and Design

Gerald Wicks

Hulton

Technical Drawing and Design

Gerald Wicks
Red/and College, Bristol;
Chief Examiner for the General

HULTON

Certificate of Education, Ordinary level

Preface
technological age there

In this

is

need

engineers and scientists, and young people

cipate

in

for well qualified

who

wish to

parti-

the fields of engineering and science should appreciate

paper, detail paper, isometric grids, and single sheet Bristol

Board

and develop the relevant forms of communication, of which

technical drawing
ests

in

mass media have aroused

and these

facility

to

all

understand diagrammatic representations or

Ready understanding

of the design and materials involved

us to appreciate and

everyday objects around

in

of them,

their manufacture,

become more

critically

aware

it

is

ink

when

technical drawing

pens may

traditional ruling pen.

The drawings in this book have been presented

ways some in first and some in third angle

variety of
jection.

In

others the system of projection has been

Many drawings

the student to establish.

intended to be

fully

in this

book

in

pro-

left

for

are not

dimensioned working drawings. Sufficient

dimensions are included for a satisfactory solution of the prob-

enab-

lems, and dimensions not

cretion.

book and the various areas

in

wood and

metal

may be

considered as a significant part of a young person's

in

of the

basic plane and solid geometry, elementary sur-

education

drawings

Some drawings

shown

are

left

to the student's dis-

are presented which utilize a grid so

some are
may take measurements

that dimensions and positions can be determined;

in this

veying, and basic design problems

general

and

us.

The material presented

of interest

it

require, to a greater or lesser extent,

detailed technical drawings.

les

inter-

modern technological achievements, design and "do

yourself",

the

one. The

is

for

be found more suitable than the

not

book

for

the

fuller

training

of

professional draughtsmen.

in

isometric projection and the student

from the drawing

This book
for the C.S.E.

is

its

the book.

suitable for

and G.C.

ination groups,

and

in

all

secondary schools preparing

examination as well as for non-exam-

E.

and demonstrates the breadth

connection with other curricular

of the subject

activities.

Proficiency in the use of drawing instruments, the develop-

ment

of

sound technique and standards of accuracy and neat-

ness are

essential

drawings.

It

is

niques which

for

the

preparation

important, too, to develop

may be used

of good technical
good freehand tech-

for illustrating

such material as

technology notes,

physics experiments and craft projects.

The

the use of a pencil

skill

required

in

is

no greater than that

necessary for good legible writing.

There are great advantages to be had from a well equip-

ped drawing
flexicurves,

office

where students can use various templates,

and transfers for lettering, and consult

stencils

standard works of reference, such as the abridged editions

of

BS 308A, BS 1192 and BS 3692, 1967. Opportunity

should be given for using a variety of materials, cartridge

The author wishes

to express his thanks to

two colleagues,

Morris Venables and Geoffrey Hinchliffe, for their help and

advice

in

the reading and checking of the manuscript.

Permission given by the following organizations and

indivi-

duals to reproduce their original material for certain illustrations

and tables

in this

author: Guest,

book

Keen and

is

also gratefully

Nettlefold;

acknowledged by the

Reg Smith; Vyners School.

Contents
Section

Appendix
Drawing equipment

Angles

Angle measurement

16

Processes

Similar figures

18

Methods of joining materials

104
106
108
110
117
119
120

Reduction and enlargement of area

20
24
26

Locking devices

121

Screw threads

122
125

Simple scales

Drawing layout
The dyeline process
Basic drawing techniques

Plane-tabling

10

Levelling

14

Materials

Polygons

Tangents
Curves of special
Conic sections:

interest: involute, helix

ellipse,

considered as plane

and cycloid

Clinometers and levels

parabola and conies

loci

34

Section 2

Methods

of orthographic projection

Orthographic projection

Drawing procedure
Geometric solids
Isometric projections
Isometric projection
Auxiliary projections

Dihedral angle

Development
Interpenetration

46
47
55
56
60
62
66
72
76
85
gM970 GERALD WICKS

Section 3

/ SBN
CDIN

*-

Drawing and design

Metalwork design topics
Drawings for woodwork

Woodwork

design topics

87
88
98
99

First

^( U"

7175 0527 8
published

55/59 Saffron

1970 by Hulton Educational

Hill,

Publications Ltd.,

London E.C1

Phototypeset and printed

in

Malta by St. Paul's Press Ltd.

Angles

SECTION

ONE

This section deals with angles and their

many ways in
The following topics will demonstrate what an angle is and
establish the size or magnitude of the angles of a triangle.
the

Compare

measurement and

which they may be used.

will

also the sides and the angles of a triangle;

be seen that the largest side

it

always opposite the

is

largest angle. In a right-angled triangle this side

is

called the

hypotenuse: the side opposite the right-angle, the largest

angle.

Exercise

The

Draw

120

a circle of

millimetres diameter;

draw

in

a dia-

1.

triangles

When two

meter and by repeated bisection divide the semi-circle to

is

form eight equal sectors.

2.

Where

(The circle

angles; the semi-circle contains two,

equal parts.)

On

draw

divided into eight

several triangles with the aid of a set square.

A on the paper and place over the simple protthat A coincides with the centre of the circle. Now
it

draw an angle at A, using the division lines on the protractor;

mark another point B on one of these lines, and in a similar
manner draw another angle at B. Using this protractor, measure
also the angles at C and D. The size of these angles may be
recorded inside the triangles and also tabulated in a table
similar to the one on the opposite page, Fig. 2.

The

angled

results obtained

it

be evident that the

sum

of

is

always the same; and that a

between the

exterior angles, angles pro-

the three angles of a triangle

relationship exists

will

duced by the extension of

a side,

and the

interior

the sides and

is

all

also equal: this

an isosceles

triangle.

the angles are of different sizes,

called scalene.
is

called a right-

triangle.
is

also another special triangle and this

equilateral triangle, with

all

the sides and

all

is

called an

the angles of equal

magnitude; a triangle of this type cannot be drawn using a

protractor with so
It

few

will

now

few

divisions.

be readily appreciated that a protractor with so

and while it has

must now be replaced

divisions has very limited usefulness,

served well for the preceding exercise

it

by a more detailed divided scale.

Normally a protractor has an accurately divided scale and

rees.

contain either four or

They are made

in

two

right-angles,

several sizes

protractors are often divided into half

degree

is

360

or

180 deg-

and the scale of

larger

degree increments. The

the normal unit of angle measurement.

Exercise

The exterior angle

two angles are

angles of the

triangle.

angles:

probably include these three types:

triangle containing a right-angle: this

There

may
From the

special
all

will

type of triangle called

this type of triangle

3.

paper placed over this simple

a point

ractor so

now

1.

a sheet of tracing or detail

protractor,

Mark

Fig.

contains four right-

drawn

sides are equal,

is

equal to the sum of the interior opposite

LA + LB = ID

Measure the angles of the

triangles

already

the previous example, using a normal protractor.

drawn

in

/.A

FIG

FIG 2

Lb

Lc

Ld

Angle Measurement
Measurement

of angles to determine heights

Angles can be measured by using a clinometer. This may

easily be

made by

a length of
ractor,

attaching a protractor, along

wood, and

fixing,

which

a plumb-line,

base, to

its

through the centre of the protwill

show angles

of inclination.

Fig. 3.
In

the appendix

is

a drawing of a clinometer, using a prot-

which can

ractor of suitable size,

workshop and works

its

axis

The

and

is

protractor

accurately.

clamped

easily be

into position

in

a school

mm ply.

by a piece of 3

released by pushing the ply

is

made

The protractor turns about

away from

it

with

the index finger.

right-angled triangles of different sizes

Alternatively,

be made from thin

strips of

wood. The shortest

angle should never be less than

The method

is

300

is in

line

size of the

tri-

millimetres. Fig. 4.

to sight along the hypotenuse of the triangle,

keeping the opposite side of the triangle

tenuse

may

vertical, until the

hypo-

FIG

with the top of the object.

ACCESSION

x ___
c.

no.

33394

_^

'

^
w

79
.

FIG 4

These triangles and the large one containing the tree are
similar in shape. Their angles are the same and they are said
to be similar triangles.

Exercise

Make an angle-measuring device and

with

it

measure the

heights of trees and buildings; there will be plenty of

les

examp-

around the school.

It

will

be necessary

in

these activities to measure the dis-

tance from the observer to the object by using a measuring-tape

or by pacing the distance.

Having recorded the necessary

office to

draw the

triangles

details, return to

and work

the drawing

out the heights of the

objects selected.

Simple Scales
It

now becomes

necessary to prepare a simple scale,

accommodate these drawings on the sheets

to

I00s
in

MILLIMETRES

order

of drawing-

paper available. The scale chosen should be as large as possible

as this will ensure a greater accuracy, and it should be easy to

These scales may be in imperial or metric

ples are shown, Figs. 5 and 6.

use.

units.

Two examSCALE jq

FULL SIZE

Selecting a suitable scale

Suppose the angle of elevation of an elm tree is 40 and

is 25 metres.
If the scale chosen is 10 mm to 2 metres, 25 metres will
be represented by a line 125 mm long. This is a suitable scale.
If the scale chosen is 10 mm to 1
metre, 25 metres will be
the horizontal distance

represented by a

line

250

mm

long. This

is

FIG 5

suitable too.

Exercise

How

long a line

would be needed

to represent a distance of

25 metres if the scale is 1 mm to 50 mm?

Make up some examples for yourself of conversion

of lines

to easy scales.

Once
ing,

a suitable scale

is

chosen, use

it

the heights of the objects selected.

for the height

to determine, by

draw-

Remember to account

above the ground of the observer's

eye-level.

By using heights that can be determined by direct measurement, use this fact to compare the accuracy and limitations
of the clinometer and triangles. Take the same reading several

It

may

of the object chosen. Fig. 7 illustrates the procedure by which

it

can be calculated.

Take a

times.

not be possible to measure the distance to the base

leaf

from one of the trees that was used

examples and make a sketch of

Is

it

always necessary to prepare a scale drawing when using

the triangles

whose

sides are

reasons for the answer.

in

the ratio 1:1 and 1:2? Give

a paragraph about this tree,

deciduous or coniferous; also

may be

put.

its
list

it

in

the above

or take a leaf print. Write

type, size

and whether

the uses to which

its

it

is

wood

METRES

FIG 7

10

II

12

13

14

Plane-tabling
Radial line

is

may be recorded
and

is

means whereby

directly

maps

field

or areas

on a sheet of paper on the

table,

the straight edge for ease of viewing. Glass tube

about 750

easily

produced

in

mm

square and mounted on a tripod,

a school workshop.

to use an alidade, a stout

boxwood

It

is

necessary also

is

scale with a sighting slot

one end and a wire at the other; when not in use these are
folded flat on the instrument itself.
In some ways the most straight-forward way of plane-

may be used

but metal tube

an accurate method of mapping small areas. The

table,

mm

bore tube. The tube should be fixed about 40/50

method

Plane-tabling

In

the drawing

table has

if

the end

been drawn very large

prepare detailed

is

(Fig. 8) illustrating this

above

dangerous,

suitably protected.

method, the plane-

for clarity.

maps and models

is

It

is

possible to

using simple techniques

such as those already discussed.

at

tabling

is

by the

radial

line

method, which demonstrates

angle measurement very clearly. The plane-table

within the area to be

attached to

is

it

mapped and

is

placed

a piece of cartridge paper

with drafting tape.

reference or polar point

must then be marked on the sheet so that

its

position represents

The recording

of irregular

shapes

Should any part of the area be of

of off-sets

must be used

measuring tape

is

irregular

shape

to determine the outline.

used as a base-line and

a series

See

Fig. 9.

at intervals along

measurements are taken to the outline. A ranging pole

usually used for the measurements, which must be made
it

is

at

right-angles to the base-line.

the table's position within the area to be mapped.

Prominent features within the area, or changes

of the boundary, are then selected and

if

in

direction

any of the selected

points cannot be seen easily from the plane-table they can be

marked with

a ranging pole.

Place the alidade on the plane-table, with the ruling edge

on the point previously selected, and use the sights to align

it

with one of the features chosen.

When

the alidade

is in line,

draw a feint line along its ruling edge through the polar point.
Measure the distance from the centre of the table to the object.
Record this on the table paper along the line representing polar
point to the object. Repeat this procedure to record the position
of any

chosen object within the

area.

Fig.

illustrates the

procedure.

Alidades are comparatively inexpensive, but

improvise one
for a straight

10

if

none

is

it

is

easy to

available. Select a piece of hard

edge and mount on

it

wood

a straight length of small

Exercise

Within an area adjacent to the school prepare a

field

map.

FIG 8

MEASURED

DISTANCE

FIG 9

11

Plane-tabling (continued)
Triangulation
This

is

The area

an alternative method for surveying a small area.

is

divided into triangles which are measured and

then drawn to a suitable scale.

It

may be

necessary, as

in

the

example below, to choose points on one of the main survey

lines from which triangles may be constructed. Triangles
with sides of greatly differing lengths

12

make

for inaccuracy.

Having drawn the base

Plane-table

method

This
requires

some

straight-forward

is

in

its

operation but

it

planning before starting the survey. This will

a series of radial lines

on each

use the alidade again to draw

line,

from ,4 to

all

the salient points and note

line its feature: tree, gate-post, etc.

move

Having done

this at station

mapped.

alidade placed along the base line sight back to

Within the area to be surveyed, choose two positions as

but with an uninterrupted view of each

far apart as possible,

other,
Call

from which

all

these positions

prominent features can easily be seen.

and B. The distance between them

should be one easily reduced to scale. Set up the plane-table

on station

and a ranging pole on station B. Use the alidade

and draw in a base line to scale. This scale

to sight the pole

must be

carefully

chosen to ensure that the whole area can

be accommodated on the sheet of paper.

A,

that the base line is in

as before, sighting the

all

the plane-table to B, and with the

necessitate a preliminary estimation of the distances to be

its

same

and ensure

correct relative position. Proceed

features from B.

The

intersections

of the corresponding radial lines will fix the selected points.

Considerable care must be exercised

if

accurate

maps and

plans are to be drawn using this method.

It

will

be readily appreciated that

work can be undertaken with

and some imagination.

much

a small

useful group topic

amount

of

equipment

13

Levelling
This topic,

like plane-tabling,

may

well be linked with

work

geography and mathematics; again the pieces of equipment

in

required are simple to

The drawing,

make and straight-forward to use.

shows how levelling can be used

10,

Fig.

record the profile of a piece of ground.

contours. Making the profile of a valley

drawing and

in

At

field

is

It

can also establish

an excellent exercise

must work together as

follows: select

two suitable stations a reasonable distance apart. From

midway between these two stations, A and B, a back-sight is
taken, with a level or simple U tube, on a graduated pole placed
at the first station A, and, in the same way, another reading
(called a fore-sight) is taken on the second station B. The
person

who was

at the station

A now

passes to a

third station

beyond the second station B. The person taking the levels

then positions himself midway between B and C and takes a
C,

back-sight reading on B, the second station and a fore-sight

reading on the

station.

methods

eye-level.

the

In

These are recorded and so the survey

in such a way

partner's eye-level.

straight line.

the differences

a sheet similar to the

one shown

in

(Fig.

level are recorded on

12), together with the

distances between the stations. From these results

sible to

draw an accurate

to exaggerate

scale chosen

mm =
It

all

will

profile to scale.

It is

mm

pos-

if

the linear

to the metre, the vertical scale will

be

metre.

be necessary to work

in

small groups to record, but

can undertake the drawing.

At selected stations on the long valley

sections

may be

taken.

These

will

profile,

cross valley

be at right-angles to the

long valley profile and extend on each side of

14

is

remains on

of survey, until his feet are at his

risen,

which will, of course, be the height

The person with the level will then walk
his partner who in turn climbs further up

of eye of the observer.

up the slope to
until
level.

By

join

once more

his feet are visible at his

companion's eye-

This procedure can be repeated as often as necessary.

this

method the

vertical distances will

but the distance for this uniform

rise will

always be the same,

vary with the slope

of the ground, the hypotenuse of the triangle.

The second method, using a clinometer, is straight-forward.

The person with the clinometer stays on the survey line while
his partner walks up the slope measuring the distance. When
he turns to face the survey

line,

the person with the clinometer

inclination of the slope by sighting to his part-

and taking an angle reading.

In this

length of the hypotenuse and the angle of

recorded.

If

the slope

is

instance the

inclination will

complex, several readings

necessary to obtain an accurate cross valley

will

be
be

profile.

normal practice

the vertical scale five times: e.g.

is

it

a level

the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle,

is,

ner's eyes

one person with

line

up the slope, that

that they are always

results

of similar height or

The measurements taken are the distance

and the distance

measures the

These

first,

angles to the main

continues. All the stations should be arranged

in a

two people

require

the line of survey and his partner walks up the slope, at rightto

work.

least three people

Both

it.

The drawings (Fig. 1 1) illustrate the various methods which

may be used, and Fig. 12 shows suitable record sheets.
Suitable levels are shown in the appendix, pages 126-128.

FIG 10

FIG

II

LEVELLING RECORD SHEET

INDICATION OF

VALLEY CROSS SECTION

STATION BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT

CROSS SECTION

CHANGE
IN LEVEL

REDUCED

A
B

DISTANCE

STATION

HEIGHT

CHANGE
START

REMARKS

LEVEL

INCREASED
HEIGHT

DISTANCE

INCREASED
DISTANCE

AT

SUBTRA CT
*"

(kkl)

FIG 12

15

Polygons
A

polygon

is

either regular,

or irregular,

its

its

Consider

many

sides and angles of varying

first

polygon

Each of the interior angles of a pentagon is 108

Alternatively, a semi-circle whose centre is at one end

may be

sides and angles being of equal magnitude,

base of the polygon

size.

Use

the irregular polygon.

square to draw several polygons, with

divide each

sided plane figure.

4, 5,

rule or set-

6 and 7

sides,

and

into a series of triangles, similar to those in Fig. 13.

error, into n
The angle required

parts, that

that

number of sides;
(///) the number of triangles contained in the polygon and
(iv) the number of right-angles in the polygon. (Each triangle
has two right-angles.)
From this table a pattern will emerge. It will be seen that
there is a certain relationship between the number of sides
of the polygon, the number of triangles and the number of
the

right-angles

in

it.

Write a sentence to describe the relationship. Try to express

this relationship in algebraic terms, using

number
a

are as

each

n to represent the

of sides of the polygon.

regular polygon each angle

many

interior

same

the

is

size.

There

angles as the polygon has sides. Find

interior

angle by dividing the angle

sum by

the

number

of sides.

The angle sum

of an

Hence, each angle

n sided polygon

is

2(n

2)

-e-

a?

is

2(n

2) right-angles.

right-angles.

or

Refer back to the table.

The angle sum

of a pentagon

is

2(5

2)

= 2x3 = 6 right-

angles.

Each angle

16

(n

will

2).

2 right-angles divided

by

of the

trial

into

and

parts.

be n parts minus 2 of these parts

This

is

clearly

shown

in Fig.

14.

Having established this angle, the polygon

may be drawn.

Bisect the sides containing the angle and the intersection of

etc.);

In

is

is,

divided,

Draw up a table with four columns showing:

(/) the name of the figure (triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon,
(//')

may be drawn and

is

right-angles

=| x 90
= 108

these two bisectors

circle.

Carefully,

scribing circle

will

be the centre of the circumscribing

and with a

feint line,

in

the circum-

and, with a pair of dividers or compasses, mark

off the length of the side of the polygon.

mark some sides

in

the polygon.

To reduce inaccuracy,

a clockwise and the remaining sides in

an anti-clockwise direction. Using

in

draw

lines of

good

quality, line

FIG

13

Exercise

Construct a regular pentagon, length of side

Construct either a heptagon, length of side

regular nonagon, length of side

Draw

40

a circle of

mm

40 mm.
40 mm,

or a

40 mm.

radius, very lightly,

and mark

off

round the circumference lengths equal to the radius.

How many

times

is

the radius contained

ence? With good quality

small arcs with the

formed

Draw

in this

lines, join

circle.

What

is

in

the circumfer-

the intersections of these

the

name

of the polygon

way?

hexagon

of

40

mm

side, using a

30/60 set-square

manipulated on a tee-square.
In technical

drawing,

it

is

often necessary to

given only the distance across the

and

a tee-square,

across the

flats (A/F) is

vertical parallel
flats,

draw

lines

80

flats.

draw a hexagon,

Using a 60 set-square

hexagon given that the distance

80 mm.

mm

Start by drawing

two

feint

FIG

14

apart, the distance across the

and between them a centre

line also vertical.

17

Similar figures
These are figures similar
It is

often desirable to

in

shape but different

draw the same

and there are several ways of doing

in area.

Exercises

Trace the outline of the head of the rocking horse on a piece

item to different scales

without

this

difficulty.

of tracing paper or detail paper (Fig.

Reduction and enlargement

Suppose
1

times

a small sketch of the head of a rocking horse

be enlarged, whose

5) is to

full

size will

the board to be cut. Cover the area containing the sketch with
a suitable
to

number

of squares, and then divide the area that

contain the enlarged sketch

squares.

It

is

the required

into

the

same number

is

of

then possible to reproduce reasonably accurately

full size

Alternatively,

drawing.

a pantograph

may be

used. This

is

a joint-

in its

use.

It is

also simple to make.

Figures of regular shape can be reduced or enlarged by

may be

called the radial line

a series of radial lines to

what

each corner. Select the degree of en-

largement or reduction and then, from this point, draw lines

parallel to the sides of
lines.

the figure and terminated by the radial

partial solution is

the gliding

shown

in Fig.

17.

in

the forearm

Make

is in

natural to the wrist.

is

salient points

graph

in

fact called the radius.

a pantograph using Meccano, thin

school.

If

is composOne of the bones

The wrist

called a gliding joint.

reduce an area to a specific

there

is

how

size.

it

is

There

not, find

strips of

wood

or

possible to enlarge and

may already be a

panto-

out what one looks

like,

from a book. Look up the meaning of the word pantograph

in

a dictionary.

Draw an

irregular polygon, similar to the

with a base measurement of

base

is

length,

18

movement

stout cardboard and establish

method. From one corner draw

it

remove the paper from the drawing

board and line in the head with fair free-hand curves. Move
the paper on the board so that the hand is always on the inside
of the arc; it is easier to draw a curve in this way, as it exploits
of the enlarged drawing,

ed of eight bones and

ed frame-work with a tracing and drawing point, simple and

very effective

its size.

Having drawn the larger grid and marked on

(Fig.

be transferred onto

Divide the paper

16).

and reproduce the outline three

into squares of a suitable size

90 mm. Next reduce

30 mm.

it

60 mm.

one

Enlarge

so that the base

is

it

in

Fig.

17,

so that the

half its original

-^
S---H
jL+x.

\_

r^\
L

--A

tlf-14

Tl

__

JJ

FIG

15

FIG

16

FIG 17

19

Reduction and enlargement of area

In

the foregoing examples consideration has been given

to enlargement and reduction of plane figures, but without

examples

By how many times has the area of

irregular

polygon

mm, two
and 30 mm.

dimension was 60

Take a

A4

or

A5 bank

length and

its

width. Unfold

thin piece of paper, say

so as to halve both

it

90

sions

Exercises

its

paper. Fold
it

and

this

figure increased?

From an

specific attention to area.

16).

(Fig.

mm

original figure

page

(Fig. 17,

19),

whose base

others were drawn of base dimenIn

what

ratio

has the area of the

been increased and reduced?

Consider another equally interesting topic.

count the number of rectangles. Re-fold, and again halve one

side and then the other. Unfold

Continue this procedure

it

and count the rectangles.

becomes too

the paper

until

difficult

On

the piece of paper used for the folding (not

in this

book)

shown below:

the former area

dimensions

\ width) the area

\ (halved) area \

After halving both dimensions again

was

original length

of the original area

dimensions \ area
After halving both dimensions again

was

(-

of the original area

the area

area

and

so on.

From these results it

ship exists between the
sides of

two

is

possible to deduce that a relation-

ratio of the lengths of

similar rectangles

the ratio of the areas

is

and the

corresponding

ratio of their areas:

equal to the square of the ratio of cor-

responding sides.
Ratio of areas

(ratio of sides)

Consider the enlargement of the horse's head

20

mm (Fig.

AG

GB

and

CG

H.

CH

in

the previous

9)

AB

draw any chord AB.

at 6. Measure AG,

x GD.

notice?

Repeat with another chord EF

at

to intersect

Make

sure that

CHE is

in

the

same

circle, cutting

not a right-angle. Again com-

HD

and EH x HF. What do you notice now? Make

a hypothesis from this evidence, and test it by using another

plete

pair of chords in a different circle.

(

dimensions

After halving both dimensions again

CD

and GD.

What do you

CD

(quartered).

original width) the area

CG

GB,

diameter 140

second chord

Find

After halving both dimensions (\ length

was \ of

In a circle of

Draw

to fold (Fig. 18).

record the results as

Intersecting chords

FIG

18

FIG

19

21

Reduction and enlargement of area (continued)

a rectangle

If

special

case

is

of

to be reduced to a square of equal area, the

chords suggests the solution

intersecting

The sides of the rectangle are a and b (now

Their product will be equal to c 2
is,

a x b (rectangle)

in

a square

a straight

whose

side

is

is

a very straight-forward matter

Reduce

and very interesting

now been

establish-

ratio of the areas of similar figures is equal to the

square

The product of intersecting chords is equal

a x b = c x c
ab = c 2 taking the square root of both sides
c

Using this

fact,

b.

the area of a plane figure

may be

easily

reduced and enlarged.

The area of

a given figure

to

is

be reduced to

half

its

original

area (Fig. 22). Treat the base of the figure, no matter

its

what

length, as unit length a. Continue this line half the length

of the base b.

a x b
1

2
c
o

-i

=
=

c2

c2

i2
\/\ the length of the new base.

Since the ratio of the area

of a corresponding side, the

\ the former
22

is

always

the area will be enlarged.

is

the product of the

this triangle to a rectangle of equal area

area.

is

equal to the square of the ratio

new

area

will

irregular pentagon,

base dimension 60

three separate drawings, reduce

in

its

area by

and construct similar figures whose areas

the square root of the product a and

is

With a base dimension of 30 mm, draw an

2.

greater than

If

less than 1, the area will

be [\J\) 2 that
,

is,

and then

to a square.

of the ratio of corresponding sides. (See page 20).

\/ab

is

b.

is

of equal area, since the area of a triangle

figure to a

Draw an

The

Exercises

ed.
1

if

If

base and half the vertical height.

the relevant important factors have

all

b can be anything.

Draw a triangle, base 100 mm, the other two sides 70 and
1 20 mm. It is a simple matter to reduce a triangle to a rectangle

given area
This

the square-root of the product of a and

line).

c 2 (square).

The reduction and enlargement of a plane

as

is

be reduced, and

(Fig. 21).

long, that

unit length,

(i)

twice the original area and

(ii)

two and

a half times the original area.

\,

irregular

shall

be

mm, and
\

and

pentagon

1/
1/

1
1

H
FIG 21

FIG 20

\/
a

CI

bill

y
FIG 22

FIG 23

23

Tangents
A
it.

tangent

Often

a line that

is

touches a curve but does not cut

technical drawing

in

it is

necessary to draw a tangent

and, so long as the straight line touches the arc, this will be

acceptable

many

in

However,

instances.

sometimes necessary

is

it

to construct a tangent

and certain fundamental facts must be known and used. The

major consideration is that at its point of contact the tangent
to the circle

of the

must be

the tangent

at right-angles {or normal) to the radius

The intersection of the

circle.

radius, (produced)

called the point of contact,

is

where the tangent touches the

Consider

and

the exact point

In

40

first

the direct

order to reproduce the conditions

mm

diameter

diameter

will

the reduced
this

all

these angles

in

common?

The knowledge that angles within a semi-circle are right

all tangency problems to be solved. Look at

angles enables

drawing

(Fig.

radius OC.

one

24). Select

semi-circle (Fig. 25).

The

The

radius

line

OC

triangle

AC

is

and draw

it

tangent to the

within a
circle of

and the tangent from the point

form a right-angle. Draw the other two examples shown. The

example, Fig. 26, shows a direct common tangent and the one
next to

it,

circles are

distance

24

is

Fig.

27,

shows

a transverse

40 mm and 70
80 mm.

mm

in

common

tangent. The

diameter and the centre

Draw

circle.

tangent to

Fig.

25, the

in

circles.

it

is

the radius and tangent and transfer

parallel

common
is

The

where the semi-circle cuts

required position by manipulating

its

squares so that

is

What have

in

be the centre distance of the two

The transverse

point for C.

shown

circle

point of contact will be determined

the smaller circle

Draw a semi-circle of radius 60 mm; draw in the diameter

AB. Choose a point C on the circumference of the semi-circle.
Join AC and CB. Measure L ACB. Repeat, using a different

tangent

must be reduced to a point and the

radius of the 70 mm diameter circle must be reduced by a corresponding amount, namely 20 mm. Draw a semi-circle whose

curve.

Exercises

common

two

set

with the tangent constructed.

tangent

is

treated

in

the

same way:

reduced to a point and the larger

circle

also adjusted by a corresponding amount.

tangent

is

also the relationship that exists

between the

opposite and adjacent sides of a right-angled triangle.

FIG 26

FIG 27

25

Curves of special interest

Epicycloid

Cycloidal Curves
This group of curves

is

generated by the movement of a disc

An

epicycloid

is

or circle which rolls without slipping along a straight or curved

cumference of the

path.

slip

Cycloid

Hypocycloid

This

the most simple of the cycloidal curves and

is

is

gener-

ated as the locus* of a point on the circumference of a circle

which
this

without

rolls,

curve

When

is

shown

in Fig.

the circle has

A, which was
cribed

line.

it

method

this line
is

will

initial

and marking

complete revolution, the point

contact with the

cycloid, will again

60/30

circle

is

and has des-

line

be

in

contact with

divided into twelve

set-square, and the

along

line,

twelve equal parts.

represents the circumference of the rolling

give a satisfactory degree of accuracy.

line

when

off

may

It

can be

is

complete, the point

its

highest point. Inter-

half a revolution

point of contact, will be at

mediate positions

*Locus

portion of

not usual to calculate this distance, as a graphical

readily seen that

A, the

circle rolls, is also divided into

which the

line.

be obtained by drawing part of the

circle

the corresponding position of A.

recording

all

positions

of

point satisfying

given condition.

26

on the outside of a

When

when

the circle

rolls

cir-

without

circular path.

a circle rolls without slip

on the inside of

path, a point on the circumference of the

a circular

rolling circle will

trace a hypocycloid.

Trochoids
This group of curves

is

similar, in

dal curves in that they are

circle

many

respects, to the cycloi-

formed by the

rolling action of a

along a straight or curved path. However, the point which

traces the curve as the disc

side the circle.

When

and when the point

is

along

rolls

the point

a straight line, the curve

is

inside

formed

outside

is

is

either inside or out-

and the disc

rolls

along

called an inferior trochoid,

said to be a superior trochoid

it is

(Fig. 29).

Exercise

Draw a superior and an

60 mm diameter. For the

inferior trochoid,

with a rolling

inferior trochoid

use a radius of

mm and for the superior trochoid

to that used in

50 mm. Use

a similar

circle

20

method

drawing the cycloid.

How many of the above mentioned curves may be associated

Exercise

Draw the

rolling circle,

28.

drawing, the

In

equal parts using a

Although

along a straight

made

initially in

one arch of the

the base

circle,

slip,

the curve generated by a point on the

cycloid generated by a circle

60

mm

in

diameter.

with a bicycle as

it

is

pushed along?

FIG 29

27

Curves of special interest (continued)

Archimedean
Involute of a circle

An

involute

is

This curve

traced by the end of a line which

rolls

as a

tangent, without slipping, from around the circumference of

a curve. This curve

kept taut as

it

is

also

made by

unwound from

is

end of the cord

will trace

shown

in Fig.

30.

In

drawing,

divided into twelve equal sectors using a 60/30

is

set-square on a tee-square. With the

same set-square, tangents

drawn from their points of intersection on the circumference

of the circle. The lengths of the tangents from the circumference to the curve will be the length of the arc unwound: that is,
are

the length of the cord 01 marked along the tangent from

and twice

this

amount

1,

to determine the curves intersection

with the tangent from 2, measured from point 2 on the circumference, and so on.

used

The

profile

that

is,

An approximate

graphical

method may be

chordal and not circumferencial measurement.

used for gear teeth

is

of involute form; this

paratively easy to produce and gives the correct

as the teeth

mesh

rolling

is

com-

motion

together.

Exercise

Using a

circle

of a circle.

28

of suitable dimension, construct the involute

is

line

which rotates about

moving uniformly along

angular and linear displacements are uniform. The

and the point

rotates about

the circumference of a disc. The

generated by a

end while a point on the line

is

an involute. This concept demon-

strates the partial construction

the circle

the end of a cord that

Spiral
is

P moves

from

is

its

Both

line

towards

equal increments with equal angular displacements

The radius

it.

OA

in

(Fig. 31).

proportional to the angular displacement

Rad.
Exercise

Construct an Archimedean spiral

shall

be 90

mm

in

270.

whose

linear

displacement

FIG 30

29

Curves of special interest (continued)

Exercise

Helix
This curve

and

coil

is

also of special interest, since

may be

its

mm,

defined as the locus of a point that moves

on the surface of a cylinder

angular

movement

to

constant

movement

its

movement

is

The groove that is cut into the surface of a cylinder to form

screw thread advances axially the same amount for each

complete

turn. This axial

movement

as the pitch of the thread.

In

per revolution

a tension spring

is

known

where the wire

wound and each turn of wire touches its neighbour,

the axial movement is equal to the diameter of the wire. With
a compression spring the coils are open wound and the space
is

closely

between the turns of wire is normally uniform. The flutes of

drills and reamers are of helical form. Here the pitch is much
greater than that on screw threads and springs.
There are many cases in design where it is necessary to plot
a helix. Many simple applications similar to those mentioned
above may be represented

in

small

in relation

manner by rethe pitch

where
and

a conventional

placing the helices with straight lines,

is

to the diameter the result

is

quite accept-

able.

The

helix

may

also be recognized as a sine

wave and

as the

displacement curve for a point moving with simple harmonic

motion.

The

helix angle

pitch of the helix

is

the relationship that exists between the

and the circumference on which

it

is

formed.

drawn,

in
To determine this angle a right-angled triangle is
which the opposite side represents the pitch and the adjacent
side the circumference. The angle formed between the hypotenuse and the adjacent side is the helix angle (Fig. 34).

30

bulk

on which a

complete

is

helix
is

is

formed

is

60

20 mm. Prepare

turn.

33) shows a grain auger used for the

(Fig.

of grain, etc.

It

consists of a helix formed around

a central spindle which rotates

(Fig. 32).

show

The drawing

such a manner that the

of a cylinder

the axial displacement or the pitch

a drawing to

ratio

in

linear

The diameter

screw threads

springs are of helical form.

This curve

of

all

exposed and the auger

is

motor. Prepare a drawing to

in

a steel tube, the

bottom end

driven at the top by an electric

show the

helical

form of the auger.

draw two helices one

It will
which
will be in contact
on the shaft, the other on the outside
with the inside wall of the tube. The inside diameter of the
be necessary

tube

is

in this

120 mm, the diameter

and the pitch

Determine the
in

to

of the central shaft

25 mm,

1 20 mm.

Draw one complete

an inch

example

turn.

helix angle of a twist

diameter.

The

drill

not less than half

helix angle of a twist

drill is its

rake.

FIG 32

PITCH

FIG 33

FIG 34

31

Curves of special interest (continued)

Link
It

Mechanisms
is

Exercises

often necessary to plot the path or locus of a point on

the moving

member

of a

machine part to ensure that

it

will

The path so traced by

within

its

dicating

links of the

member may
mechanism

in

readily

be determined

of the

from

mechanism and the

in-

relative positions

Figs.

35,

36 and 37 show
method.

well

known mechanisms which

and develop your solution

full size

this drawing.)

swivels.

OB 30 mm, OC 45 mm, AD 150

mm

50

mm

mechanism

of a

and>4fi

(Fig. 36).

Sketch and measure the up-and-over

of the links are called configuration diagrams.

will illustrate this

35 twice

Fig.

Determine the locus of A and D.OB rotates and the block C

number of positions,

complete cycle of operations. These diagrams

movement

35, determine the eight positions of the crank and

Fig.

(Reproduce

not foul any other part of the mechanism.

by drawing the

In

con-rod and establish the two extreme positions of the piston.

link

garage door, and determine, by drawing, the horizontal dis-

placement of the lower edge of the door.

Fig. 37 shows a line drawing of the Whitworth quick return
mechanism as used in a shaping machine. The large wheel rota-

and the slotted

tes about

ram

is

Determine

(a)

total horizontal

the

(c)

link,

A, oscillates about

V The

connected to the small link>4C.

the total vertical displacement of A;

displacement of A

minimum

(i.e.

(b)

the

the length of the stroke);

length and position of the slot

in

the

link

A.

The wheel, operating the linkOjA turns with constant angular

speed: determine the ratio of the time taken for the cutting

stroke

32

F to

the return stroke R.

////////////////

FIG 36

FIG 35

y/////////////////////////////y

FIG 37

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

33

Conic sections
The

parabola and hyperbola

ellipse,

will

be considered

first

of

as plane sections of a right circular cone; and also as curves

all

generated by a point moving under restricted conditions.

Name
Fig.

A
is

right circular

cone

is

formed when a right-angled

spun about one of the sides containing the right-angle. The

is said to be generated, and the generators are the lines

When
llel
If

said to be right as the axis

is

right-angles to the base which

is

is

at

circular.

the section plane cuts

all

the generators and

is

para-

to the base of the cone, a circle will be revealed (Fig. 38a).

the section plane

is

inclined to the horizontal, but not at an

angle greater than the inclination of the generator, the cut surface

will

reveal an ellipse (Fig. 38b); a section plane parallel

to a generator will expose a parabola (Fig. 38c). Fig.

a hyperbola, that

which

is

is,

38d shows

the section produced by a cutting plane

inclined to the horizontal at an angle greater than

the inclination of the generator and which will penetrate both

parts of the double cone on the

The

ellipse

is

same

side of the axis.

a closed curve; a parabola

is

an open unending

curve with only one branch and the hyperbola, which

ly

flatter,

has two unending branches extending

in

is

slight-

opposite

directions.

From the above paragraphs

is,

in

it

will

be appreciated that there

a specific cone, a family of circles, ellipses, parabolas

and hyperbolas. There

is

also a special family of hyperbolas

called rectangular hyperbolas

and they

the cutting plane

is

apex of which

a right-angle.

is

not be revealed

will

at right-angles to the

when

be revealed

when

base of a cone the

rectangular hyperbola

will

the cutting plane, although at right-

angles with the base, passes through the apex of the cone.

34

on the elevation of the cone shown

plane figure

will

be revealed

passes through the apex of the cone?

triangle

cone

forming the cone. The cone

to ten

in

39.

What
Conies considered as sections of a right circular cone

the conic sections revealed by the cutting planes

numbered one

FIG 39

when

the cutting plane

FIG 38

CIRCLE

ELLIPSE

PARABOLA

HYPERBOLA

35

Conic sections (continued)

Some

basic constructions are

now

considered of the

ellipse,

parabola and hyperbola.

Ellipse

This curve

is

closed.

The maximum and minimum dimensions

and minor axes; they may

of the ellipse are called the major

vary considerably.

Like

all

conic sections, the ellipse has a

focus: the parabola has one, the hyperbola has one for each

branch and the

Take

ellipse

has two.

a piece of cord. Tie

apart. Pin the knots to the

mm

The sum

in

it,

about

50

board so that they are less than

apart. Tighten the cord

keeping the cord

two knots

taut, trace

by putting a pencil behind

out an ellipse

it

mm
1

50

and,

(Fig. 40).

of the distances from the pins

to any point on

P is the length of the cord between the two knots.

The pins mark the focal points of this ellipse. Unpin the cord
and stretch it from knot to knot along the main axis of the
the curve

FIG 40

ellipse.

This

is

the simplest

demonstrates that the

method

sum

points to a point on the curve

to the

of producing an ellipse and

of the distances from the focal

is

always constant and equal

major axis.

Another method used to construct an ellipse, given the major

axis and the foci, is to strike out a series of arcs from each of
the foci which together will equal the length of the major axis
(Figs.

41 and 42).

Using this method draw an

90

mm apart and the major axis

minor

36

axis.

ellipse,
is

140

the foci of which are

mm

long.

Measure the

RAD

FIG

41

FIG 42

37

Conic sections (continued)

The following methods of construction

when given

the most popular,

minor axes.

methods are

All

for the ellipse are

the dimensions of the major and

demonstrated on the

partially

adjacent page; using suitable dimensions, try several or

all

Repeat

this process, using other radial lines

centre C. This procedure

may be

drawn through the

repeated

quadrants or the points already obtained

in

the remaining

may be transferred by

projection.

of these constructions.
4.

The trammel method

1.

This

is

(Fig.

43)

the most convenient

way

the axes are known.

of constructing

an

ellipse,

marked as shown. As
points 1 and 2 are moved along the major and minor axes, point
P traces out the curve. Mark positions on the curve at regular
if

piece of card

is

intervals.

Approximate method of arcs

Draw a rectangle, the centre

The rectangular method

In this

(Fig.

is

which are the axes

formed

with the extremity of the minor axis A. Bisect the side of the

BE and CD.
DE. The intersections of these bisectors with
the major and the minor axes produced will give the centres of
rectangle representing half the minor axis B. Join
Bisect

CD and

four of which will

compose an approximate

ellipse.

44)

construction a rectangle

46)

lines of

of tne required ellipse. Join a corner of the rectangle so

suitable arcs

2.

(Fig.

drawn, the centre lines

Mark the positions

of the foci

on the ellipses you have drawn.

of which are equal to the major and the minor axes. Each half
of the major axis

is

divided into a

the side of the rectangle equal

divided into the

same number

in

number

of equal parts

and

length to the minor axis

is

of equal parts. Radial lines are

drawn from the extremities of the minor axis through these

points. The points of intersection of these radial lines will
be on the required curve. This procedure may be repeated in
the other quadrants or the points obtained

may be

transferred

by projection: a much quicker method.

The method of auxiliary circles (Fig. 45)

Draw two concentric circles centre C whose diameters

3.

are

equal to the major and minor axes. From the centre of these
circles

at

draw

a horizontal.

38

several

and the small

radial

These intersect

cutting

lines,

circle at B.

At A draw a

at P.

is

the

large

a point

circle

At

B draw

on the

ellipse.

vertical.

Exercise

Design an

elliptical

instrument panel for a small car.

contain three circular instruments, one of

the other

two

of

45

mm diameter.

80

way

must

(From coloured paper or card

cut discs to represent the instruments and arrange

pleasing

It

mm diameter and

before deciding upon the

final

them

in a

complete design.)

FIG 43

FIG 44

FIG 45

FIG 46

39

Conic sections (continued)

49 shows the same drawing turned through 90.

The distances measured along the abscissae, which form a
datum line containing the vertex and at right-angles to the

3. Fig.

Parabola

axis,

The dimensions of a parabola are often given as base width

and vertical height. In bridge design these dimensions are referred to as the span and the rise and will be the dimensions of the

the

rectangle that will contain the parabola.

Exercise

When

a parabola

is

spun about

its

axis of

is parabolic and the bulb is

example of a paraboloid is the

way

reflector

at the focus.

did

reflecting

Another splen-

The

result

of writing this

is

is

the

same as

that

in

the expression y

By one of the above methods,

symmetry, as an

isosceles triangle may be spun to generate a cone, the parabola

forms or generates a paraboloid. The section of a headlight

are proportional to the square of their distances from

axis.

x 140 mm, a parabola, the

2 above. Another
.

inscribe in a rectangle

which

axis of

is

80

mm

parallel with the

longest side of the rectangle. Then repeat the drawing, using

a different

method.

bowl of the radio

telescope at Jodrell Bank.

Hyperbola

The following constructions may be used when the dimensions of the enclosing rectangle are known, that is, base width
and vertical height.

matically the behaviour of a gas

The rectangular hyperbola

to expand,

a curve

is

which describes mathe-

when compressed

and was established by Robert Boyle

in

or allowed
1

662. The

curve indicates the relationship that exists between pressure

Rectangular construction

1.

This

is

(Fig.

47)
The

a very easy construction.

drawn and

and volume,
axis of the parabola

and the volume

drawn
parallel to it. An equal number of divisions is also marked on
the side of the rectangle in which the parabola is to be drawn
and a series of radial lines are drawn to these points from the
vertex. The intersection of these radial lines with the corres-

4.

ponding

they

is

a series of equidistant vertical lines are

vertical lines will

determine points on the parabola

The other half of the parabola may be determined by the same

method or by projection.

is

that the abscissa, that part of a diameter of a conic

its

vertex and an ordinate,

parts into which

40

it

is

between

proportional to the product of the

divides the double ordinate.

a gas at constant temperature: the

is

constant

volume
The product of the pressure

PV =

C.

The rectangular hyperbola (Fig. 50)

The two lines bounding the hyperbola are called asymptotes
and the curve of the hyperbola is asymptotic to the lines: though
it

is

will

always draw nearer together they

a rectangular hyperbola that

is

will

never meet. As

being considered, draw

the asymptotes at right-angles to each other. Then select a

point

Rectangular construction using measured abscissae

(Fig. 48)
Again a straight-forward method. A property of the parabola

2.

in

varies inversely as the pressure.

and through

it

draw a

vertical

and a horizontal

line.

P is arbitrary, but could be

regarded as the volume and pressure of a gas before it was
For the purpose of this example

subjected to compression or expansion.

Fig.

50 shows how

additional points on the curve

may be

determined.

An example

to conclude this section appears on page 44.

FIG 47

FIG 49

FIG 48

FIG 50

41

Conies considered as plane

loci

The following paragraph introduces the terminology commonly encountered when dealing with conic sections.
Look at Figs. 51, 52 and 53. The inscribed sphere in the
cone is called the focal sphere and the point where this
sphere touches the section plane

will

determine the focus of

the conic (F). The cone and the sphere touch and form a

plane which

circle in a

horizontal plane

is

horizontal.

The

intersection of the

and the section plane determines the posiThe axis of the conic passes through

tion of the directrix (D).

the focus and the vertex

the

intersects

on a conic
the focus

conic

straight line connecting

called a chord

is

it

axis.

is

the point at which the curve

[V),

and

if

this

two points

should pass through

referred to as a focal chord.

diameter of a

the line through the mid-points of parallel chords.

is

perpendicular drawn from the axis containing the foci to

the curve

is

called an ordinate and,

curve on the other side of the

if

axis,

formed. For any point on a conic, the

produced to cut the

a double ordinate
ratio of

is

the distance

from the focus to the perpendicular distance from the directrix is a constant and is called the eccentricity of the conic.
A conic may also be defined as the locus of a point which

moves

in

focus to
stant.

a plane so that the ratio of

its

This

its

distance from the

perpendicular distance from the directrix

ratio,

termed the

type of curve traced.

For the

eccentricity,

will

is

con-

dictate

parabola this value

will

the

be

equal to unity, greater for the hyperbola and less for the

Greek
by
Parabola Greek parabo/e
Greek huperbole an excess
Ellipse

ellipse.

ellipsis

than

It

is

interesting to note the derivation of the

words

ellipse,

parabola and hyperbola. These curves, as sections of a cone,

were studied by the ancient Greeks:

(one)

side

placing side

tricity

equal to

eccen-

(one)

eccentricity great-

Hyperbola-

er than

42

eccentricity less

falling short

(one).

FIG 52

PARABOLA

FIG S3

HYPERBOLA

43

Conies considered as plane

(continued)

loci

As has been established on preceding pages a specific

relationship exists between the distance from a point on the

Exercise

curve to the focus and the perpendicular distance of the point

an

from the

This relationship

directrix.

Eccentricity

the eccentricity.

constant and

is

is

called

This exercise

Given the eccentricity and the focus,

is

it

and develop the curve.

1.

The easiest of the three curves

Its

eccentricity

one. This

is

curve to the directrix

same

and the
rix

means

to

draw

is

the parabola.

that the distance from the

always be equal to the distance from

will

The vertex

mid-way between the

will lie

(Fig. 54).

The construction

On graph paper draw

from the

is

directrix,

radii

equal to the distance

are struck from the focus to intersect the

short of one
will

say f

be three units

denote the eccentricity,

to be on the intersection of two lines.

Using similar graph paper, cut out a rectangle identical with

the one on your drawing

whose

corner

and cut out several other rectangles,

is

at P. Calculate

two

area,

its

of each, of the

same

On

detail

(Fig. 56).
is

The distance from the focus to the

and from the same point on the curve

suitable scale

is

shown

in Fig.

will

be four units

57: the base of the

four units and the opposite side

which the

to three; the distance

ratio of the

is

three units.

from the

base to the height

directrix,

triangle,

and the distance from the focus

triangle.

The completion

The hyperbola

is

the corner so that

into

its

fit

the

position cor-

responds to the original drawing. Arrange the pairs of rectangles so that their long edges

On

the detail paper

lie

from the corner along the axes.

mark the

Remove

position of the outer corner

the rectangles and draw

in

the

will

series of ordinates will divide this triangle into a family of similar

triangles in

paper draw two axes at right-angles and

rectangle

curve.

the perpendicular distance to the directrix

44

point

is

of each rectangle.

2. For the ellipse, the fraction to

3.

The

straight-forward

corresponding ordinates.

triangle

a rectangular hyperbola.

area but different shape.

direct-

a series of suitably placed parallel ordinates are

55):

drawn, and a series of arcs, with

curve

be considered with the topics on page 40.

Exercise

original

fall

to

point on the curve to the focus. Consider the axis

vertex.

and the focus

(Fig.

is

a comparatively

straight-forward matter to construct a suitable simple propor-

the

ellipse, eccentricity |,

a hyperbola, eccentricity f

normally expressed fraction-

is

ally.

tional scale

mm from the directrix construct a parabola,

With a focus 60

of the curve

constructed

in

is

is
is

now

is

four

Superimpose the

detail

paper on the axes of your original

drawing.

On

the detail paper, draw three different rectangles;

must

lie

What

on the curve.
relationship exists

angles, and

(//)

between

(/)

between the areas of these

and the areas of the

their areas

the base of the

the height of the
a simple matter.

a similar manner.

two

sides of each must coincide with the axes and the outer corner

angles used

in

drawing the curve?

rectrect-

DIRECTRIX

VERTEX

IG54

FOCUS

FIG 55

FIG 57

The methods

SECTION

of orthographic projection

TWO
orthographic

All

projections

representations

are

in

two

dimensions of three-dimensional objects.

Every drawing

is

specification.

in

it

Not only must a drawing describe

sary manufacturing details,

shape

and when fully

must convey a complete

a representation of shape,

presented, labelled and dimensioned

such a

way

it

must

also

show

if

the neces-

that no misunderstanding can arise.

spoken or written statement should be

without ambiguity

all

every detail of

it is

to

convey a clear

drawing must possess the same

qualities,

clear, precise

picture.

as

it

too

and

technical

is

method

of communication.

The above statement makes clear that careful thought must

be given to the choice and number of views. It is often necessary to present three views to describe an object adequately.

46

Orthographic projection
space

In effect

one
is

vertical

placed

the

in

is

two planes,
The object to be drawn
or third quadrant (Fig. 58), and lines, called

plan

the

vertical

from salient points on the object, perpen-

end

views, often referred to as elevations.

divided into four quadrants by

and the other

first

projectors, are drawn,

dicular to these planes.

plane

is

plane

is

horizontal.

The view so obtained on the vertical

and the view on the horizontal

called the elevation

called the plan.

Additional views

may be

projected onto an auxiliary plane,

perpendicular to the other two, and these projections are called

end views

end elevations.
In technical drawing these projections are drawn on a single
flat surface, the planes being considered as opened out about
or

the lines of intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes.

This

datum

line

is

referred to as

thexy

line, a line

which divides

the horizontal and vertical planes.

in

the

first

The plan
end view

will

will

always appear adjacent to the elevation and on

it is

viewed. Viewed from the

the projection will appear on the right of the elevation and

third angle projection,

system,
practiced

is

now

in this

once referred to as the American

almost universally accepted and

country. Here the object

angle or quadrant, the planes being

is

placed

opened out the plan

end views on

will

either side of

is

in

widely

the third

assumed transparent and

placed between the object and the observer.

are

note concerning

The elevations

alignment with the elevation.

plane (VP) always presents the elevation and

The best method to use

For small and medium sized orthographic views, neither
method has any real advantage. For large views, however,
has an advantage in that the end views
and the plan of the object appear adjacent to the elevation
third angle projection

they describe, and this enables a large drawing to be read more

easily.

58 and 60 show the technique

Figs.

projection

of

first

and

third angle

a pictorial presentation on the left-hand page and

59 and

61.

When

the planes

Transfer the orthographic drawings of plan and elevation

shown on

the right-hand pages, Figs.

of drawing paper.

It

also be evident from the smaller drawing

will

two planes and four quadrants

fourth

vertical plane

projection

to a sheet

showing the

why the second and

When unfolded, the

(Fig. 60),

quadrants are not considered.

first

vertical

and the

59 and 61,

dimensions with dividers or a

the page.

appear above the elevation and the

all

off the

and draw the end elevations.

The subsequent pages (Figs. 62 and 63) present an isometric
drawing in the centre of the page. Take dimensions from it,
and draw the plans and elevations shown in the corners of

it.

are always in horizontal alignment

Take

rule

the

A general

vertical

Exercise

always appear under the elevation, and the

vice versa.

The

in

angle or quadrant, constitutes the basis

the opposite side from which

left

is

Standard First Angle Projection.

of British

always

the orthographic drawing on the right-hand page. Figs.

The presentation of views so obtained when an object

considered

is

The horizontal plane (HP) always presents the plan and

remaining vertical and the horizontal plane,

quadrant,

in

being lowered, the projections on the

and horizontal planes

in

these quadrants

will

be super-

imposed.

47

FIG 58

48

FIRST

ANGLE

59

FIRST

ANGLE

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

49

FIG 60

50

THIRD ANGLE

FIG

61

THIRD ANGLE

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES
51

FIRST

ANGLE

FIG 62

THIRD ANGLE

52

FIRST

ANGLE

FIRST

ANGLE

FIG 63

THIRD ANGLE

FIRST

ANGLE

53

Hidden

detail

When

on orthographic views
full

bold

show

detail

generally used:

dotted lines to

When

lines to

which

is

show

not visible

must be shown, even

if it

is

hidden

detail.

visible

detail

all

precise statement, however, can be applied to hidden detail

and

practice

in

is left

it

to the discretion of the

draughtsman
and correct

interpretation of the drawing.

Young

people,

difficulty

whose experience

limited,

is

often find

and consequently

the placing of hidden detail,

in

may be inadequately represented.

however, all
hidden detail is shown on all views, the result will be a confused
drawing which is very difficult to read. This difficulty may be

the object

If,

overcome by precise

instructions

regarding the

hidden detail required on the solutions.

the hidden detail

all

complex
which

all

hidden detail

amount

of

On simple drawings

may be shown: on drawings

though

nature,

of a

more

considered, that

is

confuse the drawing should be omitted.

will

profile

on a view to indicate an

is

very simple. Should the internal form be

may be cut in such

complex, the component

the internal profile, and this exposed detail,

by a dotted

view

is

line,

will

now be

called a section,

this plane

cross hatched at

The section plane

in

full line.
is

Such

said to

have

objects that are symmetrical are dealt with, one half

as

it

while the other half

It

is

would appear

shown as

is

if

cut by a section plane,

a normal

usually considered unnecessary to

shown on the sectioned

details

view of the

show on

the

exterior.
full

half

half.

Part section

Where the internal detail of a component is relatively small

compared with the component itself, it may be sufficient to
section this part of the component only: it is then referred to
as a part section.

Revolved and removed sections

When

a simple transverse section of a

may be

quired, the section

view concerned.

If,

component

is

re-

revolved and superimposed on the

however, there

revolve and superimpose the section,

it

is
it

insufficient

room

to

may be removed and

describes.

In this,

and

as the

name

suggests, the section plane

used to bring into sectional view internal

is

would not be revealed

if

the

component were

is

staggered

detail

which

cut by a single

section plane.

Sectional trace
This section
of the

is

the profile of the cut face only: the trace

component on the

section plane.

which has been cut by

45 with thin lines.

indicated on one of the orthographic

a bold chain dotted line,

dictate the direction

54

is

way as to expose
otherwise shown

and the component

a section plane. Material

views by

indicated by a

been cut by
is

internal

well prove confusing unless the internal form of

the component

titled.

Staggered section

of dotted lines

may

When

placed adjacent to the view

Sectional views

The use

view should always be

Half section

may be drawn

presented on other views. No such

to insert sufficient hidden detail to allow a clear

sectional

of line are

edges; and

visible

orthographic drawings

preparing

jected.

two types

presenting orthographic views

arrows on the end of which

which the section view

is

to be pro-

Exercise

Using selected examples from the previous pages, prepare

several

sectioned plans and elevations, together with their

respective elevations and plans.

Drawing procedure
Drawings should be clean, neat and accurate, and completed
in

a reasonable time.

essential

if

good

clear thinking

results are to

be achieved. Time spent

in

ill

enable a degree of confidence

in

lining in

do not over shoot, especially at corners.

when lining in: the cusp formed

plan-

by a reasonably hard pencil

when drawings

are

placed on the paper. The following suggestions of procedure

will

When

Great care must be exercised

ning the layout of the drawing will be time well spent, and will

avoid unnecessary frustrations that arise

pencil.

is

and orderly approach

is

difficult

if

not impossible to

remove.
6.

Insert

dimensions,

section lines and any other relevant

details.

the presentation to be

enjoyed and a pleasing result obtained.

drawings should be presented on a suitable format:

All

suggestions are offered

in

the appendix, one for a horizontal

sheet and a similar one for a vertical sheet. The use of a suitably

designed rubber stamp for a

title

much valu-

block would save

able drafting time and a simple device to register the position

of the paper

and the application of the stamp

would

itself

prove to be an interesting design topic.

1.

Decide on a suitable layout. On

a separate piece of

paper

sketch suitably dimensioned rectangles to contain each view.

This

paper

in

On

2.

enable their positions to be arranged on the drawing

will

a pleasing

edges on
3.

and

intelligent

the drawing paper

Draw

all

centre lines or

datum

views.

in lightly

try to build

way.

itself insert

and project the required views of the object;

up the views together. This method of working

is

quicker and to be preferred to the completion of individual

views. Stroke on the lines using a

The choice

of pencil will

4. Line in with

good

fairly

depend on

hard pencil, say 4H.

individual preference.

quality lines all arcs

and circles.

to join a line to a circle or an arc than vice versa.

to control the density of a straight

5.

Line in

say

H,

all

horizontal

It is

It is

easier

also easier

line.

and vertical lines, using

a softer pencil,

pressing more firmly, and maintaining a good sharp

55

Geometric solids

about

revolving

semi-circle

diameter

its

generate

will

a sphere.

Problems involving the use of these solids are usually

These solids can present some interesting problems

technical drawing.

two

They may be considered

in

singly or in groups,

or three solids together. Both very simple and complex

preted from written

pyramid, cone and cylinder, and right

referred to as prism,

regular

implied.

is

may be developed from them.

drawings

The orthographic projection

Definitions of solids

It

formed by many plane faces is called a polyhedron.

A
regular polyhedron is formed if each face is a regular polygon,
solid

inter-

and the solids are often

information,

and the angles formed between the faces are equal.

There are only

the

in

simple position, that

of solids
instance to

first

with

is,

base

its

draw the

parallel to

solid in a

one

of the

planes of reference. From this simple plan and elevation other

projections

polyhedra and they are sometimes

five regular

desirable

is

This

may be

method

is

determined.

demonstrated

in

the following examples.

referred to as the platonic solids.

The regular tetrahedron has four equal

faces, each an equi-

The cube six equal faces, each a square.

The regular octahedron eight equal faces, composed

dodecahedron twelve
pentagons.
icosahedron each

and 67.
of

The regular

The regular

equal faces,

composed

prism

of the

twenty faces an

whose ends

whose

are congruent and parallel

if

If

a regular polygon

the

A
A

axis

is

and the

inclined,

axis

the solid

is

perpendicular to the base.

is

referred to as oblique.

cylinder,

cone and sphere are solids of revolution.

cylinder

is

generated by a rectangle revolving about an

cone

triangle

56

must be

is

generated by the revolution of a right-angled

about one of

its

mm

sides containing the right-angle.

x 30
is

in

in Fig.

64, 65, 66

the position-

35 mm.

length of side

but the corresponding projections

correct. Several of the

solids

its

in Figs.

facilitate

mm dia x 60 mm, the

mm and the height of

40
x 80

mm

may be made,

All

shown

is

50 mm,

examples

call for

a sectional

shown are touching the

64, 65 and 66 are in the first

the views

horizontal plane; those in Figs.

67

is in

the third quadrant.

After completing these examples, attempt the following.

hexagonal prism, edge of base 25

mm

and 65

mm high,

stands on the horizontal plane with an edge of the base

inclined at

45

to the vertical plane.

Determine a sectional

elevation by a plane parallel to the vertical plane and containing

the axis of the prism.

Draw the plan

vertical,

edge.

30

solids

has been used to

The cylinder

the triangular prism

quadrant and that

sides are parallelograms.

A pyramid has a regular polygon for its base and its triangular
sides have a common vertex.
A prism and pyramid are said to be right regular the base
is

mm grid

ing of the solids.

elevation.

a solid

is

10

Modifications

equilateral triangle.

polygons, and

square prism

equilateral triangles.

of regular

Exercises

Complete three views of the

lateral triangle.

of a hexagonal pyramid with a slant

edge of base 30

mm

Determine the plan of a

length of edge

60 mm.

75 mm.
tetrahedron with one edge

edge

height

vertical,

FIG

64

FIG 65

FIG 67

57

Geometric solids (continued)

The isometric drawing

(Fig.

68)

is

a technical drawing model, which,

be developed

if

a splendid

example of

used imaginatively, can

many ways.

in

Models such as the one shown may easily be made and if

they are to be used for direct measurement they should be

dimensionally accurate.

used

similarly,

steam

their several

all

could be

roller or a tractor

components being composed

of simple solids.

Exercise
1.

shown

Prepare an orthographic drawing of the lorry

Fig.

68. Measurements

may be

ing.

Datum and centre

lines

in

taken directly from this draw-

have been selected to

facilitate

easy measurement.
This example

may be

followed by any of the examples

suggested below, or any others that

3.

dia

to

mind using

example:

this basic
2.

may come

The truck elevated

The

lorry as a tip-up truck.

The

lorry transporting a large cable

X 25

mm

or

reels of

news

print

drum

35

to 60.

say 60 mm
mm

dia

X 40

mm.
4.

The

lorry

as a petrol tanker, the truck body mounted on the

chassis behind the cab

tank

cylindrical
5.

The

40

lorry as a

mm

is

to

be removed and replaced by a large

diameter.

BOC liquid gas

to be removed and replaced by

mounted centrally on the chassis.

is

What

58

is

transporter, the truck

a large sphere (50

the temperature of liquid oxygen?

body

mm dia)

FIG 68

59

Pictorial projections
A

projection

pictorial

is

projection which

displays

all

three dimensions and presents a pictorial view. These projections

may be

considered

in

three main groups, perspective,

and axonometric and these may be further sub-divided.

Perspective drawings produce excellent pictorial views and,

oblique,

although

much

method,

it

is

by technical
several text

interesting

work can be undertaken using

this

a very specialized technique practised mainly

and

architects

illustrators,

books available dealing with

There are

artists.

this type of pictorial

method presents one

This

true elevation and the

projectors to the picture plane are oblique, usually inclined

and often the dimensions along the oblique

at 45,

lines are

the cube

tilted

is

all

is

about the bottom front corner

horizontal, the

edges equally foreshortened, and

projection of the cube.

The angles

faces of the front elevation

60/30 set-square without

front elevation will

this

view is the isometric

of inclination of the adjacent

may be
first

until

show

readily

drawn using

Axonometric projection
drawing. The

is

an orthographic method of pictor-

projectors are perpendicular to the picture

plane. There are three types of axonometric projection, dimetric, trimetric

Isometric

is

and isometric.

a projection

where

all

the dimensions are equally

fore-shortened, and while the other

methods may present a

more balanced view, this method commends

simplicity and will be dealt with in detail.

itself

by

its

views and projecting from them (Fig. 69).

It is often convenient to ignore the foreshortening and to

draw the isometric view

to the natural size.

It

is

evident that

the majority of cases this will have no serious effect upon

the view;

When

it

will

display a slightly larger view only.

an object which includes a sphere

is

drawn,

all

dimen-

sions are foreshortened, except those of the sphere, the dia-

position from

which

therefore be used

it

in this

is

viewed. The isometric scale must

special case.

The choice of position of the object to be drawn should be

such that the most comprehensive view will be displayed.
usually excluded as

Hidden

detail

pictorial

value of the view.

is

it

tends to destroy the

69 shows the development of the isometric cube.

70 displays a method which may be used to project an
Fig.

Fig.

iso-

metric drawing from a suitably inclined plan and elevation.

Isometric projection
If

cube be arranged

equally foreshortened,

in

the

such a

way

that

all

Consider

With

its

its vertical

its

bottom face

edges are

orthographic projection on the

resting

of a cube.

on the horizontal plane and

faces inclined at 45 to the vertical plane the front

elevation records a foreshortening of

all

but the vertical edges remain unaltered

60

its

show an isometric projection

movement in two stages.

picture plane will

1.

drawing the orthographic

meter of which always appears the same irrespective of the

halved.

ial

If

the body diagonal

in

projection only.

Oblique

2.

the horizontal edges,

(Fig. 69).

FIG 69

FIG 70

61

Isometric projections
The isometric projection
It

and
1.

is

of circles

Consider

first

of

square

in a

and the

the major axis of which

ellipse,

inscribed

circle.

the minor axis,

From

this

is

is

circle

now appears

as an

equal to the diameter of the

The foreshortened diameter of the

circle,

projected from the side elevation.

drawing

it

is

also interesting to note that the true

length, and the foreshortened length of the side of the square,

form the basis of the isometric scale. The angle on the side

elevation

shows the angle through which

give the isometric square

in

it

must be turned

to

the elevation.

Several methods are available for the drawing of the ellipse

but whichever method

the isometric square

is

chosen

it is

always advisable to draw

first.

method, the trammel method, has previously been

described. A simple diagonal scale will give the semi-minor
axis if the semi-major axis is known. This scale could be drawn

The

first

on a piece of white card and used

for

all

isometric drawings of

circles.

The approximate method of arcs does not produce a true

ellipse. It readily produces an acceptable result, and can be
used only within an isometric square.

The use

of a template greatly facilitates the

speed and quality

of the drawing of small ellipses. Special templates for the drawing of isometric ellipses are available. All ellipses are projected

from a plane inclined at 35

62

16'.

isometric

is

circles.

quadrant

72.

is

necessary to divide the elevation

is

It

method used to

a straight-forward

projection of irregular figures,

used to demonstrate

or

method in Fig.
by a number of

this

(Fig. 71).

The square, turned about its horizontal axis, is shown on the

side elevation. The sides of the square now presented in the
front elevation are foreshortened and inclined at 30. This is
called the isometric square

The method of ordinates

determine the

of several ways.

a circle inscribed

all

irregular figures
2.

draw
may be achieved in one

often necessary to

this

and

a circle in isometric projection

ordinates conveniently spaced and cutting the salient features

of the object.

An

isometric square or rectangle

is

then prepared

containing the ordinates previously selected, and

it

is

along

these ordinates that the corresponding vertical distances, taken

from the elevation, are marked.

FIG

71

FIG 72

63

Isometric projections (continued)

Exercises
Fig.

73 presents some examples to be attempted. The drawmarked in increments of 10 mm.

ings are

Using isometric detail paper sketch free-hand some of the

drawings shown in Figs. 62 and 63 from another point of view.

Draw

in

isometric projection the following:

A hexagonal prism, length of side 40 mm height 30 mm.

A cube of 50 mm side, on the top of which is a sphere of 50 mm
diameter. (The axis of the cube passes through the diameter of
the sphere.)

mm

hemisphere of 80

diameter.

More complex isometric projections may be derived from the

drawing developed from

Fig.

68.

The plan and elevation may be cut from one of your drawings
and suitably placed on a sheet of drawing paper, and an isometric view obtained by projection as
tively the

on

views may

shown

in Fig.

70. Alterna-

be re-drawn or taken from your drawing

detail paper.

FIG 73

64

65

Auxiliary projection
Auxiliary

views are sometimes necessary

in

ings to give information that cannot readily be

normal plan and elevation.

jection

is

It

Any

technical draw-

shown

in

the

An

generally an additional pro-

which augments the information given by the

in

descriptive

An
problems

geometry and enable more complex projections of

plane.

74 shows

a series of auxiliary vertical planes.

The

where the plane

The traces in this

traces of these planes will be lines and will be

touches the horizontal and

vertical planes.

example are represented by a

and by a

line inclined to

The

dividing line

cal

plane

will

horizontal

and

on the

vertical plane,

the xy line on the horizontal plane.

between the

horizontal and the auxiliary verti-

also be an xy
vertical planes.

this plane will result in

It

vertical line

line,

Any

dividing line

between

projection from a plan onto

an auxiliary elevation.

can readily be seen that the only xy

can be opened out through 90

will

line

where the AVP

be with the horizontal

whether the projection will be

a plan or elevation. In dealing with problems of this nature a
small free-hand pictorial sketch is most helpful, or a piece of
plane. This fact will determine

folded card used as a model.

2.

Fig.

75 shows

to the horizontal.

a series of inclined planes, planes inclined

It is

duction of this plane

clear that the traces

will

formed by the

intro-

be normal, or at right-angles to the

on the horizontal plane and inclined to the xy line on the

vertical plane. In this instance the newxy line chosen will be the

xy

line

one represented by the trace on the vertical plane, the only line
through which the planes can be opened out through 90.

66

is

projection

on to any

auxiliary

(AVP)

auxiliary plan

When

dealing with

auxiliary

projections,

it

is

helpful to

that

the projection of a point on the plan to a corresponding

point on the elevation

(ii)

a projection on to any auxiliary inclined

is

(MP)

remember
(i)

Consider the drawings on the adjacent page.

Fig.

auxiliary elevation

vertical plane.

objects to be undertaken.

in

principal

views.
Auxiliary projections also facilitate the solution of

projection from an elevation onto this plane will result

an auxiliary plan.

is

always perpendicular to the xy line, and

the distance of a point on any elevation, or plan,

to that from

its

corresponding xy

line.

is

equal

FIG 74

FIG 75

67

Auxiliary projection (continued)

76 shows the development

Fig.

of an auxiliary plan

When

and

the projection

is

normal to the cutting plane and shows

said to be a sectional trace.

elevation from a simple angled bracket.

only the cut face, the projection

Exercises

body diagonal. This projection will be the isometric projection of a cube; the body diagonal will appear as a point.

Draw the auxiliary projection

A cube

to

of

80

mm edge

and another inclined

at

has one face on the horizontal plane

30

Draw

Auxiliary projections of a

on a line making
making 60 with the

developed using the group of

elevations. Project also an auxiliary elevation

45 with the xy
xy

line

and an

auxiliary plan

line.

on the horizontal plane

60 to the xy line. Determine a sectional elevation by a given auxiliary plane which is
parallel to the vertical plane and 50 mm from it. The edge of the

An hexagonal prism has a face

and an edge of the base

prism

is

25 mm,

its

is

length

resting

inclined at

60 mm, and

the prism touches the

vertical plane.

pentagonal pyramid, edge of base 30

stands with
inclined at

its

height

70 mm,

base on the horizontal plane with an edge

30 to the

vertical plane.

Draw

an auxiliary plan of the pyramid on a

xy

mm

line

its

projections.

Draw

making 60 with the

line.

An hexagonal pyramid, 60 mm across the flats, slant height

90 mm, is truncated by a cutting plane inclined at 45 to the
horizontal plane which enters the pyramid 20 mm above the
horizontal plane.

Draw the

plan, elevations

plane. State the

name

to the cutting plane

in this

68

view.

and a view normal to the cutting

is normal

given to the projection which

and describe the shape of the cut face

of a cube of

50

mm side,

normal

its

its

to the vertical plane.

is

more complex nature may be

solids in Figs. 64-67.

FIG 76

69

Auxiliary projection (continued)

Auxiliary projections also facilitate the solution of problems
in

descriptive geometry: the

strates

how

example shown

an auxiliary projection

may

in Fig.

77 demon-

be used to determine

side of the triangle at

"line",

Select a cutting plane parallel to the horizontal plane and

It

is

a.

If

reveal the true

line.

view

an auxiliary elevation

plane area as a

the true shape of a plane area.

passing through a corner of the triangle.

jection to establish that this plane will intersect the opposite

is

now

will result

A further

taken normal to this

showing the

projection normal

shape of the triangle and a second

triangle or

to this line will

auxiliary plan.

possible by pro-

FIG 77

70

pricked through. These

methods

will

save

much

These simple examples readily demonstrate

tion,

valuable time.

auxiliary projec-

the solutions necessitating clear thinking and an orderly

approach. The examples also demonstrate a true understanding

of orthographic projection.

FIG 78

Exercises

Determine, by projection, the true shape of the triangles

shown

78 and 79. These examples may be taken from

compass onto cartridge paper,
salient points marked on the xy line, or they may be

in Figs.

FIG 79

the book on detail paper, with a

using the

71

Dihedral Angle
The angle

that

normal to them

come

bounded by two planes and measured

is

called the dihedral angle. Several

is

to mind: the dihedral angle

between the

horizontal

vertical plane is 90, the dihedral angle of a roof, or

in

and

contained

the corner of the forge-hood, the corner of a steel wheel

shown diagrammatically

Consider the two planes

page

right of the adjacent

is

at the top

80) and the main projection

(Fig.

an orthographic representation. The traces of the

planes are shown, two on the horizontal and two on the vertical
plane. Also
of the

two

shown on the

plan

is

the corner or intersecting line

The dihedral angle

planes.

may be

these two planes and

apex of a triangle which

is

normal to the

is

the angle formed by

considered as the angle at the

line of intersection of

the two planes and whose traces on each plane

normal to the

which

be normal to

will

of both planes,

in

the corner of the

will satisfy

now

on the horizontal plane will be normal to

two planes and

in

is

shown on

the plan by

TCP

...'..

is
It

to say, an elevation
is

showing the true

also possible to establish

plan, a x in the elevation). This cutting plane will

pass through the point

of the triangle on the plan,

where the

a.

With

in

the

be normal to
cd, the

mark from a distance a x b the

base
per-

pendicular distance from the horizontal plane to the.gorner, the

intersection of both planes.

the dihedral angle.

72

The

Fig.

in

80, and

aid of a pair of

two

compasses

to

triangles representing the

mark
two

off

corresponding lengths,

intersecting planes. Using

marked c and

lines

when

folded, will

for this example.

fold along the lines

show

cut along the

rule,

marked

f.

This model,

the dihedral angle. (Use cartridge paper

A piece

of coloured card stuck to the cartridge

paper could be used for the triangle containing the dihedral

angle, and for a right-angled triangle,

shown shaded,

to locate

the position of the triangle containing the dihedral angle.

shows
The

it

edge

to be normal with the corner or

dihedral angle

jection. Using this

may

It

also

of the plane.)

also be determined by auxiliary pro-

method and the model,

if

needed, determine

triangle

90

foi

of an extraction

hood over

dimensions: bottom
height
It is

600 mm,

800

a furnace,

mm

long,

outlet at the top

500

which has the following

600

mm

mm

long

wide, vertical

250

mm wide.

only necessary to consider one corner. Use a suitable scale.

good example where auxiliary projection may be used

and effectively: a partial solution is
The
first
projection from the plan shows the
shown in Fig. 81
triangle containing the dihedral angle as a line: the edge view
of the triangle. A view projected normal to this triangle will
show the dihedral angle. The view of the edge of the two planes

This

is

to solve a problem quickly

the elevation a view normal to and contain-

length of the corner.

will

edge

that the

trace of the cutting plane touches the horizontal plane (a

the corner and

be

these conditions:

The trace

elevation.

(trace of the cutting plane).

ing the corner, that

shown

planes, similar to those

by drawing the dihedral angle between the side and the front

this line, representing the

the plan and

cutting plane will form

Consider

will also

line of intersection.

Consider a cutting plane which

a plane

Draw two

determine the dihedral angle. Then draw on the plan, with the

an Ever Ready razor blade against a steel

barrow, or a pyramid.

which

Exercises

examples

is

a point.

The examples overleaf are

also

interesting

examples

of

82 and 83 determine the true shape

and Fig. 84 is an exercise involving several

auxiliary projections. Figs.

of the sloping face,

Htj'auXfliary projections, the solution of

which

understanding of orthographic projection.

will

rfvfw a

trira

FIG 80

73

FIG

74

81

FIG 82

FIG 84

FIG 83

The

grid

is

mm

and the projection

first

angle.

75

Development
Objects can be

made

machined from the

forging.

a variety of ways.

in

shaped when
may be poured into

process of

hot, a

solid or

Molten metal

They can be

a cavity

formed

sand, a process of casting. The several shapes of the

ponent may

be formed together by welding or

process called fabrication.

If,

however, the object

is

in

com-

riveting,

to be

made

called a development.

mm

50

lopment.

It

may

Development may be quickly demonstrated by using

fectionery are often contained

beneath.

The development
assignment.

Make

of the platonic solids

one.

The following pages show photographs of pieces of school

made by young people, using cylin-

metalwork, designed and

and conical developments. The drawing of the small pot

displays the method used to present drawings of this kind and

few

interesting packets. Cut a

in

few

shows

which displays not only its internal shape,

in its construction. Subsequent pages

a half section

but the method used

show

developments. Notice also the provision for joining the develop-

curved surface of an obliquely cut cylinder

It

will

prism,

is

formed by the joining

one

of

the development of a square pyramid

its

of the sides

four sides together. Joined

is

a top,

Design either

(/')

and sugar bowl, or

condiment

(/'//')

set,

or

a coffee-pot and

each item chosen, a series of sketches

Exercise

would be most suitable) and

be necessary to draw a rectangle

(a toilet requisite
it.

It

will

to enclose the base of the object, a plan; and a rectangle to

enclose a side elevation.

From

this

a development may be

drawn. Transfer the development to a piece of card. Cut

and score the

lines

where it is to be folded
and fold it to shape.

quite suitable for this

(Fig. 87).

it

out

a ballpoint line is

a final selection

orthographic style

cartridge paper
it

is

better to

and presented on

make

after

will

an

initial

study of

be necessary before

made. This should then be presented in

and the development of the main forms

determined. The profiles of the items

may be

a sheet of

is

cut from white

sugar paper, but

three dimensional models

suitable materials. This procedure

is

More complex designs may be considered where the base

is

a tea-pot, milk jug

(//)

cream jug. The finished

shapes are to be of developed forms and,

design a container for

86) and the

Exercise

and on the opposite

edge, a bottom.

Select an item

(Fig.

a cigar carton, a rectangular

soon be evident that

ment.

of

a very interesting

is

about 60 words, describe the development of a cylinder.

In

small simple cardboard containers apart and establish their

edge

the deve-

be transferred by tracing or pricking through

drical

simple everyday examples. Toilet requisites and items of con-

to the long

make up

edge. Using a piece of thin card,

from the development on the drawing to a piece of card placed

from sheet material, the shapes forming the object are prepared
on a flat sheet which is then folded or rolled to shape. This flat
shape from which the object is to be cut, folded and developed
is

of

in

necessary

card or other
if

the design

to be realized.

is

not a rectangle. Triangular, pentagonal or hexagonal bases to

form prisms or pyramids are

Draw the
76

plan, elevation

all

interesting possibilities.

and development of

a tetrahedron

(opposite) Coffee pots designed

of Vyners School, Ickenham

and made

in gilding

metal by a

member

77

%S^t,

Various pots designed

School, Ickenham

78

and made

in gilding

metal by members of Vyners

FIG 85

79

FIG 86

80

FIG 87

81

Development (continued)
Development by triangulation
This method of development considers the developed surface
as made from a series of triangles. The object considered in Fig.
88 is a suitable object for triangulation. The diagonal, drawn on
each face to form the necessary
projected to give

its

true length.

triangles, must, of course,

be

The diagonals have been con-

sidered

in this

example as the generators of a cone. An

auxiliary

projection could also have been used to give the true length
of the diagonal

The method

and the true shape of the face

of triangulation

is

itself.

also used for the

of transition pieces, connecting pieces joining

another,

development

one shape to

perhaps a rectangular form to a cylinder. This

demonstrated overleaf

in Fig.

is

90, the developed surface being

considered as a series of triangles which are formed by one

corner of the rectangle and one quarter of the
portion of the

development

quarter of an oblique cone.

is

in

fact the

circle.

This

development of a

FIG 89

truncated pyramid.

An oblique cylinder, axis inclined at 60, both ends parallel.

An hexagonal pyramid, (distance across the flats 60 mm,
slant height 90 mm) is truncated by a cutting plane, inclined
at 45 to the HP, which enters the pyramid 20 mm above the
horizontal plane. Draw the plan, elevation and true shape of
the cut surface and prepare a development.

Prepare the following developments using the method of

triangulation.

Measure

a galvanized steel garden

wheelbarrow or truck and

to a suitable scale prepare a plan,

projections to

show

elevation

and

auxiliary

the true shape of the sides, before attempt-

Make the shape in card. This drawing and

model could also be used to determine the dihedral angle
between two adjacent sides.
ing the development.

Exercises

Using suitable dimensions so that each complete assignment

may be accommodated on an A3
the following developments:

size

drawing sheet, prepare

Prepare a development and model

piece similar to those

in Figs.

in

card of a transition

89 and 90.
83

FIG 90

84

Interpenetration
Simple geometric solids are often used to demonstrate

inter-

penetration and to determine the line or junction between

when one

the two solids formed

is

It

penetrates the other.

a comparatively simple matter to project the salient

points from one elevation or plan to another. Should additional

points be required, cutting planes

may be

used, either parallel

with the vertical plane or parallel with the horizontal plane.

The

intersections of these planes are projected to the adjacent

view, plan or elevation. However, these cutting planes must

be chosen with some care since they must reveal simple

shapes.

In

a cone, a horizontal cutting plane will reveal a circle,

a simple shape; but a cutting plane parallel with the vertical

plane would reveal a series of complex shapes, hyperbolas.

What

simple shape

exposed when the cutting plane passes

is

through the vertex?

Exercises

Using suitable dimensions so that each assignment can be

contained on an

A3

size

drawing sheet, determine the

interpenetration of the solids

shown

in Fig.

91 (A and

lines of

B).

Their

developments may also be determined.

A scale is shown,

in

case difficulty

is

experienced

in

determin-

ing a suitable size.

Note of
If two

interest
cylinders or a cylinder

and a cone, or two cones

inter-

sect each other at any angle and the curved surfaces of each

envelop a
in

common

the elevation

this line will

sphere, the outline of the interpenetration

will

be a straight

show an

ellipse.

line

The axes

and a normal view to

of the

two

solids will

also pass through the centre of the sphere.

FIG

91A

85

SPHERE

20

40

60

80

100

120

mm

Drawing
and Design

SECTION

THREE

Design

is

aspects of

it

are complex, an awareness of things

use can reveal

many

understanding

in

An

light,

highest

white and give

everyday

and a greater

interesting details of design

is

bulb

is

a splendid

a brass pressing.

made

contains a filament

known

in

the use and properties of materials.

electric light

cap of the bulb

the

many

a topic of considerable interest and, while

example of design. The

The glass

bulb, to transmit

of tungsten, a metal of the

3000C) which will glow

The conductors, the two antennae holding

melting point (above

light.

each end of the filament and

be made of a material which

partially

enclosed

must

in glass,

possess a coefficient of linear

will

expansion similar to that of glass.

An

alloy of iron

and

nickel

possesses this quality and has replaced the use of platinum,

an expensive metal. These conductors are soldered at their

exit in the

the cap

cap with

a soft solder,

itself is filled

an alloy of lead and

tin,

and

Many

with an insulating material.

Consider several everyday objects

critically

and write

paragraph similar to the one above about the object selected.

Alternatively objects

may be

discussed

in

a group. Suitable

objects could be a mortice or yale lock, a switch, a three pin

plug containing a fuse, a bicycle

knife, a wall

come

to

bell, a

clearly

Many examples

ergonomic, aesthetic

and material considerations.

This section deals with drawing and design; on the

column are the

left

hand

and on the right

page
hand page or column the parts which must be considered.
or

be taken

have been drawn

full

size

and dimensions may

from the drawings using dividers and a

directly

rule.

All

the

items

chosen

are

familiar

pieces

of

workshop

equipment.

cigarette lighter, a pen-

can-opener and a sparking plug.

mind and demonstrate

details

specific details called for,

Detail

and

full

assembly drawings

may be prepared using detail paper, or the

drawings themselves may be presented on detail paper from
which dyeline prints may be taken. This will not only demonstrate a drawing office process, but will readily show the line
Suitable tracings

quality of the drawing.

These dyeline

prints

may be used

in

the workshop.

87

Metalwork Design Topics

A small

router (Fig. 92)

Prepare the following design details and present them

in

either first or third angle projection.

Design a suitable clamping device for the blade. Sketches

of suitable designs should be developed and from these a fully

dimensioned orthographic drawing should be prepared.

Present an orthographic drawing, three views, of the main

body shown with the upright portion suitably detailed

and with provision
secured.

for the blade,

sectional elevation

The drawings should be

may be

mm

in

in

shape

diameter to be

introduced at this stage.

suitably dimensioned

and the

materials specified.

The major problem here

is

the clamping of the blade and a

diagrammatic representation of
isometric
directions,

draw

this

drawing.

this

is

shown alongside

The blade must be restrained

indicated by the arrows.

It

component, and others similar

will
in

assignments, to an enlarged scale. Twice

in

the

three

be necessary to

subsequent design
full

size

would be

a suitable scale for this detail.

At

a later stage this

assignment could include a

full

assembly

drawing, an isometric or an exploded isometric drawing.

88

DESIGN

FIG 92

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

PROBLEM

FULL SIZE

89

Metalwork Design Topics

Another small router

(Fig.

93)

Given the overall shape of the pattern from which a small

router

one

is

to

be made, complete the views presented and add

elevation.

Design a suitable clamping device for the blade. Sketches

of suitable designs should be developed and from these a fully

dimensioned orthographic drawing should be prepared.

Present a complete full size assembly drawing which
should incude a section through the axis of the blade (without
dimensions).

The drawings should be

suitably

dimensioned and the

materials specified.

This design could also include, at a later stage, isometric

drawing.

FIG 93

90

FULL SIZE

THIRD ANGLE

Metalwork Design Topics

A

small plane

94)

(Fig.

Prepare the following design details;

present them

either first or third angle

in

projection.

Using the drawings prepared:

Design a suitable clamping device to

1.

secure the blade of the plane

This should be complete

in

in

position.

every

whereby the angle of the blade

detail,

method

the blade, the clamp and the

is

deter-

mined, together with any other necessary

details.

The

drawings should be

detail

and the materials

suitably dimensioned
specified.
2.

Make

full

size

3.

Draw an

the

a complete

blade.

auxiliary

also be called
4.

assembly drawing,

and without dimensions.

Make an

plan,

normal to

sectioned elevation

may

for.

isometric drawing

of the
I0R

whole, or a

part.

This straightforward elevation of the

side of the plane

may be used

intersection of arcs

verse

common

for the

and also the trans-

tangent.

By using accu-

rately prepared templates, or drawings,

say twice

full

size,

arcs of the circles

the centres of the

may also be determined.

FIG 94

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

THIRD ANGLE

91

Metal work Design Topics

Vice (Figs. 95 and 96)
Prepare the following design details and present them

in

either first or third angle projection.

The drawing shows the basic details of two small vices,

one for metalwork and one for woodwork.
Prepare suitable designs for either one or both of these
vices. It will be necessary to design a suitable screw and nut,
a method for retaining the moveable jaw on the screw, a means
to prevent the moveable jaw turning, and a method of fixing
the vice to the bench. This could be a permanent or temporary
fixture.

When

suitable

design

sketches

have

been developed,

prepare:
1.

Detail

drawings which should be suitably dimensioned and

the materials specified.

2.

complete assembly drawing,

full

size

and without

dimensions.
3.

An

isometric drawing. (Use an ellipse template and omit

the details of the screw thread.)

92

20
10

10

50

ro

FIG 95

FIG 96

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

THIRD ANGLE

93

Metal work Design Topics

Tool post (Fig. 97)
Prepare the following design details and present them

in

either first or third angle projection.

The drawing shows the compound

centre height of a centre lathe,

all

or top slide and the

the necessary details re-

quired for the design of a four-way tool post.

Using the details given, design a four-way tool post to take

tool bits

10

mm

square.

Provision should be

made

for the tool post to

be clamped

any position and provision could also be included for

indexed at

When

90 degree

suitable

it

in

to be

intervals.

design

sketches

have

been

developed,

prepare:
1.

Detail

drawings which should be suitably dimensioned and

the materials specified.

2.

complete assembly drawing, to include a sectioned

elevation,

full

size

and without dimensions.

On a separate sheet of paper write a paragraph to explain

why the tool post that you have designed is to be preferred
to the

94

American type

tool post.

CENTRE HEIGHT OF LATHE

II

25

25

15

FIG 97

130

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

95

Metalwork Design Topics

Router

(Fig.

98)

Prepare the following design details and present them

either

first

in

or third angle projection.

The drawing shows the main component

of a router.

Prepare suitable designs for the handles, together with a

method

of fixing

them

to

clamping the blade and a

raised

the

main casting, a device

means whereby

the blade

for

may be

and lowered.

When

suitable

design

sketches

have

been

developed,

prepare:
1.

Detail

drawings which should be suitably dimensioned and

the materials specified.

2.

complete assembly drawing to include a sectioned

elevation,

96

full

size

and without dimensions.

FIG 98

DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETRES

97

Drawings

for

Woodwork drawing
If

woodwork

should,

this is not possible, the

if

be drawn

full size.

may be drawn

to scale.

possible,

drawings

The scales most commonly used in metric measurement are

multipliers and divisors of 2, 5 and 10. g scale is usually
employed if imperial measurements are used.
Small pieces of work are often drawn

full size.

work which cannot be drawn to full size are

drawn to scale, and it will often not be possible to

Pieces of
usually

show
show

small details: a

drawing
full

full

size

drawing

will

be necessary to

these details together with the construction. The scale

will

show

normally

size layout will

be

fully

the overall dimensions while the

dimensioned.

The drawings may be presented on detail paper from which

may be taken. These prints can be used in the

dyeline prints

workshop. Additional information and modifications

added
Mr.

to

them as

J.

Practice in
to be

98

is

may be

necessary.

and Workshop

Maynard's

book,

Woodwork,

also published by Hulton, will be found

most useful

in

Constructions

dealing with design topics

in this

section.

Woodwork Design

Topics

wall cabinet to contain twenty small boxes 100 x

25

mm for storing small

60

wall.

It

may be

either free standing or fixed to the

The small boxes which

and are already

When

it

is

to contain are

made

of metal

available.

suitable

design

have been developed,

sketches

The development and the making

needlework box

shoe cleaning box

or a box without a

in

overall
3.

drawing

in third

angle projection showing the

dimensions only and one metal box

full size

lid

to

fit

into

are just a

an existing kitchen drawer to

few such items.

card of one of the small

After

full size

drill

a tool box

boxes.
2.

box to contain drawing instruments

a box for a pistol

contain cutlery

prepare:
1

useful box for a particular purpose

Design a box for a particular purpose:

items

Design a small cabinet for a workshop to satisfy the above

requirements.

in position.

working drawing of one side of the cabinet,

1.

fully

dimensioned and showing the construction details necessary.

suitable

design

sketches

have

been

developed,

prepare:

full

size

showing the
2.

working drawing

overall

dimensions

in

third

angle projection,

only.

Full size detail drawings, fully dimensioned,

showing the

construction details.
Specify the materials,

prepare a cutting

the type of finish which would be suitable.

list

and indicate
Specify the materials, prepare a cutting

list,

and indicate

the type of finish which would be suitable.

99

Woodwork Design

Topics
Bathroom cabinet

Clock case

made from wood, and to

accommodate a clockwork movement of 60 mm diameter
and 30 mm deep. The three fixing holes, 4 mm diameter, are
equally spaced on a pitch circle diameter of 45 mm. The
movement is wound from the back and the spindle of which

Prepare the following design details and present them

Design a small clock case to be

the hands are to be fixed protrudes

mm

from the

plastic

The cabinet should have

sions should not exceed

should

show how

sliding doors

400 x 300

this cabinet

is

and

its

overall

dimen-

100 mm. The design

to be fixed to the wall

the positions of the shelves or compartments.

sary to measure toilet items normally found

case of the movement.

in

either first or third angle projection.

It

in

will

and

be neces-

these cabinets.

After satisfactory design sketches have been developed,

When

prepare:

suitable

design

sketches have

been developed,

prepare:
1

Either a

is

to

isometric drawing,

be straightforward

graphic

views

necessary,
2.

full size

full

size

full size

any sectioned elevations

with

if

if

drawing to show the constructions and layout

the shape

is

simple or straightforward, a cardboard or

wood model may be made. When presented in three

dimensions in this way its form or shape can be more readily
appreciated.

design of the hands

may

also be prepared.

of the spindle to carry the hour

hand spindle

100

is

mm

2.

full size

full size

and without the

drawing, fully dimensioned, of one end to

show

of the sliding doors.

diameter.

hand

Specify the materials, prepare a cutting

the type

balsa

4.

Three views of the cabinet, half

this is necessary.

necessary for the face of the clock.

If

1.

sliding doors.

the position of the shelves, the corner joint and the position

dimensioned working drawing to show

details of construction,
3.

Or three ortho-

and without dimensions.

fully

full size,

the shape of the case

rectangular),

(e.g.

together

if

is

The diameter

mm and the minute

of finish.

list

and indicate

Woodwork Design

Topics
Poisoning

Medicine cabinet

home and are far

much publicised road

Everyday accidents occur within the

greater

number than those

in

of the

accidents.

medicine cabinet

may

contain harmful things and

desirable that a cabinet of this kind should be,

if

it

is

not beyond

Design a small medicine cabinet,

not exceed

200

250

whose dimensions should

60 mm. The door is to be hinged and

with a catch which is beyond the comprehension or the

manual dexterity of a small child to unfasten. The catch may
be made from plywood or sheet brass or any other suitable

fitted

five

hundred young people each year. The

big dangers are ordinary household substances which are

poisonous, and the contents of medicine cupboards. The

first

group includes items from polishes to disinfectants, paints to

there are an estimated 25,000

weedkillers and perfumes:

potentially

more

the grasp of a child, impossible to be opened by him.

kills

is

poisonous substances on the market, and 1000

second group aspirin

may be prevented by
the medicine cupboard out of reach of children, and

a year are being produced. In the

the most likely danger. These dangers

fixing

keeping

it

locked.

material.

When
1.

An

2.

suitable

sketches have been developed,

prepare:

isometric drawing of the cabinet, half full size.

full size

cabinet to

drawing,

show

fully

dimensioned, of one side of the

the position of the shelves, hinges and the

necessary joint details of the corner.

3.

Development sketches and a working drawing

catch for the door.

Its

position

may be

of a safety

indicated on the iso-

metric drawing.

Specify the materials, prepare a cutting

type of

list

and indicate the

finish.

101

Woodwork Design

Topics
A small

Book rack
Design a book rack which
or desk to hold a

be either of fixed
it

It

will

300

450

mm when

mm

when

fully

suitable

full size

sketches

design

suitable

showing the

overall

2.

A full size drawing,

to

show

Full size detail

drawings

in first

fully

been developed,

angle projection, show-

3.

third angle, of

top

is

to

in third

angle pro-

only.

one

leg fully

dimensioned

rails.

Prepare a sectioned drawing, twice

same sheet as
dimensioned, showing the

dimensions

the construction details necessary, also the section

and end details of the

working drawing,

sketches have

scale drawing of the table, three views

have been developed,

ing the overall dimensions only.

2.

When

jection

prepare:
1.

made from wood; the

450 mm x 800 mm.

dimensions of the top are not to exceed

prepare:

and shape of the ends.

design

coffee table

Design a small coffee table, to be

extended and not

closed.

be necessary to measure a few average size books

to determine the size

When

to be free standing on a table

few books which are in current use. It may

length or extending and if of the latter type

should not exceed

less than

is

the

full

size

full size,

drawing of the

leg, to

be fixed to the under frame of the

and on the

show how the

table.

construction details.

Specify the materials, prepare a cutting

Specify the materials,- prepare a cutting

the type of finish which would be suitable.

102

list

and indicate

type of finish which would be suitable.

list

and indicate the

Woodwork Design

Topics

Hall fitment for wall mounting, containing a

Design a

fitment which

hall

should not exceed

750

to be

is

fitted

drawer

onto the wall and

mm in length and should be of sufficient

width to accommodate a telephone. This fitment

is

also to

contain a drawer.

When

suitable

design

sketches

have been developed,

prepare:
1

working drawing, half

showing the
2.

overall

full size, in third

dimensions

angle projection,

only.

Full size detail drawings, fully dimensioned,

showing the

A detailed

drawing of the drawer, showing the construction

5.

is

It

or third angle projection, the design for a

should be robust and present a pleasant tac-

quality, a quality

toy should satisfy these needs. Toys which present the child
with problems of selection and the development of manipulative skills are valuable to a very

young

child.

If

paint

is

to

should be non-toxic, and there should be no pieces

be used
which could be easily detached and swallowed or be hamful

Examine some well designed

toys; look at

them

critically.

wood.

Sketches, on the

the fitment

wood.

toy

which makes it pleasant to touch.

Toys are for enjoyment and fun and they are also very
important to a child's development. There are many factors
to be considered when designing a child's toy. The age of the
child will determine the type of play the child requires and the

tile

made from

Sketches of a suitable drawer handle, to be

either metal or

toy, in

in first

to the child.

details, full size.

4.

wooden

Prepare,

it

construction details.
3.

child's

same sheet

as the handle, to

show how

to be fitted to the wall.

1.

Present the finished design

2.

On

a separate sheet

show

full
all

size or to scale.

the details necessary for

its

construction, joints etc., fully dimensioned.

Specify the materials, prepare a cutting

the type of finish which would be suitable.

list

and indicate

3. All

the relevant sketches of ideas leading to the finished

design could be suitably displayed on another sheet.

103

APPENDIX

Drawing Equipment
Pencils

The most important piece

equipment

of

is

a pencil and

these should be of the best possible quality. Pencils vary

10H and

hardness, the hardest pencil being

in

the softest 8 B,

but these extremes of hardness are infrequently encountered

or used.

It

is

possible to use clutch pencils which are devices

for holding a pencil lead, usually

and these can be obtained

form
in

may

technical

clearly

in all

also be obtained.

two

same

grades. Leads of a rectangular

the

AO

A few

in

coloured pencils are useful

Mars Lumochrom,
good quality colour

Verithin, Staedtler

pencils.

For sharpening the pencils a pocket pencil sharpener or

lead pointer for clutch pencil leads

is

the most straightforward

may be sharpened by

very fine glass paper or flour paper. Flour paper

used for the

final

sharpening of

all

using either

may

also be

pencil leads.

There are special pencils for use on drafting films and

papers.

The leads

of these pencils resist the abrasive qualities

of the paper and are sufficiently dense to withhold the light

during printing.

104

to y/2. All other sizes are sub-multiples of

The next smaller

ratio.

size.

and the sides of the sheets

this basic size

the

and Faber-Castell Goldfaber are suitable

method. Compass leads

ratio of its sides

diameter,

millimetres

drawing so that various items may be more

shown. The Eagle

Paper
The factors governing the purchase of paper are weight,
size and quality. All sizes of drawing paper sheets are derived
from the AO size, its area being one square metre and the

is

halved.

The A2

A2

always be

in

half the area of

is

the

sheet the longest side of the A1

size sheet

is

594 x 420

similar in size to the half imperial sheet

lar to

will
is

The dimension which has been halved

longest side and for an

sheet

A1,

size,

mm and this

and the A3

size

is

is

simi-

that of the quarter imperial sheet.

The weight of the paper is another factor to be considered

and the unit of measurement in this instance is grammes per
square metre.

normal weight

is

120 grammes for cartridge

60/65 grammes.

paper, and for detail and tracing papers

Drawing board and instruments

The most convenient size for the majority of drawing work

A2

be an

will

have

size

drawing board, together with a suitable

The tee-square may be made of beech.

tee-square.

a plastic blade or

edge.

may be

It

possible

with a parallel motion

There
from.

in

It may
may be mahogany with an ebony
to have an A2 size drawing board

place of a tee-square.

a large variety of drawing instruments to

is

it

half

set consists usually of a pair of

choose

compasses,

giant

and a pencil spring bow.

bow with interchangeable pen and pencil attachments

may be

preferred to a half set; these are extremely useful and

pencil/divider with a lengthening bar

accurate for both spring

smaller spring
circles as

A
ally.

bow

bow and compass work

collection of

in

may be built up graduit may be designed

Alternatively, the instruments may

drawing instruments

an instrument case

and made by the student.

be kept

although a

be found to be most useful for small

can be more easily controlled.

it

When

will

chamois leather

is

necessary,

roll.

(a 60/30 and a 45).

The longest cathetus (longest perpendicular) for the sixty
degree set-square should be about two hundred and fifty millimetres, the thickness of the set-square two millimetres.

pair of set-squares will

be necessary

105

Drawing Layout
It

often desirable to have a standard arrangement for a

is

drawing sheet and

requirements

it

be necessary to consider the various

will

drawing offices use sheets of standard

which the basic format

In

Many

departments concerned.

the

of

large

and layout on

size

already printed.

is

general the sheet should always provide the following

information:

The

title

date,

or description of the drawing

and name of draughtsman

material

the system of projection and the unit of measurement.

Two examples

incorporating the above items are

the adjacent page, format

of drawings
ontal,

where the long edge

and format B

drawing sheet

is

Alternatively,

is

be suitable

will

suitable

shown on

for the majority

of the drawing sheet

when

is

horiz-

the long edge of the

vertical.

it

may be

considered desirable to have a block

stamp produced containing the necessary details,

and to be applied in the bottom
right-hand corner, it would only then remain for the student
to insert the necessary information and draw in the border.
or rubber

similar to those mentioned,

The use of both sides of the drawing sheet

with good drawing office practice.

106

is

inconsistent

o
IN
DO

40

FORMAT

Z
LU

I
Q

Z
< H
U
LU
LU
St

3
a.

"*~si

If
LU
_l
1-

FORMAT A

DIMENSIONS

TITLE

IN

MATERIAL

DATE

PROJECTION

DRAWN

MILLIMETRES

sal

60

BY

60

20

107

The dyeline process

Several methods are available for the production of photoprints

and by

most popular

far the

is

the dyeline process. This

ated that the slower paper will require a longer exposure to

complete the photo-chemical

effect.

It is

not always desirable

the behaviour of certain chemicals, which,

to use a fast material as the intensity of the developed line

before exposure to light combine with other chemicals to form

varies inversely as the speed of the paper: a slower paper will

process depends on

a coloured dye.

Should these chemicals be exposed to

chemical reaction

this

will

not take place. This

is

light

known as

The dyeline paper is coated with light

sensitive chemicals and to make a print the tracing is placed
in close contact over a sheet of the dyeline paper and exposed
photo-chemical

to

light.

The

effect.

passes through the tracing material to

light

the sensitized coating of the dyeline paper. The development

is

effected by the

vapour; these are

use of a liquid developer or by ammonia

known as the semi-dry and the ammonia

produce a stronger

line

and a faster paper

weaker

the equipment being used,

The nature

i.e.

the nature of the light source.

of the light source

important as the sensitive

is

coating of the paper responds to the light rays

part of the spectrum only

The
It

red, orange,

the

yellow and green have

for this reason that daylight

is

is

little

an excellent source of

photo-chemical effect or exposure takes place as quickly as

lamps, which are deficient

dense as possible to prevent the

coating.

However, should the

withhold the

light

light

lines

reaching the sensitized

be insufficiently dense to

the sensitized coating

will

be affected and

damage permanently
will

It

now be

speed of
lines

printing:

on the

increased.

carbon paper.

intensity as

if all

the light had been withheld.

will

parency of the tracing material, the sensitivity of the sensitized

coating, which will affect the speed at which the photochemical effect takes place, and the intensity of the

light

source.

The

first

108

ink

condition

is

straight-forward.

and

it

It is

will

if,

is

sufficient to

or destroy the retina. Ordinary filament

in

actinic light rays, are unsuitable.

in

any

red, orange,

the tracing material will reduce the

however, these colours are used

Use

is

made

of this principle

in

in

the

may be

drawing

office

used for isometric grids and sectional tracing papers

possible to select

be readily appreci-

will

not reproduce.

Materials

The majority
there

material with a fast or slow speed

violet

Conversely, blue lines do not reproduce well, and the blue

be readily appreciated that the speed of producing a

dyeline print will be dependent on three factors: the transIt

ultra

tracing, the effective density of the line

loper will be incomplete; the line on the print will not have

same

in

readily appreciated that

yellow or green tinge

the chemical reaction of the sensitized coating and the deve-

the

light

content should be

avoided because the intensity of the light

on the tracing material should be as

it.

as indeed are certain types of fluorescent tubes. Arc lamps and

other light sources high

lines

the upper

or no effect on

From the foregoing paragraph it will be evident that a tracing should possess a good translucent quality so that the
and the

in

blue violet and ultra violet rays.

process respectively.

possible,

The

line.

type of paper chosen will nearly always be dependent upon

may

of photo prints are

made on paper

are several thicknesses available.

also be obtained on cartridge paper.

of

which

Sensitized coatings

Development
The semi-dry method

of

development makes use of a

liquid

in powder form and mixed with

amount of developer is necessary and

developer usually supplied

water. Only a very small

the print

may be moistened by

lightly

swabbing the surface

with cotton wool moistened with developer. The developer

may also be applied by passing the exposed material between
rollers,

the bottom

bottom

roller transfers

roller

revolving

in

the developer. This

developer to the sensitized face of the

paper.

Development by ammonia necessitates that the vapour or

shall come into contact with the sensitized and exposed

gas

surface of the dyeline paper. Obviously this

suitable for schools,

although

its

use

may

method

is

the development of transparent materials. Small sheets

be successfully developed

in

a small receptacle of liquid

ammonia.

a large

sweet

less

be necessary for

may

bottle containing

109

..

Basic drawing techniques

The following pages

of examples,

many, may be used to develop a

facility for

instruments; an accurate execution

results are to

which may be

is

familiar to

the use of drawing

necessary

if

2.

acceptable

be achieved.

3.

The bisection of an angle

The bisection of a line by a perpendicular bisector
The construction of a perpendicular through a point on

a line

The examples on the first sheet are mainly concerned with

compass work, requiring neat, crisp, accurate work; many
more designs using a compass can be developed.
The examples on subsequent sheets are basic geometric

4.

The construction

5.

The construction of a right-angle

The determination of the centre

6.

of a perpendicular to a line

The

Not only do they afford good instrument practice but an

8.

The

understanding of and familiarity with fundamental techniques.

9.

1 1

An
An
An

12.

The construction of

in

all

a point

of an arc (the perpendi-

cular bisectors of chords)

7.

constructions essential

from

aspects of technical drawing.

10.

division of a line into a

circle

and

its

number

of equal parts

parts

arc within a right-angle

arc within an acute angle

arc within an obtuse angle
a regular hexagon, given the distance

across the flats of the hexagon, and

1

3.

given the length of a side

14. Regular
1

5. regular

6.

17.

A
A

octagons within a square, and

octagons within a

circle

circle inscribed within a triangle

circle

circumscribed

around

(two angles bisected)

triangle

(two

sides

bisected)
18.

An

equilateral triangle with inscribed

and circumscribed

circles

110

(In this

example either two angles or two sides or one of each

may be

bisected.)

111

112

114

12

13

14

15

115

16

116

Materials
Wrought Iron
Wrought iron

Ferrous metals
(Iron

base metals)

impact than

Pig Iron

steel.

is

blast furnace.

produced after reduction from the

of impurities

many

the base from which

It is

made.

steel are

It is

of

little

use as

it

kinds of iron and

which have to be removed by further processes.

Steel
ing in

form

This metal

is

obtained from pig iron by smelting

similar to a blast furnace but smaller.

it

in

a cupola
If

Some impurities

the pig iron are removed during this process. Cast iron

brittle
it

and

easily broken.

It

essentially of iron with

very

It

consists

form and as free graphite. Cast

comparatively inexpensive and

is

is

basically an alloy of iron

its

is

is

When

by

chills,

state.

some

rapidly cooled, usually

of the carbon remains

in

in this

combined

present above 1-7 percent, the metal begins to

The

When

it

plain

is

come free

called alloy steel.

carbon steels are usually classified as follows:

the carbon content

referred to as

dead

is

content

is

is

less

than 0-15 per cent, the steel

mild.

the carbon content

is

between

referred to as mild,

0-8 per cent carbon,

within the mould

combined

of carbon that can exist

other elements are added to the steel to impart certain

cent the steel

is

exist-

per cent.

-7

properties,

is

Chilled Cast Iron

and carbon, the carbon

chemical form only and not as free graphite. The

carbon

When

the surface of an iron casting

can be case hardened.

It

or graphitic.

mainly used for cast-

ings.

When

by

such items as chains, crane

pass into the cast iron range as the carbon begins to

up to four per cent carbon, the carbon

existing in both the chemical

is

is

has a very low tensile strength, but

can withstand considerable compressive forces.

iron

used

for

Carbon Steels

contains a high percentage

maximum amount

in

It

is

malleable and fatigue-

iron is less liable to fracture

iron ore in the

Cast Iron
is

ductile,

soft,

Wrought

hooks and electro-magnet cores.

Pig iron

which

is

material.

resisting

medium

0- 1 5 per cent and 0-3 per

between 0-3 per cent and

carbon, and

above 0-8 per cent the

steel

is

when

the carbon

referred to as high

carbon.

Chilled castings are therefore very hard

on

the surface.

White Cast Iron

This contains nearly

all

the carbon

has a silvery-white appearance

and

brittle

in

when

the combined form and

fractured.

It is

very hard

and impossible to machine.

117

Non-ferrous metals

whose base

(Metals

is

other than iron)

Aluminium

Copper
Copper

is

a soft malleable ductile metal.

conductor of heat and

electricity,

other electrical work.

can be obtained

form. Copper

It

and

is

worked,
ing

it

hardens

fairly rapidly

and

will
it is

withstand
being cold

and needs annealing or soften-

is

in

is

very rarely used because

Aluminium

it

is

so soft and

an excellent conductor of

is

alloys with other metals are used for special

most work

it

can usually be accepted that the

an alloy of aluminium and copper. These alloys can be

in all

the sizes and sections that are used for brass.

no satisfactory method of soldering aluminium because

of a very refractory oxide which quickly forms on the surface.
is

This film renders the metal very resistant to ordinary atmos-

name

of

and stronger than copper and can be

Brass can be obtained in sheet, wire or

brass. Brasses are harder

machined more

easily.

bar form. Castings

may also be made from

and

silver

solders can be used on brass. Cold working hardens brass

more

quickly than copper, but

the work. Brass

is

used

it

brass. Soft

can be annealed between stages of

for screws, terminals

is

more

difficult to

common

substances,

when

resistance to corrosion

it is

exposed to the action of many

common

like

is

salt,

it

rapidly corrodes.

improved by anodizing, which

Its
is

an electrolytic process.

Aluminium can be welded

experience

is

satisfactorily,

but considerable

necessary before successful results are achieved.

White Metal Alloys

These are alloys of low melting

point having either zinc, lead

or tin as the major element, referred to as the base of an alloy.

to alloys of

copper and

tin

and they

are similar to brass but are harder and stronger. Generally

wear and

pheric corrosion, but

and small stamp-

resists corrosion well.

Bronze or Gun metal

These names are given

similar

metal

obtained

There

Alloys of copper and zinc are called by the general

bronze

Many

purposes, but

Brass

It

strength.

little

electricity.

between the various stages of the work.

ings.

Pure aluminium

has

sheet, wire or bar

When

considerable distortion without breaking.

an excellent

used for cables and

in

readily soft or silver soldered,

is

It is

machine than

corrosion, however,

is

greater.

forms to those of brass and

its

brass. Its resistance to

Bronze

is

produced

heat treatment

is

in

also

similar.

Zinc based alloys are used chiefly for pressure die castings,
for example, carburettors

and small machine

parts.

based alloys are known as Babbit metals and are used for
bearings where high speeds and heavy loads are encountered.
Lead based alloys are softer than the Babbit metals and are
used for high speed bearings which are working under lighter
Tin

loads.

Phosphor Bronze
This

is

an alloy of copper and

Fusible Alloys
tin

containing also a small

percentage of phosphorous. Phosphor bronze

ly

for bearings.

118

is

used extensive-

These are low melting point alloys produced by

tion of bismuth, lead, tin
Alloy,

Wood's Metal and

and cadmium,

Lipowitz's Alloy.

combina-

for example, Rose's

ment by hardening and tempering

Processes

produce the desired

effect.

a plain carbon steel

does not

A hard surface on a softcore maybe

achieved by a case or surface hardening process.

Hardening and Tempering

Many small hand tools, such as scribers and screwdrivers,
have to be hard enough to mark metals and drive screws into
position without
this

it

becoming damaged.
to

is difficult

make the

the metal

If

is

as hard as

Tool steels can be shaped

tool.

and then hardened but usually the

resulting brittleness

makes

them unsuitable for many purposes. The process of softening

sufficiently to make the tool suitable for a particular purpose
is

called tempering.

carbon tool steel

plain

is

hardened by heating

cherry red heat and then quenching

not take

will

reached; this

place
is

until

it

in

known as the upper

is

this critical

temperature

temperature. For

sufficient to achieve

hardening. Retention at a temperature

full

much

in

excess of

impair the strength of the steel

will

and the hardness will also be reduced. After hardening, the

steel is polished and heated gently, when the surface will show
a series of colour changes,

The

film.

first

owing

colour to appear

is

to the thickness of the oxide

gradually turning

light straw,

to brown-purple and blue; these colour changes indicate the

degree of softening which has taken place. When the tool has

been

sufficiently softened

Quenching

in

it

is

quenched

in

water or

oil.

water gives a harder product than quenching

in

but tools which are complicated in shape are less likely

oil,

to develop cracks

if

they are quenched

carbon. The carbon

The process

is

in oil.

It

is

to resist

work

same time

to
it

be hard on the

may be required

in

steel.

Carburising

Slow cooling annealing

3.

Refining or normalizing the core

4.

Hardening

followed by tempering

The parts to be heated are packed

in

if

required.

boxes made of heat-

an alloy containing a high percentage of nickel

and chromium, with a carbon rich material, usually one of the
proprietary case-hardening compounds, and heated to a temresisting alloy,

perature

in

excess of the upper

critical

temperature for several

hours.

twelve hour period

will give a

penetration of 2-5

milli-

metres, whilst three hours will give a depth of case about 1

millimetre. After this period the box is removed from the furnace

and allowed to

cool. Cooling slowly anneals the

carbon case.

It

be necessary to normalize or refine the core of the component, as retention at a high temperature will have promoted

will

grain growth: this will necessitate re-heating the

component

has been removed from the box, to 900-950C. The

component is then allowed to cool slowly; in practice, however,
after

it

in oil.

of carburising has given the

component

carbon skin or case which can be hardened by heating to

and then quenched

in

either

water or

oil.

a high

800C

The case may be

further heat treated by tempering.

shock loading.

These two conditions can only

by

carried out in four parts:

The process

often necessary for a piece of

outside to resist wear, and at the

carried out

material rich

absorbed by the outer layers of the

is

the components are usually quenched

Case-hardening

is

component in contact with a

2.

water or oil. Hardening

critical

ordinary tool steels a cherry red heat

This process, given to low carbon steels,

heating a mild steel

to a

temperature has been

definite

it

Pack or Box Hardening

exist

if

the material

is

hard on

the outside whilst the inside remains tough. Normal heat treat-

Parts of the surface that are to remain soft should be coated

with copper or packed

in

clay before the process

is

commenced.
119

Methods
Rivets,

screws,

methods of

of joining materials

nuts

and

bolts

joining materials

are considered temporary

and soldering

is

Parker Kaylon self-tapping screws

These hardened screws are intended

regarded as a

permanent method.

tapping hole

ened and threaded that

Rivets

These are described by diameter, length and shape of the

made from all the common non-ferrous metals

head, and are

and mild

drilled or

is

steel.

for the joining of sheet

16SWG0-5 mm or -062

in.). The
punched and the screws are so hardit is possible for them to cut a thread

metal not usually thicker than

the metal as they are screwed in.

The form of the head may be countersunk, round, raised, pan
or mushroom head and the diameter is indicated by gauge:
in

No. 2; No. 4; No. 6; No. 8; No. 10; No. 12; No. 14 (No. 2

mm

Pop-rivets

approximately 2

These are of tubular form and may be obtained in steel,

copper and aluminium. The smaller diameter rivets may be

mm

colour or plated

applied with special pliers; the larger sizes

the more popular sizes.

sive equipment. (The

rivet

head of a centre pin

causing that portion of the

back surface to swell

until

more expendrawn through the

call for
is

which protrudes from the

the head of the pin is broken off
rivet

in tension.)

Screws
These are described by diameter, type of thread, length and
shape of head, and by the material of which they are made,
usually mild steel or brass.

Screws are threaded

length; bolts are only partially threaded.

the

120

same way as screws.

for their entire

They are described

in

diameter and No. 14

diameter). These screws

Except

in

in nickel,

may be

approximately 6

obtained

brass, copper,

the case of the pan head

is

in

the natural

cadmium and

it

is

be preferred as

it

is

possible to obtain a

zinc

in

possible to obtain

these screws with the Phillips recessed head, and this

to

is

more

is

often

positive drive.

Locking Devices
When

nuts and bolts are subjected to rapid vibration or axial

load or to both conditions at the

same time,

there

is

a tendency

work loose and it is sometimes necessary to use

device. The locking devices mentioned below are the

for the nut to

a locking

most common

in

Tab

or safety

washer

These washers are usually made of mild

brass.

One tab

is

many

quick to use and effective

Locked nuts

To use an

is

special patent devices

in their

action

which are

and of these the follow-

ing readily suggest themselves:

additional thinner nut

of nut locking. The upper nut

is

the most

which

is

common method

supporting the load

should be of normal thickness; the lower one which

may be

copper or

bent over the edge of the component.

There are also very

general use.

steel,

bent up against the face of the nut; the other

thinner. In practice,

however, the reverse

is
is

locking

it

often the

Simmonds nut
This nut has a fibre insert which bites into the thread of the

screw or

bolt.

case because of the necessity to use a thin spanner for the

bottom

Star washers

nut.

These also

fall

into this category.

Castle nut
This

one

is

a simple

and effective locking

nut; slight adjustment,

sixth of a turn, is possible.

Spring washers

These are frequently used and give thrust to the

with a single

double

coil

coil are called

nut.

Washers

Graver washers and those of the

are called Thackray washers.

It

is

important to

notice the handing of the coil and the effect of the end corners
in

tending to prevent the nut unscrewing.

121

Screw threads
There are several standard forms of thread, each suitable for

most screws used

a particular purpose. For

and instrument work the

in radio, electrical

British Association thread

is

used. For

Standards
Industry

at

Institute,

which the major sectors of

were represented. The conference approved

which renders obsolescent the present

British

a policy

British traditional

screw

model engineering there are special taps and dies for producing

thread systems of Whitworth, British Association and British

very fine threads. There are also cycle threads, pipe threads,

Standard Fine and approves the supersession of these forms of

brass the threads per inch

screw thread by the internationally agreed ISO metric thread

namely 26. For constructional steel

work the Whitworth standard is used (BSW). Bolts using the
Whitworth form of thread can be obtained from in. to very

form. These recommendations of the ISO (International Organ-

conduit threads and brass threads.

same

are the

large sizes.

and

for

preferred;

The Whitworth standard threads are

it

in

is

the

rather coarse,

the British Standard Fine (BSF)

widely used

is

range of sizes

In

sizes,

many purposes

for

from

all

in

is

to be

the engineering industry. The

same as the Whitworth standard

form,

upwards.

An important

step forward

in

the standardisation of screw

threads has been brought about by agreement between

American and Canadian

"unified" thread.

The

interests,

unified thread

British,

with the advent of the

form

is

essentially the

in

both cases. They can be obtained

national coarse

(UNC) and

in

two grades,

unified

unified national fine (UNF).

spanners for unified thread series are the American A/F

(A/F.
In

The

sizes.

distance across the flats of the hexagon).

of Trade

announced

in

a revised edition of

will lead to

BS 3692,

the universal standard-

screw threads. Meanwhile the variety of screw thread

will diminish.

The ISO metric coarse threads

to be satisfactory. The ISO metric
than both those
Fine threads.

It

in

the

UNF

will, in

most cases, be found

series of fine threads are finer

series and the British Standard

should not be assumed that the ISO metric fine

are a substitute for these thread forms.

Standard diameters
Table

A shows

the nearest

to replace inch diameters.

symbol

recommended
is

the

official

metric diameters

ISO recommended

ISO metric threads.

for

brackets are the decimal inch equivalents. The

in

complete range of ISO metric

M 1.6

to

bolts,

screws and nuts

will

be

M68.

in parlia-

ment, on 24th May, 1965, that British Industry should progressively adopt metric units until that system

became the

standard system of weights and measures for the United

Kingdom.
This statement led to a conference, organized by the British

122

forms

from

necessary.

The President of the Board

1967. This reorganisation

isation of

Figures

recent years a major change of screw thread forms has

become

sions, have been published

same

as the American national thread form, the thread form being

60

screws and nut dimen-

isation for Standardisation), for bolts,

Comparison

of Inch

and Metric Threads

Table B gives a detailed comparison.

Complete
be found

in

details of

ISO metric

BS 3692 1967.

bolts,

screws and nuts may

Table A.

Metric Dia

Pitch of the

Standard
diameters

Metric Dia

Pitch of the

Thread (mm)

Thread (mm)

(Coarse Pitch Series)

(Coarse Pitch Series)

1.6 (0.063")

0.35

M10

(0.394")

1.5

0.4

M12

(0.472")

1.75

2.5 (0.098")

0.45

M14

(0.551")

(0.118")

0.5

M16

(0.630")

(0.157")

0.7

M20

(0.787")

2.5

(0.197")

0.8

1VI22

(0.866")

2.5

(0.236")

M24

(0.945")

(0.315")

1.25

(0.078")

'These are non-preferred diameters and should be avoided.

Table B.

Comparison

Dia

BS

BS

Fine

ISO Metric Fine

UN

Coarse

UN

ISO Metric

Coarse

Dia

TPI (Approx)

TPI

TPI

20

28

18

24

16

24

14

20

13

20

11

18

Fine

Whitworth

of Inch and

Metric Threads
\"

(0.250")

A" (0.3125")

TPI

TPI

20

26

6mm

(0.236")

25.4

18

22

8mm

(0.315")

20.3

16

20

10mm

(0.394")

17.0

ISO metric

in

|"

(0.375")

the

14

18

12mm
i"

(0.500")

12

(0.472")

14.5

16

UN fine series

and much

BS
#' (0.4375")

fine

threads are finer than

finer

ISO metric coarse

threads will, in most
cases, be a suitable
substitute for

|"

(0.625")

11

14

than

Fine threads.

16mm

(0.630")

12.7

BS

Fine,

BS Whitworth and BA
threads.

|"

1"

(0.750")

10

12

20mm

(0.787")

10.1

10

16

1.000")

10

24mm

(0.945")

8.5

12

This drawing

shows the

basic drafting dimensions that

be used to represent ISO metric hexagon

nuts.

Precise dimensions

screws and

BS 3692, 1967.
and on the nuts may be

may be found

The arcs on the heads of the bolts

drawn as shown using a spring bow;
radius curves may be used.

124

bolts,

may

in

alternatively, a set of

Clinometer

DIMENSIONS

IN

MILLIMETRES

////////,
Y///////////////

SECTION

ON A A
125

Level

This

from 5
tube,

is

a very simple level;

it

is in

mm ply, its overall length

2 mm diameter, is formed

is

fact a simple

U tube. Made

mm and the clear plastic

into a circle about 200 mm in
360

diameter. The open ends of the tube are at the top and the tube
itself is half filled

level

is

with water. The method of using this simple

self-explanatory. Should difficulty arise in distinguishing

the meniscusses on both sides of the tube, small coloured floats

may be
126

used.

250

30

"T"
I

mm

DIA

CROSS WIRE

K_J<ZZ&

PLUMB BOB

~Q

HAND LEVEL

DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETRES
1

127

MIRROR

pi 33

w
^
1

SECTION

ON A A

MIRROR
SPIRIT

INCLINED

AT

45

LEVEL BUBBLE

100

HAND LEVEL
128

DIMENSIONS

IN MILLIMETRES