteria
2. they produce antibodies, a defense against bacteria
Note: There are different types of white blood cells which have different functions.
Immunity
When a germ enters your body, it sets off a chain reaction that will prevent it from
feeling too welcome. The first step is that one type of WBC recognizes that it is not
supposed to be there. It sounds the alarm. Other WBCs are responsible for marking it
with a special protein called

an antibody

Once it has been flagged, the biggest white blood cells come in and literally eat the
germ. This process is called

phagocytosis

Occasionally, something goes wrong in our bodies and parts of our body are labelled
as "foreign." The immune system attacks that part of the body and can destroy it.
When this happens, the person is said to have an autoimmune disease. Some kinds
of Arthritis and possibly Lupus are examples of this disease.

31

In order to decrease the time it takes for the big white blood cells to move in and
destroy invaders, often you will be given injections called

vaccines

These force your immune system to produce antibodies against germs before they
enter your body. They are usually made of special inactive versions of the same
germs that would make you sick.

32

Platelets
Give the definition of coagulation:
the clotting of blood and blood products
What is the role of platelets in the blood?
To stop bleeding internally or externally
What is hemophilia?
A inherited disorder where there is an absence of platelets or the platelets do
not clot properly. Individuals affected with this disorder bleed continuously
when injured. They require clotting factor and often blood transfusions
when hit or cut.
Plasma
Plasma makes up approximately 55% of whole blood. Its main components are:
1. water
2. nutrients
Plasma has 5 essential functions which are:
1. transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide from cell to red blood cells
2. creates a medium for the blood cells to move around in
3. transports nutrients needed for cellular metabolism
4. collects waste and carries them to excretory organs
5. transports antibodies

33

Diseases that affect Blood and the Circulatory System

Red Blood Cell
Anemia: A person afflicted with anemia is not getting enough oxygen to their cells.
There are many different factors which cause anemia. One cause is an insufficient
number of red blood cells to carry the oxygen that the body requires. Another
common type is insufficient iron in the diet or an inability to absorb iron.
Hemoglobin, the protein necessary to pick up oxygen in red blood cells uses a
number of iron molecules to help pick up the oxygen. If the iron is not there, the
oxygen is not picked up. A third cause is a deformed hemoglobin molecule that
cannot carry oxygen as well as it should.
Symptoms: Individuals suffering from anemia appear tired, and lack energy.
They may also catch other illnesses easily.
Sickle Cell Anemia: A recessive genetic disorder which usually only affects
individuals of African and Mediterranean descent. When the acid level in the blood
increases, the red blood cells change shape. This change in shape makes it difficult to
pick up oxygen.
Symptoms: Similar to anemia with joint discomfort as well as inability to exert
a lot of energy without become out of breath.
Platelets
Hemophilia: is a disease that means your blood cannot form clots. The disease is
genetic (runs in families) and affects mostly men, though women may be carriers.
Blood clotting is a complex process that involves many chemicals. Hemophiliacs
cannot produce one or more of these chemicals, so their blood does not clot. This is
extremely dangerous because even something simple like a little bruise could be fatal
because they could bleed to death.
White Blood Cells
Leukemia: A cancerous disease of the blood forming organ which affects white
blood cells. The white blood cells are produced much faster than normal. They are
not normal white blood cells but immature cells that cannot fight infection. The
increase in white blood cells decreases the number of red blood cells. The individual
again suffers anemic symptoms as well as an inability to cope with any infections.
34

A.I.D.S.: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is caused by an infection of the

H.I.V. virus which destroys one type of white blood cell, T-cells. The T-cells help in
the production of antibodies which tell the body where the antigens are and what to
destroy. As the number of T-cells decrease, the immune system becomes less
effective.
Circulatory System
Angina Pectoris: is a chest pain that comes and goes. It is caused by a lack of blood,
and therefore oxygen, to the heart muscle itself. The heart doesn't get enough blood
because the arteries that supply the heart have narrowed either by contracting
themselves or by a blockage. It is often treated with nitroglycerine, usually used as
an explosive. The nitroglycerine relaxes the walls of the arteries and allows more
blood to flow to the heart.
Myocardial Infarction: is another name for a heart attack. It is caused by the death
of a section of the heart's muscle cells. The larger the area, the more serious the heart
attack. The cells usually die because they are not getting any oxygen. The lack of
oxygen could be the result of angina, coronary thrombosis, or atherosclerosis.
Coronary Thrombosis: Thrombosis is just a fancy name for the formation of a blood
clot. If this occurs in the blood vessels around the heart, it is called coronary
thrombosis. If the clot is large enough, it could block off the capillaries and oxygen
will not get to all the parts of the heart. This could result in a heart attack (see above).
Embolism: is caused by material in your blood sticking together to from a large ball
(called an embolus). This embolus is usually the result of too much fat in the blood.
You can imagine it like the drain in the kitchen sink. If you put too much fatty
material down the drain, it sticks to the pipes. Other food and garbage from the dishes
sticks to the fat, and finally you get a clogged drain. The embolism floats around in
the blood until it is broken down or gets stuck in a blood vessel. This could result in a
heart attack if it gets stuck around the heart (coronary embolism).
Atherosclerosis: is the build up of fatty material called plaque in the walls of the
arteries. As the plaque builds up, the walls of the artery get narrower and less elastic,
making it harder for blood to get through. Eventually, the artery may be blocked
completely, but it is usually treated before this happens. The two most common
treatments are bypass surgery, where another artery is used to rout blood around the
blockage, and balloon angioplasty, where a balloon is inserted into the narrowing
artery and inflated, stretching the opening and allowing more blood through.
35

For all of the above conditions, the best prevention is regular exercise and a healthy
diet low in fat and high in fibre. Smoking also increases your risk for all of these
conditions.

36

Blood Types
Antigen
A foreign substance in the body, something that the body does not recognize as its own.
Examples of antigens are bacteria or viruses.
Antibody
Once a foreign substance has entered the body, the body must find a way to destroy it.
Certain white blood cells find the antigen and other white blood cells produce substances
called antibodies, which mark the particular antigen to be destroyed.
Transfusion
A human has about 6 liters of blood moving through the body. If you lose too much, you
may require additional blood. In other circumstances certain blood products are required.
Individuals suffering from hemophilia require platelets transfused so that their blood will clot
normally.
Red Blood Cells
The red blood cells of different individuals differ. This is due to the presence of certain
proteins attached to the red blood cells. Individuals with the same protein(s) on the outside
of their red blood cells are in the same blood group or type.
RBC
Type A Blood
44%
of
the
population has this
blood type.
A protein called A
is attached to the red
blood cell.

RBC
Type B Blood
8% of the population
has this blood type.
A protein called B
is attached to the red
blood cell.

RBC

Type AB Blood
3% of the population
has this blood type.
Both proteins A
and B are attached
to the red blood cell.

RBC

Type O Blood
45%
of
the
population has this
blood type. There are
no proteins attached
to the red blood cell.

Rh factor
The Rh factor is another protein often found on the outside of the red blood cell. It is
called Rh factor because the original studies used Rhesus monkeys to identify the
presence of the protein.

RBC

Rh positive blood
85% of the
population has this
blood type.
A protein called Rh
is attached to the red
blood cell.

RBC

37

Rh negative blood
15%
of
the
population has this
blood type.
There is no Rh
protein on the red
blood cell.

Blood Transfusions
If during a blood transfusion, the body receives blood which contains a protein
that it does not recognize, it considers the blood an antigen (foreign) and will produce
antibodies to destroy the transfused blood. For example, if a type A+ (contains a A
protein and a Rh protein) receives B- blood (contains a B protein) the body will not
recognize the B protein and will destroy the transfused blood. If an incorrect match is
made, the individual who receives the blood is at high risk because their own blood
will destroy the transfused blood. It is very important that a person receives blood that
the body will not see as foreign. Type O blood can be given to a Type B individual
because it has no proteins that the body does not recognize.
There are 8 different blood types. Label each red blood cell and place the

appropriate proteins on each.

Complete the chart of the blood types on the next page.
38

Blood Type

Can Donate Blood To

Can Receive Blood

From

O-

O- O+ A- A+ B- B+ ABAB+

O-

O+
AA+
BB+
ABAB+
Define the terms:
Universal Donor

Universal Recipient

39

Taking your Pulse

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to determine your pulse at various levels of
activity.
Pulse readings can be taken at a number of places in the body. The easiest places are
on your wrist, just beside the bone that is on the same side as your thumb, and on your
neck, between the trachea and the muscle on the side of your neck.
For each step below, count the number of beats you feel in 15 seconds. Multiply that
number by four to approximate your heart rate for one minute.
Head down at desk for 2 minutes:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Sitting at desk for 2 minutes:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Standing still for 2 minutes:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Jumping jacks for 2 minutes:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Sitting at desk for 1 minute:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Sitting at desk for 1 minute:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Head down at desk for 1 minute:

__________ x 4 = __________beats/min

Questions
1. When was your heart rate the slowest?
2. Explain why your heart rate was so slow?
3. When was your heart rate the fastest?
4. Explain why your rate was faster?
5. Name 5 factors that influence heart rate.
40

Other Ideas for the Circulatory System

Other popular lab ideas you may want to include in your course are:
Blood pressure labs: Have students take the blood pressure of another student before
and after some activity (like the pulse lab described earlier). Explain what the two
numbers mean (The first number is the pressure of the blood when the heart contracts.
The second number is the pressure of the blood between contractions). You may
even want to include the proper terminology -- diastole and systole.
Blood typing labs: While it is not a good idea to do actual blood typing with blood
samples, a number of chemical supply companies have come up with some reasonable
simulations. Have students run tests on "unknown" samples to see who might be a
suitable donor for a sample of an accident victim.
The key is try to make the labs relevant to content, but not stale. Try when possible to
immerse the lab in a narrative context. It may seem like silly role-play, but the
students, even adolescents, do actually enjoy it.

41

Part 4

The Cell &

Its Functions

42

The Cell
Mitochondrion
Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm
Cell Membrane

A cell is like a microscopic factory. It

takes in nutrients from outside its walls
and uses them to perform different
functions. A cell can make proteins for
its own use or to be used somewhere else
in the body. For example, a muscle cell
pulses when being used, and a cell on the
lining of the stomach produces acid so
that food can be digested. To perform
these functions, the cell has small organs
called organelles, which enable it to
survive, reproduce and help the body
survive.

Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a covering that surrounds and protects the
cell. It can be compared to the skin. The membrane is made up of fats and proteins.
They allow certain substances to enter and leave the cell. Some organisms have little
hairs around the cell membranes to allow for movement.
Nucleus: All information for the cell to function is stored in the nucleus. The
information is coded using DNA and is organized in chromosomes. When the cell
divides all the information is copied for the new cell. We inherit the DNA from both
of our parents. The DNA in all our cells is almost identical but each cell uses only the
information that it needs.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Many of the products that the cell produces are proteins.
The instructions on how to make these proteins are encoded in the DNA stored in the
nucleus. The proteins are produced in and transported by the endoplasmic reticulum.
Cytoplasm: The majority of the cell is composed of this fluid in which the organelles
float. It is thicker than water to keep the cell's shape.
Mitochondria: Like any factory, the cell requires energy to run. The mitochondria
are like the furnaces of the cell. They take energy in the form of glucose (sugar) and
convert it into energy that the cell can use.
43

Cell Nutrients & Wastes

Just like you, a cell needs nutrients to stay alive. Nutrients, by definition, are the
chemicals required to keep something alive. The following is a short list of what a
cell needs:

Glucose This is the fuel used by the cell to make energy. The name for burning fuel in

the cell is called cellular respiration.

Oxygen To burn glucose, you need oxygen. Oxygen is another important component
in cellular respiration. The formula for cellular respiration is:

glucose + oxygen energy + carbon dioxide + water

Amino Acids For the cell to produce proteins, it needs the building blocks. These blocks
come from amino acids. Amino acids are obtained from eating
protein such as meat, nuts
and legumes.

Vitamins & Minerals These chemicals are responsible for making sure all the different
chemical reactions in the cell go smoothly. Together we call these entire reactions
metabolism.

Water The vital ingredient of life. Without it, the cell could use none of the other
chemicals and it would die.
When a cell burns glucose and produces proteins, it also produces substances (by-products, or
waste) that it does not need. Some of these byproducts can be hazardous to the cell. The main
waste products produced by the cell are:
1) Carbon Dioxide

This gas is produced from cellular respiration when glucose reacts with
oxygen. The carbon dioxide must leave the cell or it will prevent fresh oxygen from getting in.

2) Nitrogenous Waste This waste is produced by the breakdown and production of proteins. The
most common types are urea and uric acid, but some cells produce other types like ammonia.

44

Cellular Transport
Substances need to move in and out of the cell. The cell however needs to control
what gets in and what leaves. The cell membrane (the covering of the cell) is
designed in a way that certain substances such as oxygen and sugar can enter while
other substances stay out. There are two mechanisms that the cell membrane uses:
diffusion and active transport.
Diffusion
Some molecules are so small that they are able
to pass through the membrane without any
difficulty. They move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
There is more waste material on the inside of a
cell than on the outside, so it moves out. There
are more nutrients outside a cell than inside, so
they move in. Diffusion is the movement of a
molecule across a membrane so that there is an
equal amount of the substance on both sides.
When water diffuses across a membrane, we
call it osmosis

Active Transport
Not all substances that the cell needs are small
enough to fit through the holes in the
membrane. There needs to be some other
mechanism to get stuff in and out of the cell.
One method that the cell uses is phagocytosis
where the cell surrounds the substance that it
wants and engulfs it. The other method uses
proteins which are found in the cell=s
membrane. These proteins act like doors which
allow certain substances in or out of the cell.
These Adoors@ are quite specific to what
substance can enter.
45

Questions: Cell and cellular organization

1.

Match the organelle with the description of its function.

repeated more than once.
Function
a) functions as a covering to the cell
b) contains most of the inherited material of the cell
c) creates the energy for the cell by burning glucose
d) the fluid which the organelles float within
e) controls what substances enters or exits the cell
f) produces proteins for the cell
g) stores the DNA of the cell

An organelle may be
Organelle
1. nucleus
2. endoplasmic
reticulum
3. cell membrane
4. mitochondria
5. cytoplasm

2.

What is cellular respiration?

3.

What product is created during cellular respiration that the cell does not need?

4.

a) Define diffusion and active transport.

b) Below are different ways substances enter a cell. State whether the cell is using
active transport (A) or diffusion (D).
_____ 1. Water moves across the membrane if its concentration is lower inside the
cell than outside of the cell.
_____ 2. When salts move across the membrane it is picked up by a protein.
_____ 3. The Ameba (a single celled organism) picks up food by surrounding the
food and enclosing the food within the cell.
_____ 4. Salt water fish will die in fresh water because the water outside rushes
into their cell and the cells burst.
_____ 5. White blood cells destroy bacteria by engulfing the bacteria and
destroying it within the cell.
_____ 6. Oxygen moves from the lungs to the red blood cells by diffusion.
46

5.

Research on the cell. Use the encyclopedia or other research materials to answer
the following questions:
1. Give a brief history of the microscope. Questions you should answer are:
Who invented the microscope?
How effective was the first microscope?
How did the microscope improve?
When was the electron microscope invented?
How small can the electron microscope see?
How is the electron microscope different from that of a light
microscope?
2. Who discovered DNA? When was this discovered?
3. What is DNA fingerprinting? When is it used?

6.

Define tissue.

7.

Match the groups of organs to the system.

Organs
a) blood, heart and blood vessels
b) bones, joints and cartilage
c) skeletal muscles
d) nose, throat, larynx, trachea, lungs
e) mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines
f) kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
g) brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs
h) testes, ducts and glands/ovaries,
uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

47

System
1. reproductive
2. digestive
3. urinary
4. nervous
5. respiratory
6. circulatory
7. muscular
8. skeletal

Questions

Answer Guide

1.

Match the organelle with the description of its function. An organelle may be repeated more
than once.
Function
Organelle
1. nucleus
3 a) functions as a covering to the cell
1 b) contains most of the inherited material of the cell
2. endoplasmic reticulum
3. cell membrane
4 c) creates the energy for the cell by burning glucose
5 d) the fluid which the organelles float within
4. mitochondria
3 e) controls what substances enters or exits the cell
5. cytoplasm
2 f) produces proteins for the cell
1 g) stores the DNA of the cell

2.

What is cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration is the burning of glucose in the presence of oxygen to form energy.
Cellular respiration is done in the mitochondria. Byproducts of cellular respiration are
carbon dioxide and water.

3.

What product is created during cellular respiration that the cell does not need?
Carbon dioxide

4.

a) Define diffusion and active transport.

Diffusion is the movement of chemicals across a semi-permeable membrane where a
substance moves from a high concentration to a low concentration.
Active transport is the movement of molecules across the membrane using a protein or
engulfing the substance.
b) Below are different ways substances enter a cell. State whether the cell is using active
transport or osmosis.
1. Water moves across the membrane if its concentration is lower inside the cell than
outside of the cell. diffusion
2. When salts move across the membrane it is picked up by a protein. active transport
3. The Ameba (a single celled organism) picks up food by surrounding the food and
enclosing the food within the cell. active transport
4. Salt-water fish will die in fresh water because the water outside rushes into their cell
and the cells burst. diffusion
5. White blood cells destroy bacteria by engulfing the bacteria and destroying it within the
cell.active transport
6. Oxygen moves from the lungs to the red blood cells by diffusion. diffusion

48

5.

Research on the cell. Use the encyclopedia or other research materials to answer the following
questions.
1. Give a brief history of the microscope. Questions you should answer are:
Who invented the microscope?
How effective was the first microscope?
How did the microscope improve?
When was the electron microscope invented?
How small can the electron microscope see?
How is the electron microscope different from that of a light microscope?
2. Who discovered DNA? When was this discovered?
3. What is DNA fingerprinting? When is it used?

6.

Define tissue. A group of specialized cells.

7.

Match the groups of organs to the system.

Organs
6
a) blood, heart and blood vessels
8
b) bones, joints and cartilage
7
c) skeletal muscles
5
d) nose, throat, larynx, trachea, lungs
e) mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines
2
3
f) kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
4
g) brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs
1
h) testes, ducts and glands/ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

49

System
1. reproductive
2. digestive
3. urinary
4. nervous
5. respiratory
6. circulatory
7. muscular
8. skeletal

Observing Plant and Animals Cells

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab is to observe the differences between animal cells and
plants cells.
Materials:
Toothpicks, glass slides, slipcovers, methylene blue, compound microscope,
tweezers, scalpel, onion.
Procedure:
1. Review use of the microscope.
Cheek cells
2. Take a clean toothpick and gently scrape the inside of your mouth along the cheek to remove
some dead cells.
3. Smear the sample onto a clean glass slide.
4. Cover the smear with one drop of methylene blue and place a slipcover on top.
5. Remove any excess methylene blue with tissue paper.
6. Observe the slide under low power and then high power.
7. Draw your diagram below. Label the parts you can identify.
8. You may find bacteria, include these in your diagram.
Onion cells
1. Gently peel a small thin layer of the onion off using the scalpel and tweezers.
Reminder: The thinner the piece, the easier it is to observe.
2. Cover the peel with one drop of methylene blue and place a slide cover on top.
3. Draw your diagram below. Label the parts you can identify.
Diagrams:

Cheek Cells

Ocular lens (mag.)

Objective lens (mag)
Total Magnification

Onion Cells
Ocular lens (mag.)
Objective lens (mag)
Total Magnification
Analysis: What differences did you notice between the two types of cells? Compare size,
structure and shape.
50

Part 5

The Excretory System

51

Excretory System
Excretion is the process by which the body removes waste products of metabolism in
order to maintain a constant internal environment or homeostasis. When
carbohydrates are metabolized, carbon dioxide and water are produced. When
proteins are metabolized, nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid are produced.
As these products would be toxic if they accumulated in the body, they must be
removed. Wastes are transported by the blood to organs that are specialized in
removing them.
Kidneys are the major organ of excretion. They regulate the chemical composition of
the blood by removing urea as well as excess salts and water. The kidney filters many
of these chemicals from the blood, then replaces the ones the body still needs. The
rest are collected to form urine and then sent to the bladder where it is stored until it
is released from the body.
The skin is another organ of excretion. Sweat glands extract fluid from the blood,
that contains water, salts and urea. This fluid is released from pores in the skin as
perspiration to help cool the body.
Lungs also act as excretory organs. They eliminate carbon dioxide and water that is
produced when the cells use energy from carbohydrates. These wastes are eliminated
when we exhale.
The large intestines eliminate solid wastes that come from undigested (and
undigestible) food. It is eliminated through the anus as feces.
System

Specialized Structure

Wastes Removed

Urinary
Perspiratory
Respiratory
Digestive

52

Exit Structure

The Excretory System continued

The body metabolizes nutrients and is left with a number of by-products it must dealt
with. Some of them are harmless, like water; others can be fatal, like CO2 and urea.
Before we go on, in the space below, write the metabolic reactions that produce these
wastes:

We have already seen how the body gets rid of the CO2 and some of the water. These
chemicals diffuse into the blood from the cells and are carried to the lungs to be
exhaled. What we still have to look at is how we get rid of the urea.
As the blood circulates around the body, it passes through a pair of filters that take out
all of the waste chemicals and try to maintain the right amount of salts and water in
the blood. These filters are located in the thorax directly behind the lowest of your
ribs. The filters are called your kidneys.
The blood enters each kidney through the renal artery. The artery branches many
times, becoming smaller and smaller. A small branch of the artery, called an
arteriole, brings the blood to the actual filter, called a nephron. As the arteriole
enters the nephron, the blood vessel narrows and becomes a ball of capillaries called a
glomerulus. Wastes, water and minerals diffuse from the blood into a part of the
nephron called Bowman's capsule. Through a complicated process, the nephron
analyses the requirements of the body, and allows the necessary salts and water to reenter the blood. The remaining waste is collected together in the collecting duct, and
into the ureter, which takes the wastes to the bladder. The blood exits the filter
through small branches of veins called venules, which join together to form the renal
vein. The urea, as well as excess water and salt has been taken from the blood.
The ureters take the waste to the bladder, a bag for storing wastes located in the lower
abdomen. Here it is stored until the pressure inside builds up and you get the feeling
that you have to "go." When you release the bladder, the urine is released. It travels
along the urethra, and out of the body.
53

THE KIDNEY - ANATOMY

Match the words below with the correct structure.
A. kidney
B. renal artery
C. renal vein
D. bladder
E. ureter
F. urethra

Match the words below with the correct structure.

A. cortex
B. medulla
C. pelvis

Match the words below with the correct

structure.
A. nephron
B. glomerulus
C. Bowman's capsule
D. collecting duct
E. loop of Henle

54

KIDNEY DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following kidney disorders and fill in the chart that follows:

Symptoms

Treatment

Nephritis
Cystitis
Pyelitis
Uremia
Kidney stones

Write a 150-word report on kidney transplant and dialysis. Relate the history of
kidney transplants. Discuss ethical and moral issues. Give 5 reasons for and 5
reasons against kidney transplantation.

55

Module 2

Relationships

56

Part 1
Sensory Relationships

57

SIGHT
Parts of the Eye
Iris: The iris is the coloured part of the eye. The iris contains two sets of smooth muscles.
One set is to open the iris, the other set reduces the opening. This opening and closing is
called dilating. The iris controls the amount of light which enters the eye.
Pupil: The pupil is the black center of the eye. The pupil is not actually an organ, but the
round hole that allows light to pass into the eye.
Lens: The lens is located immediately behind the opening of the pupil. It is a transparent
disc-shaped structure, which is elastic and therefore capable of changing its shape. The
interior is filled with a clear jellylike fluid, called the aqueous humour. The lens itself is
held in place by tiny ligaments that are attached to muscles. The lens focuses the light rays
onto the retina (a light sensitive screen).
Aqueous Humour: Transparent fluid in the front of the eye.
Vitreous Humour: Transparent fluid behind the lens.
Sclera: This is the outer coat of the eye. The sclera is a white tough layer forming a case
which helps maintain the shape of the eye. At the front of the eye, the sclera becomes
transparent and bulges forward to form the cornea. The cornea contains very sensitive touch
receptors.
Choroid Layer: The middle layer, which contains many blood vessels and pigmented
granules, prevents light from being reflected within the eye.
Retina: The retina is the part of the cell that picks up the light. The retina is made up of
two kinds of light sensitive cells, rods and cones. The rods are sensitive to dim light and
allow you to see at night, but they can only "see" in black and white. The cones are
responsible for detecting colour. These two different cells are connected to nerve cells
which move to the optic nerve. The message is then sent to the brain. The point at which
the optic fibres connect at the back of the retina is called the blind spot. There are no rods
or cones at this spot.

58

The Eye

59

Focussing Light
The Lens at Work

The lens flattens to allow distance objects to focus on the retina

The lens thickens to allow close objects to focus on the retina

Estimating Distances:
The muscular effort by the lens muscles to accommodate the eye is greater
for near objects. Far objects look blurred when looking at near objects and
vice-versa.
Near objects give sharp images with bright colours where far objects give
indistinct shapes and dull colours. By analysing how the lens focuses on an
object, the brain can estimate how far away the object is.
60

Focussing Defects
Hyperopia (Farsightedness): Person cannot see close objects clearly. It is
caused by the eyeball being too small, so that close objects are focussed behind
the eye. A convex lens easily corrects the problem.

Convex lenses allow eyes to focus on close objects.

Myopia (Nearsightedness): Person cannot see far objects clearly. It is the
result of the lens being unable to flatten enough to focus on distant objects or
the eye being too long so that distant objects are focussed before the retina.

Concave lenses allow eyes to focus on distant objects.

Cataracts: A person who suffers from cataracts is suffering from a build up
of protein on the lens. This build up blurs vision and often affects the
sharpness of colour. In order to correct this problem, the lens can be scraped
and cleaned, or for more severe cases, the lens can be replaced with plastic
lenses.
Ulceration of the cornea: Can be cured by corneal graft from a donated
eye.
Detached retina: Can be welded back into place using laser beams.
Glaucoma - Pressure in vitreous humour too great and may destroy rods and
cones- cured by medication or surgical removal of some fluid to relieve
pressure.
Colour Blindness- Sex-linked malfunction of rods and cones. No cure.
61

The Ear

62

Eye and Ear Review

1.

Light enters through the

2.

The amount of light that is allowed in is controlled by the

3.

The curved membrane on the front of the eye is called the

4.

The light is focussed on the back of the eye by the

5.

The image of what you see is detected on the back of the eye by the

.
.
.

.
.

6.

The image is sent to the brain by the

7.

The brain has an important job to do in making sure we see properly, what is
it?

8.

The membrane of the eye that bring in blood is the

9.

The outer membrane of the eye is called the

10.

There are two transparent media through which the light must pass which we
have not mentioned yet. What are they, where are they and how are they
different?

.
.

Briefly describe the 4 vision problems we discussed. What are they? What is the
cause? How do they affect vision?

63

which focuses the sound into the ear.

1.

Sound waves first touch the

2.

The sound is then conducted along a tube called the

.

which contains glands called

3.

At the end of the canal is a membrane called the

4.

The membrane sets a number of items moving. The first three are called:

5.

The vibrations are then sent to the final stop called the
converts the vibrations into nerve signals.

6.

The nerve signals are sent to the brain along the

7.

The ear also contains another part which helps us keep our balance called the
.

8.

How does this part work?

9.

The tube behind the membrane in #3 is called the

What does it do?

64

, which
.

Gustation and Olfaction

65

TASTE LAB
Objective: To find out whether the tongue has specialized areas where it registers
the four basic taste sensations.
Methodology: In this activity, four different areas of the tongue are tested for each
of four basic taste sensations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is important to observe the following guidelines:
Do not let the cotton swab drip.
Dip the swab into the test tube before each application.
Apply the substance to a limited area of the tongue each time.
Rinse your mouth with water after each application.
The four areas to which the substance will be applied are, in order:
1.

the tip of the tongue

2.

the sides of the tongue

3.

the middle of the front part of the tongue

4.

the middle of the back of the tongue

66

Observations
Area of the

Salty

Sweet

Tongue

TIP

SIDES

MIDDLE
FRONT

MIDDLE BACK

67

Sour

Bitter

SKIN

68

The Nervous System

Nerve impulses are chemical signals made by a transformer in the body. This
chemical signal is sent to the dendrites of nearby neurons. The dendrites send the
signal to the cell body. If different messages are being sent from different dendrites,
then the cell body processes them all and sends out one signal along the axon. The
little branches at the end of the axon are called terminals; they send the messages on
to the dendrites of the next neuron. The terminals do not touch the dendrites; they
secrete a chemical that fills the space between them and the dendrites. This chemical
triggers the dendrite to send the signal. The space between the terminal of one neuron
and the dendrite of another is called a synapse.
A collection of neurons is called a nerve. It is usually only the axons that we see
bundled together. For example, the nerve that controls the muscles in your leg is
made up of neurons that run from the base of your skull to the top of your leg,
regardless of how tall you are. These nerves are responsible for passing messages
from all parts of your body to the brain and vice versa. Nerves fall into two main
categories, based on the kind of messages they carry:
1. The sensory nerves: relay information from the five senses. This information
concerns the environment outside the body.
2. The spinal cord: relay information to the brainstem about the environment
inside the body.
3. The motor nerves: relay information about voluntary muscle movements
from the cerebellum to the muscles.
Questions
1.

What does it mean when we say that terminals SECRETE? It sounds

similar to excrete, are the two words related?

2.

What are voluntary muscle movements? What other kinds of muscle

movements are there?

69

Registering Information Within the Body

1.

Equilibrium and Coordination

The cerebellum is responsible for making sure that appropriate movements
follow commands from the cerebrum.
It also ensures muscles move smoothly without twitches or jerks.
Finally, it also maintains balance in the body. It receives information from the
semicircular canals and other parts of the body. It sends messages to muscles
that will keep it balanced.

2.

Internal Changes
The brain stem collects information from all over the body. If it finds that
something is lacking or in excess, it sends out messages to correct the
situation.
Ex. The brain stem detects too much Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the blood. It
sends messages to the muscles of the chest and to the diaphragm. This
increases the rate of respiration, which should decrease the levels of CO2 in the
blood.

Reflex Centre
Occasionally, emergency situations require fast action. In these cases, sending
messages to the brain for processing and waiting for a response just takes too long. In
this case, the reflex centre of the nervous system takes over and directs the action.
The reflex centre is located in the spinal cord.
Ex. You accidentally touch a pot of boiling water on the stove. The thermal and
pain receptors in the skin of your hand send off a signal. Association Neurons in the
spinal cord receive the information and immediately send a signal back to the motor
neurons of your hand or arm. The association neuron also sends the message on to the
brain. The muscles receive the message and pull your hand away. Once the brain
receives the message, you begin to feel the pain, often a few seconds after you have
pulled away.
70

The Central Nervous System

71

72

The Skeleton

73

The Bones
Read through the section of your textbook on Bones and answer the following
questions.
1. Describe the cranial bones.
2. What is the function of the skull?
3. Which bone in the face is movable?
4. Which bones make up the trunk?

Complete the sentences

How many vertebrae are there in the spine?
joined by
has a double

Vertebrae are short bones

which allows only limited movements. The spinal column

shape and can be divided into

parts.

1. What are the three parts of the thorax?

2. What is the difference between true ribs, false ribs and floating ribs?

3. What is the function of the ribs?

4. List the 4 characteristics of limbs.

74

5. Name the two girdles. Where are they located?

6. List the nine parts of the bone and their functions.

7. What are the three most common injuries to bones and joints?

8. What is the difference between a sprain and a dislocation?

75

BONE DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following bone disorders and fill in the chart that follows:

Symptoms

Treatment

Arthritis
Scurvy
Scoliosis
Lordosis
Dwarfism
Cretinism
Write a 150-word report on the importance of diet in the healthy and normal growth of
bones. This report is to be based on reading and research - not on hearsay and "old
wives' tales". Be both specific and scientific in your description. Use the lines on the
reverse to write your report

76

Review Questions
1. How is compact bone different from spongy bone?
2. Describe the location and function of periosteum in bone.
3. What is the function of cartilage on bone?
4. What is ossification?
5. When does ossification occur?
6. What are the two parts of the skeleton?
7. What part of the skeleton contains the vertebral column, the sacrum, the
coccyx and the rib cage?
8. What are the two major bones of the head?
9. Describe the regions of the vertebral column.
10. Name and describe the bones in the leg.
11. How are the bones of the lower limbs attached to the body?
12. What are the three types of joints?
13. Give and example of the ball and socket joint.
14. Which type of joint only allows movement in one plane?
15. What are pivot joints and give an example?
16. How is friction reduced in a joint?
17. Why is a compound fracture more serious than a simple fracture?
18. List and describe 3 methods used to repair broken bones.
77

Muscles of the Body

78

The Muscular System

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MUSCLES:
Skeletal or Voluntary Muscle: Most of these muscles are attached to bones and they
contract to move the limbs or some group of tissues. Skeletal muscles make up about
35% of a girl=s body and about 42% of a boy=s body.
Smooth or Involuntary Muscles: These muscles are found in the internal organs such as
those involved in digestion. We do not have conscious control over these muscles.
They work automatically.
Cardiac Muscle: This kind of muscle is found only in the heart. This muscle also works
automatically without conscious thought. It has tremendous stamina, contracting and
extending automatically throughout the entire lifetime of an individual.

PARTS OF THE MUSCLE:

Tendon: This is the part of the muscle that attaches the body of the muscle to the bone. It is
a thin, extremely strong fibrous tissue. Tendons are necessary in order to allow the
contraction of the muscle body to move the bone. If the muscle is not attached to the
bone then the muscle contraction will not result in movement.
Body: This is the thick part of the muscle that does the work of the muscle. It extends and
contracts when stimulated by nerve impulses.
Aponeurosis: This is the outer resistant membrane of the muscle that separates each muscle
from an adjacent muscle.

79

CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION OF MUSCLES:

Muscles work by contracting (which means they shorten and thicken). When they
are finished, the muscles relax (which means lengthen and thin). In order to move
smoothly, different muscles work in opposition to each other. Pairs of muscles that
work in opposite directions we call antagonistic. An example of antagonistic muscles
are the muscles in your upper arm. The biceps on the front of your arm is responsible
for bending the arm at the elbow (the technical term for this is flexion). The triceps
on the back of the arm is responsible for straightening the arm (called extension).
Every time you bend your elbow, both muscles are used. If you only used one at a
time, your arm would move with quick, jerky movements. The muscles working
antagonistically ensure a nice smooth movement of the joint.

Can you identify other pairs of antagonistic muscles?

80

MUSCULAR DISORDERS
Muscle Spasms: This is a very painful, strong contraction of muscles, usually in the
limbs. It is often caused by an accumulation of chemicals in the tissues. Massage often
helps to relieve the pain.
Muscle Cramps: These pains in muscles are often caused by a build-up of lactic acid
in the muscles. The lactic acid usually builds up because not enough oxygen is getting
to the muscle, so the sugar is not being burned efficiently.
Muscular Dystrophy: This is a general term applied to many different diseases.
What they all have in common is that the skeletal muscles of the body are destroyed
and often replaced with connective tissue. The muscles become weak and shriveled,
often to the point where the patient can barely move. The disease runs in families, but
the cause and the cure are still not known.
Anabolic Steroids: While not a muscular disorder itself, steroid use and abuse can
have serious effects on the health of individuals who use them, and on those around
them. Research this topic and write a persuasive essay about whether steroids should
be used in professional sports.

81

Questions for Review

1. Match the statement from the column on the left with a suitable term from the
column on the right.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Muscles along the intestine.

Contraction of Muscles which produce movement.
Muscles that are attached to bones.
Tissues that attach muscles to bone
Resilient, flexible support material.
The wide part of the muscle.
Muscle contractions that produce no movements.
Counteracting muscles.

2. What is the chain reaction leading to movement?

82

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.

Extension
Tendon
Involuntary movement.
Antagonistic Pair.
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Ligament
Aponeurosis
Biceps
Muscle body
Skeletal muscle
Voluntary movement.

A FEW "CHICK" ACTIVITIES

1.

THE GLORIES OF FOOD!

Use chicken wings, legs and thighs to demonstrate whole muscles, muscle
fibers, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bones, and marrow. Pull away the muscle tissue
to observe the bone structure. Compare and contrast the bones of the wing to the
human arm and hand bones. Do the differences have any adaptive purposes?
2.

ANTAGONISTIC CHICKENS!

Use chicken wings to demonstrate the principle of antagonistic muscle action

by pulling on muscles on opposing sides of a bone.
3.

LET GO OF MY ARM!

To demonstrate the relationship between muscles and tendons have the student
grip tightly to their forearms while wiggling the fingers in the hand of the arm being
gripped. The muscles are quite a distance from the attached tendons.
Have a student stand in the doorway and push his/her arms away from her body,
against the doorframe for about 1-2 minutes. When the student steps out of the
doorway, her arms begin to rise. This is because the muscles have tightened and must
relax before the arms will fall again.
4.

NO PAIN, NO GAIN!

To demonstrate lactic build up in the muscles, have the students open and close
their fists as hard and as fast as they can for a few minutes until they can feel the
fatigue setting in.
5.

WHAT DO YA WANNA BE WHEN YOU GROW UP?

Ask the students to select one of the following careers and prepare a
presentation for the class.

masseur

weight lifter

body builder (and the sport of body

physiotherapist

doctor of sports medicine

occupational therapist

building)

83

Module 3
Reproduction

84

Part 1
Structures and Functions

85

The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is made up of the genital passages and the ovaries.
The genital passages include the Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina.
The ovaries are responsible for producing eggs (ova). All girls are born with all the
eggs they are ever going to have. At puberty, changes in hormones start to mature the
ova so that approximately once a month, a new ovum (singular of ova) is released
from one of the ovaries.
Once the ovum is released, the fimbria, finger-like projections at the ends of the
Fallopian tubes, herd the egg into the Fallopian tube. The ovum travels through the
tube until it reaches the uterus. In order for fertilization to occur, the egg MUST
meet the sperm in the Fallopian tube. Fertilization cannot take place in the uterus.
While the ovum is developing and traveling through the Fallopian tube, the uterus is
preparing to receive the egg. Also in response to hormones, the uterus is building a
lining to help the fertilized egg grow and develop. This lining is called the
endometrium. When the ovum enters the uterus, it lodges in the endometrium. If it
is fertilized, the woman is now pregnant. If the egg has not been fertilized, the egg
and the endometrium are not needed. It is released from the body by the process of
menstruation.
The final part of the female reproductive tract is the vagina. Its main role is to receive
semen and ensure it can enter the reproductive tract and maximize its chances of
fertilizing the egg. The other job it has is as the passage through which the child will
be born at the end of pregnancy. It is capable of dilatation to many times its normal
size to accommodate the baby.

86

Puberty, Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle

Puberty refers to a wide range of changes occurring the bodies of boys and girls
during adolescence. These changes are both physiological (changes in the way your
body looks and works) and psychological (changes in the way you think and act).
The main function of puberty is to start the genital organs working and make sure
reproduction is possible.
The changes in the adolescent's body are the result of special chemical messengers
called hormones. There are many different hormones circulating through your body
in your blood. Only a small number are responsible for reproduction and the changes
that start at puberty. A small gland located at the base of the brain called the pituitary
gland controls this change. It releases two hormones that trigger the whole process;
one is called FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), the other is LH (luteinizing
hormone). These hormones are the same in both boys and girls, but obviously have
very different effects.
In women, the pituitary hormones signal the ovaries to produce two other hormones,
progesterone and estrogen. These trigger the unique changes in women during
puberty. These changes include:
the growth of breasts
the growth of body hair, especially in pubic and underarm areas
Physiological
the hips widen
Change
genital organs develop
menstruation begins
Psychological
Change

feels physical attraction for others

sexual desire (libido)
need for autonomy (freedom)

Hormones continue to affect the woman long after puberty. FSH is what triggers the
ovum to develop. The undeveloped ovum is in a follicle, which produces the estrogen
when triggered by FSH. After a while, FSH production slows, and LH increases. LH
causes the follicle to release the ovum and the leftover part of the follicle becomes a
corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. If the egg is fertilized, the corpus
luteum continues to secrete progesterone. If there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum
degrades and the process starts over again. See the diagram on the next page for the
relationships among the hormones and their effects.
87

Hormones and Menstruation

Pituitary Gland
FHS and LH

Follicle grows
Pituitary Gland

Estrogen

Estrogen causes FSH production to drop

LH levels rise

Follicle
LH causes follicle to rupture and release ovum
(Ovulation)

Pituitary Gland
Follicle becomes Corpus

Progesterone stops
production of LH
and FSH

Luteum

Progesterone & Estrogen

If ovum is fertilized
Stimulates development of
uterine lining
lining produces a
hormone to keep Corpus luteum
functioning.
If ovum is not fertilized, lining is lost
through menstruation. Corpus luteum degenerates.
Pituitary gland begins producing FSH and LH again.
88

The Male Reproductive System

The male's job in reproduction is small, but vital. The male sperm is essential to
fertilize the ovum in the female and produce a child. In this section, we will track the
development of spermatozoa in the genitals.
Spermatozoa, or sperm, begin their development in the testicles, or testes. The
testes are located outside the abdomen in a sac of skin called the scrotum. They are
located outside because sperm need to develop at a lower temperature than that found
in the body. At too high a temperature, the sperm are not produced properly, and will
not be able to fertilize the ovum. In the testis (singular of testes) is an array of tiny
tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubules act like nurseries for developing
sperm. Once the sperm are almost fully developed, they are stored in another small
tube called the epididymis which is coiled up on top of each testis. The testes are also
responsible for the production of male sex hormones like testosterone.
The sperm stay in the epididymis until they get too old to work, when the body gets
rid of them by reabsorbing the cells. Of course, sometimes they do not stay around
that long. At the height of sexual excitement, a male experiences an ejaculation,
during which the semen is expelled from the body through the penis. Shortly before
the ejaculation begins, the sperm is released from the epididymis to the vas deferens.
The vas deferens carries the sperm up through the scrotum and into the abdomen,
where it will be mixed with a variety of chemicals to make the semen.
The seminal vesicles are located at the end of the vasa deferentia (plural of vas
deferens). They secrete a thick, transparent liquid onto the sperm. This liquid is full
of carbohydrates that the sperm cells will need for energy on their journey. This
secretion is mixed with the sperm in the ejaculatory ducts. The ducts also receive
secretions from the prostate gland and the Cowper's glands. All of these secretions,
when mixed with the sperm, produce the semen; 90% of the semen is seminal fluid.
The seminal fluid is vital for the sperm. It provides nutrients, a medium to swim in,
and protection from harmful chemicals in the female reproductive tract. The semen
then enters into the urethra, where it passes out of the body through the penis.
Finally, the penis is designed to introduce the semen into the female reproductive
tract. The glans, or head of the penis, is covered with nerve endings sensitive to
touch, much like the female clitoris. It is designed to trigger the ejaculation to
maximize the possibility of fertilization. The penis itself is made up mostly of
erectile tissue, which fills with blood during sexual arousal and results in an erection.
89

Male Puberty
As with the female, the pituitary gland is at the centre of the changes boys undergo at
puberty. The pituitary gland releases FSH and LH at the start of puberty. These
hormones trigger the testicles to start producing male hormones called androgens,
like testosterone. These androgens result in the testes being able to produce sperm
and all the other secondary sexual characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics are all the changes that occur during puberty that are
not directly related to making babies. Sperm production in men and ovulation and
menstruation in women are called primary sexual characteristics. Without these, no
babies can result. All the other changes are secondary. Male secondary sexual
characteristics include:

Physiological
Change

Psychological
Change

deepening of voice
growth of body hair
masculine muscle tone develops
genital organs undergo physical changes
feels physical attraction for others
sexual desire (libido)
need for autonomy (freedom)

Boys in the early part of puberty also have two potentially embarrassing problems to
deal with. The erectile tissue in the penis is starting to become active. The adolescent
boy often has little or no control over when an erection might occur. Sexual arousal is
often not the cause, just a nervous response that causes an increase in blood pressure.
The other problem is the wet dream. The body is not used to accumulating sperm in
the body, and sexual release often does not occur, either with a partner or during
masturbation. The buildup of sperm is ejaculated during the night, often during a
dream. While these things may embarrass the adolescent, they are perfectly normal
phases in development, and cannot be avoided any more then girls can avoid
menarche.

90

91

Sexual Intercourse vs Sexual Relationship

In your groups, discuss whether there is a difference between sexual intercourse (sex)
and a sexual relationship. List the differences you came up with below.

Many animals do not form relationships with their mates (some female insects eat
their mates!). Why do you think humans would establish sexual relationships?

92

Copulation
Male Partner

Female Partner

1. Sexual Arousal
Sexual arousal increases blood flow in the
genitals.

1. Sexual Arousal
Sexual arousal increases blood flow in the
genitals.

2. Erection
Increased blood flow causes penis to swell
and stiffen.

2. Vaginal Lubrication
Vagina is lubricated by secretions from
Bartholin's glands.

3. Engorgement of Penis
Increased blood pressure in the penis makes
the head turn a deep red or purple.

3. Engorgement of the Labia Minora

Increased blood pressure in the genitals
causes the inner vaginal lips to swell and
darken in colour.

4. Elevation of the Testes

Muscles pull the testes closer to the body.

4. Swelling of the Clitoris

5. Coitus
The erect penis enters the vagina, lubricated
by secretions from Bartholin's glands.

5. Coitus
The erect penis enters the vagina, lubricated
by secretions from Bartholin's glands.

6. Ejaculation and Orgasm

The penis ejaculates semen into the vagina.
Ejaculation is accompanied by intense
sensual pleasure called sexual orgasm.

6. Orgasm
Orgasm is the intense sensual pleasure that
accompanies the rhythmic contractions of
the vagina and uterus that help move the
semen upward toward the ovum.

7. Action of the Sperm

The sperm moves through the reproductive
tract and up the Fallopian tubes.

7. Action of the Ovum

The egg is located in the upper third of the
Fallopian tube, farthest from the uterus.

8. Egg and Sperm Meet

A sperm meets an egg in the upper third of the Fallopian tubes,
usually between 12 and 24 hours following ovulation
9. Formation of the Zygote
The male gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (ovum) join to form a
zygote (fertilized egg) in the process known as fertilization.
93

Pregnancy and Fetal Development

A baby develops in three stages. The zygote is the result of the sperm and egg joining
together. Once they are joined, the resulting cell, called the zygote, is a complete and
functioning cell. Before this, both the sperm and the egg only have half the number of
chromosomes that a human cell needs. Chromosomes are made up of the genes that
determine how all the cells in your body behave. Half of these come from the mother
through the ovum, the other half come from the father through the sperm.
The zygote divides as all cells do. Usually the cells stick together and a ball of cells is
formed. After about six days this ball of cells is made up of about 100 cells and is called
an embryo. The embryo is what arrives at the uterus from the Fallopian tubes. The
embryo then implants itself into the endometrium. This is called implantation.
Occasionally during the cell division the cells do not stick together. If two balls of cells
are created, the result is twins. Twins that come from a single zygote that produces two
embryos and fetuses are called identical twins. Since these twins come from the same
egg and sperm, they are identical in every way. Twins can also be produced if a woman
produces two eggs during ovulation and different sperm fertilizes both. These twins are
called fraternal twins, and are no more alike than any brothers or sisters.
The cell division continues. After about three months the cells are identifiable as
vaguely human. It is now called a fetus. The fetus will continue to grow and develop
through the cell divisions until it is born six months later (a total of nine months).
For the most part, the first sign of pregnancy is a missed menstrual cycle. If the egg is
fertilized, it produces hormones that prevent the corpus luteum from degrading. This
means no menstruation. Sometimes women miss periods for other reasons such as:
stress
extreme fatigue
malnutrition
sudden and rapid weight loss
If pregnancy is suspected, a test is recommended to make sure. The tests usually check
for the presence in the mother's urine of a hormone that is produced by the placenta. If it
is too early in the pregnancy, the test might give a false negative result. If another period
is missed, the woman should be tested again.

94

The Health of the Fetus

The diagram at left shows a developing fetus in the
womb (uterus). The embryo is inside a protective,
fluid-filled bag, called the amniotic sac. The fluid
in the sac is designed to protect the fetus from
injury, keep the temperature of the fetus constant
and to prevent it from dehydrating. This fluid is
sometimes extracted using a long needle to test the
fetus for genetic problems. The process is called
amniocentesis.
The umbilical cord and the placenta
connect the fetus to the wall of the uterus
and carry nutrients, wastes and other
essential chemicals back and forth
between the fetus and the mother. The
mother and the fetus are two distinct
organisms with independent circulatory
systems. A mother's blood does not
circulate in the fetus. Sometimes, in fact,
the two do not have compatible blood
types! The placenta ensures all the proper
chemicals enter and leave the fetus. It is
important to know that any chemicals in
the mother's blood may be able to enter
the fetus' blood, so a healthy diet and care in the use of medications is vital.
Tobacco products can be harmful to the fetus. The carbon monoxide and nicotine
starve the fetus of oxygen and affect the development of the circulatory system. Use
of tobacco has been linked to low birth weights and perinatal mortality. Alcohol is
another leading cause of perinatal mortality. Common problems associated with
alcohol use during pregnancy are: slowed growth and development, low I.Q.,
deformed skulls, limbs and heart. Marijuana, like most drugs, affects the fetus.
Most common affects are damaged brain cells, and reduced neurological and muscular
development. Finally, diseases like German Measles can severely affect the
development of the fetus. The earlier the viruses invade, the more harmful they are.
Rubella can affect the development of the heart, eyes, ears and brain.
95

Birth and Child Care

After about nine month of gestation in the womb, the fetus is sufficiently developed to live
outside the mother. The process of childbirth or parturition begins.
The first sign is usually uterine contractions. These rhythmic contractions are designed to
help position the baby and to help push it out of the uterus. The second step of the early part
of labour is the rupturing of the amniotic sac and the release of the fluid; this is often called
the "water breaking" and is caused by the contractions of the uterus.
Now the labour becomes more difficult. Labour can be divided into four stages:
Dilatation of the Cervix. Throughout the pregnancy the cervix has been tightly
closed to prevent the baby from falling out. Now it must open, and this happens as a result
of the contractions. When it has opened about 10 cm, the next stage begins.

1.

2.
Engagement of the Head in the Vagina. This just means that the baby's head starts
to emerge from the cervix and enter the vagina. This can take anywhere from 8 to 12 hours.
If the head does not engage properly, forceps may be used to help position the baby.
Another option is a Csarian Section, where the baby is removed surgically through the
abdominal wall. This is usually only a last resort because of complications
3.
Expulsion of the Baby. Once the cervix is fully dilated and the head engaged, the
contractions push the baby from the mother's body. Usually this is the easiest part of the
delivery, and can take as little as 5 minutes. Sometimes complications occur and it can take
up to 1 hour! If the vulva does not expand enough, a procedure called an episiotomy may be
performed. A small incision is made in the vulva to widen the opening. It is better to have
the opening cut by a professional than torn during delivery. The baby is now born. The
umbilical cord is cut and the baby is cleaned and checked. But the job is not finished.
4.
Expulsion of the Placenta. After the baby is born, contractions begin again. The
placenta, uterine lining and remaining umbilical cord are expelled. This is called the
afterbirth. Since the area was well supplied with blood, it is not uncommon for some
bleeding to occur which can last up to a month. If it bleeds heavily or does not stop, a doctor
should be consulted.
The first few weeks and months are essential for the baby. Proper nutrition now will mean a
healthier life. Breast milk contains all the nutrition a baby needs and has the added bonus
of antibodies to help fight disease. This means that the mother must still follow all the diet
and lifestyle restrictions she had when pregnant.

96

Suggestions for Going Further

This unit offers exciting opportunities to explore a wide range of topics:
1.

2.

Genetic and Reproductive Technology

a.

Selection of Traits by Genetic Manipulation (sex, race, disease)

b.

Gene Therapy

c.

Use of Fetal Tissue in Research

d.

Genetic Diseases

e.

Sex-linked and Sex-related Traits

Childbirth and Child Care Issues

a.

Breast Feeding vs. Bottle Feeding

b.

Doctors vs. Midwives (Hospital vs. Birthing Centres)

c.

Parenting classes

d.

Birthing Methods

e.

Neonatal Care / Premature Births

This is not meant to be an exhaustive list, just some suggestions to get you and the
students started.

97

Part 3

STDs
and
Contraception

98

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

STDs are an important part of our society, and have been for hundreds of years.
Those awful powdered wigs that the upper classes wore centuries ago were actually
designed to hide the fact that many of the nobility had gone bald from their syphilis
infections! In our present day, these diseases are common, and most are treatable if
detected early, so it is important to go to your doctor as soon as you suspect you may
have contracted one.
STDs are passed from person to person by intimate contact. Sex is not always
necessary, but the contact is usually more intimate than a handshake or sitting on a
toilet seat. Most of these diseases are transmitted by an exchange of body fluid,
usually semen or vaginal secretions, but some can be transmitted through saliva and
sweat.
Some STDs, like Herpes, are so common we don't really concern ourselves with them.
One statistic says that about 95% of the population has oral herpes by the age of 10.
If you have ever had a cold sore or a fever blister, you have herpes. Do not worry; as
long as it is the oral kind and not the genital kind, you have nothing to worry about.
Just avoid intimate contact or anything that might expose others to the secretions from
the sore (sharing cups, spoons, etc.).
The five STDs we will be looking at in this section are the five most common:

GONORRHEA
SYPHILIS
CHLAMYDIA
GENITAL WARTS
AIDS

99

STD Fact Chart

GONORRHEA

SYPHILIS

CHLAMYDIA

GENITAL
WARTS

DESCRIPTION

TRANSMISSION

SYMPTOMS

COMPLICATIONS

TREATMENT

Infection of the
mucous
membranes of
the genital
organs.

Only through
sexual contact.
Bacteria die
quickly outside
the body.
Women can pass
it to babies during
birth.

Males usually
have burning
during
urination and a
discharge of
pus from
urethra.
80% of women
show no
symptoms

In males, it can lead

to sterility, arthritis
and heart disease.
In women, sterility,
abdominal pain,
fever, vomiting,
arthritis, heart
disease

Antibiotics
like penicillin

A bacterial
infection that
starts in the
genitals and
quickly spreads
around the body

Sexual contact.
Women can pass
it to babies in the
uterus.

1. Chancre
appears on
genitals.
Disappears in 2
weeks
regardless of
treatment.
2. Rash on parts
of body
sore throat,
fever, nausea,
hair loss, etc

In late stage:
heart attacks,
blindness, paralysis,
insanity, death

Antibiotics

One of the most

common STDs.
Early
symptoms often
disappear
without
treatment.

Sexual contact.
Can be passed on
to babies during
childbirth.

Like Syphilis,
but milder
for men.
In women, light
vaginal
discharge,
discomfort
during sex,
increased
menstrual flow,
bleeding
between
periods.

In males: infection
of prostate and
epididymes
(sterility).
In females: ectopic
pregnancy, sterility,
chronic pain,
salpingitis

Chlamydia is
resistant to
penicillin, so
other
antibiotics
must be used.

Warts have an
irregular shape.
The colour and
shape depend
on location

Any physical
contact with
genital warts.
One of the most
common STDs.
Can be
transmitted to
fetus. Affects the
larynx.

Irritation,
itchiness,
discomfort
during sex (if
the wart is
large). They
usually are first
noticed when
they are tiny,
but can grow to
the size of a
walnut.

Warts can spread

once the infection
begins. What
begins as one small
wart can quickly
become a groin
covered in them.

Applied liquid
medicine.
Freezing.
Laser
treatment.
Surgery.

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Warts are
caused by a
virus. They
cannot be
treated with
antibiotics.

Class Activity --Tracking A Communicable

Disease
This activity is designed to demonstrate how easy it is for a communicable disease to
spread, and how health care professionals try to track it down. You will need the
following materials:
1 stock bottle of phenol-red
For each student: 1 test tube containing 3 pipets-full of "solution"*
1 disposable pipet
One test tube contains 0.01 N of NaOH (Make a note of who has this one) All the
others contains 0.001 N of HCl
1. Students walk around the class and exchange 1 pipet-full of their solution with
one other classmate and record their contact.
2. Repeat the procedure twice more (now everyone has had 3 contacts).
3. Add one pipet-full of phenol-red to each test tube.
"Infected" students will have a red solution.
"Non-Infected" students will have a yellow solution
4. Students should try to trace the source of the infection
You may want to make a large chart on the board of all infected students and see if
you can figure out who infected whom, and where the infection started.
Infected
Student 1

Infected
Student 2

Infected
Student 3

Infected
Student 4

Infected
Student 5

Infected
Student 6

Infected
Student 7

Infected
Student 8

Contact 1
Contact 2
Contact 3

A modification of this exercise is to divide the class in half and have two "infected"
people. One group plays as above; the other group has "monogamous" exchanges
(They exchange solution with the same person each time). Students see that only 1
other person is infected in the monogamous group while 7 others are infected in the
other group.

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Contraception
Contraception refers to a voluntary prevention of pregnancy. It is somewhat
different from birth control, which simply means the methods people use to plan if
and when they will have children. There is some overlap, but the terms are not
interchangeable.
The number and variety of contraceptives is large. To simplify things, we can break
them into four categories:
Mechanical Methods: These methods put a physical barrier in the way. They can
either prevent the sperm from fertilizing the egg, or they prevent the fertilized egg
from implanting in the endometrium.
Examples: Condom, Diaphragm, IUD
Chemical Methods: These methods use chemicals to prevent either the sperm or the
egg from being viable. They either make the woman not produce an egg, or they kill
the man's sperm before it reaches the egg.
Examples: Spermicide, Birth Control Pill
Surgical Methods:
In these cases, the man or the woman is sterilized. They do
not release sperm or eggs anymore. The passages (Fallopian Tubes in women or Vasa
Deferentia in men) are tied off and cut.
Examples: Tubal Ligation, Vasectomy
Natural Methods: No artificial means are used in these methods. The natural cycles
of the body are used to determine "safe" times to have sex. The other alternative is
simply not to have sex.
Examples: Rhythm Method, Billings Method, Abstinence

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Discussion Question
In groups, discuss what factors are important to consider in choosing a contraceptive
method. List your criteria below:

Research the different methods and determine which method (or combination of
methods) best meets your criteria.

103

Teacher's Guide to the Discussion Question

When the class comes back together as one group, have each group list their criteria
for choosing. Either have them come up and list them on the board (or overhead) or
you write them as they list them. Ask them to explain the choices they made.
After each group has explained they factors they considered important in making a
choice, ask them which method they chose. Ask them to identify how this method
meets all of their criteria. Are there methods that better fit their criteria? Did they
omit any criteria that they used to decide?
The rationale behind this exercise is to allow students to see how they make important
decisions. Hopefully they chose criteria such as effective method and protection
against STDs. Often these are the only ones they choose, which would make
abstinence the best method. When you suggest this, they will giggle and think you are
crazy, but the problem is they have not listed ALL their criteria. Having sex as
opposed to abstaining is a criteria for choosing. In science, as in life in general, all
factors have to be taken into consideration.
After the exercise, give the students a copy of the chart on the next page. It contains
most of the information they will need to make their own decision.

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Method

How It
Works

Advantages

Disadvantages

Effectiveness

92-95% effective

Intrauterine
Device (IUD)

A variety of devices
inserted into the uterus
to prevent the egg
from implanting

Convenient. No need
for daily planning.
Long term use is
possible

Must be inserted by a
doctor. Insertion may
be uncomfortable.
Increased risk of
infections. Possible
increase in menstrual
pain

Diaphragm

A rubber cap that fits

over the cervix to
block sperm from
fertilizing the egg.

Inserted just before

intercourse. No
chemical action if used
without spermicide.

A doctor must be
consulted before first
use. The woman may
have difficulty placing
it properly.

83% without
spermicide
91% with spermicide

Condom
(Male and
Female)

A thin latex sheath

either put on the erect
male's erect penis, or
inside the woman's
vagina.

Low side effects.

Protects against STDs.
Easy to get.

May break or tear if not

handled properly. May
reduce sensation.

89% without
spermicide
95% with spermicide

Birth Control
Pill

Hormones in the pill

suppress ovulation.

High success rate.

Regular periods.
Reduces discomfort of
menstruation.
Reduced risk of
uterine and ovarian
cancer.

No protection from
STDs. Blood clots,
increased blood
pressure. weight gain,
headaches, nausea.
Vaginal infections and
discharge.

98% effective

Spermicide

Chemical products
that kill sperm.

Easy to get.
Relatively easy to use.

Can cause allergies.

60-70 % if used alone

95% with a condom

Tubal
Ligation

Fallopian tubes are

tied off or cut to
prevent release of egg.

Highly effective. No
effect on menstrual
cycle.

Requires surgery.
Irreversible. Small
chance of
complications.

99.9% effective

Vasectomy

Vasa Deferentia are

tied off or cut to
prevent release of
sperm.

Highly effective. Less

dangerous than Tubal
Ligation.

Irreversible. Requires
regular follow up to
ensure sterility.

99.9% effective

Rhythm
Method

Limiting sex to
infertile periods of the
woman's menstrual
cycle.

Does not require any

chemical or
mechanical assistance.

Not very effective.

Restricts sexual
activity. Requires a lot
of planning.

70% effective

Billings
Method

Like the Rhythm

Method, but uses
cervical discharges to
identify fertile periods.

Does not require any

chemical or
mechanical assistance.

Restricts sexual
activity. Requires a lot
of planning.

99% effective if used

properly
81% effective usually

Abstinence

Do not have sex.

The only 100%

effective method. No
risk of STDs.

No sex allowed

100% effective

105

Biology Project.
Due date:
The purpose of this project is to design a pamphlet on a disease or illness of your choice. The
pamphlet should be intended for a doctor=s office to help inform a patient of their problem. The
format of this project is very important. Failure to follow the criteria will result in lost marks.
You will work with a 8 x 14 sheet of paper divided into 3 sections on each side.

Side 1:

Title Page

Side 2:

Description

Side 3:

Symptoms

Give the title of the illness or disease that you have chosen with a short definition of the
illness. Make the pamphlet eye catching.
Give a description of the illness or disease.
Questions that you should answer are:
1) What area of the body is affected and how?
2) How does one get this disease?
3) What are the long-term consequences?
Note: A diagram here may be very helpful to help understand the problem.
What symptoms would someone have if they were suffering from the illness?
Are there stages to the illness?

Side 4:

Medical Treatment

Side 5:

Statistics

What kind of treatment would a person receive?

Remember to mention any lifestyle changes or dietary changes as well.
If no current treatment, what research is being done to find a cure.

Find data on the illness or disease. Some examples of statistical data are...
o How many people are affected with this disease or illness?
o What is the chance of a cure?
o What kind of research is being done on the illness or disease?
o Is the disease hereditary? If so what chances will a person give the illness to their
children?
o Does a particular habit or diet increase your change of developing the disease?

Side 6:

Bibliography

List all your references. You must have at least two references.
Is there an organization available for individuals suffering from the illness? If you find one,
list it here as well.

106

Mark Breakdown (hand in for marking process)

10 marks

1 2

10

10 marks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Neatness and spelling.

Creative and easy to follow.

Could a grade 8 student understand your information?

Have you made your work eye catching?
Have you used diagrams to make an idea clearer?
Is your title page complete?
15 marks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Information is clear.
Description of the illness.

10 11

10 marks

1 2 3 4
Symptoms

10

Side 3.

10 marks

1 2 3 4 5 6
Medical Treatment

10

Side 4.

10 marks

1 2 3 4
Statistics

10

Side 5.

5 marks

Total

/70

12

13

14

15 Side 2.

Side 6.

Comments:

Topic suggestions: Have your topic approved before you start.

Crohn's disease
Cystic Fibroses
Lung Cancer
Diabetes
Cirrhosis of the Liver
Arthritis

Kidney disease
Depression
Multiple sclerosis
Sickle cell anemia
Glaucoma (eye)
Down syndrome

107

Muscular dystrophy
Asthma
S.I.D.S
Anemia
Cataracts

Web Resources
Further resources can be found at the Quebec English School Network web site.
http://www.qesnrecit.qc.ca

108