How to Design Solar PV System

What is solar PV system?

Solar photovoltaic system or Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which uses PV modules to
convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or
combined with one or more other electricity generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable
and clean source of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock,
etc.
Major system components
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your system type, site location and
applications. The major components for solar PV system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary
energy sources and loads (appliances).
PV module converts sunlight into DC electricity.
Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV panels going to
battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life.
Inverter converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for AC
appliances or fed back into grid line.
Battery stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a demand.
Load is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights, radio, TV, computer,
refrigerator, etc.
Auxiliary energy sources - is diesel generator or other renewable energy sources.
Solar PV system sizing
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption of all loads that
need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day which
must be delivered to the appliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
2. Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing of PV module, the total peak
watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location. We
have to consider panel generation factor which is different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor
is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get
the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the
number of PV modules required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are installed, the system will perform
better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy
periods and battery life will be shortened.
3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter should never be
lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts you will be using at one

time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or
compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating to
allow for safe and efficient operation.
4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically
designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for
years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days.
To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the solar charge
controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right for
your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is delivered to
the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV
array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge Controller)
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:

One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.

One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12 hours.

One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.

The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

1. Determine power consumption demands
Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours)
= 1,092 Wh/day
Total PV panels energy needed
= 1,092 x 1.3
= 1,419.6 Wh/day.

2. Size the PV panel

2.1 Total Wp of PV panel capacity
needed
2.2 Number of PV panels needed

= 1,419.6 / 3.4
= 413.9 Wp
= 413.9 / 110
= 3.76 modules

Actual requirement = 4 modules

So this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.
3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.
4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days
Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3
(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.
5. Solar charge controller sizing
PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.

Basics of Solar Cell

Solar energy is the ultimate source of energy, which is naturally replenished in a short period of time, for this reason it is
called "renewable energy" or "sustainable energy" source. To take advantages of solar energy, the variety of
technologies is used to covert solar energy to heat and electricity. The use of solar energy involves 'energy conservation'
because it is the way to use energy source that comes from the nature and uses it more wisely and efficiently. That way
includes Solar Cell, which is described as follows:
What is Solar Cell?

Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made up of semiconductor materials
such as silicon, gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. When solar cells absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at
positive/negative junctions. If the positive and negative junctions of solar cell are connected
to DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical equipment.

Solar cell types

There are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology and the semiconductor.

Single Crystalline Silicon

PV Module

Polycrystalline Silicon
PV Module

Amorphous Silicon
PV Module

1. Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV module; single
crystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also called polycrystalline silicon.
The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single crystalline silicon PV module but
both of them have high conversion efficiencies that average about 10-12%.
2. Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module or thin-film silicon PV module absorbs light
more effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so it can be made thinner. It suits for any applications that high
efficiency is not required and low cost is important. The typical efficiency of amorphous silicon PV module is around
6%.
3. Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon surrounded by thin layers of amorphous silicon
provides excellent sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV module has highest level of
conversion efficiency about 17%.
Solar cell structure
The most semiconductor material currently use for solar cell production is silicon, which has some advantages as; it can
be easily found in nature, does not pollute, does not harm the environment and it can be easily melted, handled and
formed into monocrystalline silicon form, etc. The commonly solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made
from silicon.
How solar cell works?

When sunlight strikes solar cell surface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes. The internal field
produced by junction separates some of positive charges (holes) from negative charges (electrons). Holes are swept into
positive or p-layer and electrons are swept into negative or n-layer. When a circuit is made, free electrons have to pass
through the load to recombine with positive holes; current can be produced from the cells under illumination.
The individual solar cells are connected together to make a module (called 'solar module' or 'PV module') to increase
current and the modules are connected in an array (called 'solar array' or 'PV array'). Depending on current or voltage
requirement, solar arrays are connected in a variety of ways:
If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase.
If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.
Solar PV system
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only used for DC equipments. If alternating current (AC) is
needed for AC equipments or backup energy is needed, solar photovoltaic systems require other components in
addition to solar modules. These components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system, that is to say they
are renewable energy products or energy conservation products and one or more of components may be included
depending on type of application. The components of solar photovoltaic system are

1. Solar Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that converts sunlight directly into DC electricity.
2. Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery, prevents battery from
overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.
3. Battery stores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not visible, nighttime or
other purposes.
4. Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power output of solar arrays into AC for AC
appliances.
5. Lightning protection prevents electrical equipments from damages caused by lightning or induction of high voltage
surge. It is required for the large size and critical solar PV systems, which include the efficient grounding.
Solar cell advantages
Solar cell or PV cell produces clean with non-polluting energy source of electricity that is environmental-friendly. Since it
uses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no burning, and no moving part when it operates. It reduces collection
of gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen, etc., which generated from fuel, coal and
fossil fuel burning power plants. All decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like greenhouse effect, global
warming, acid rain and air pollution, etc. It is easy to install and transportable. With the modular characteristic, it can be
constructed any sizes as required. Moreover, it requires minimal maintenance and has long life span (more than 30 years)
and stable efficiency.
Solar cell applications
Home
Lighting system
Water pumping
Battery charging system
Agriculture
Cattle
Health center
Communication

Indoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical equipment, electric gate opener,
security system, ventilator, water pump, water filter and emergency light, etc.
Bus stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard lighting, parking lot lighting,
indoor and outdoor lighting and street lighting, etc.
Consumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening and farming,
mining and irrigation, etc.
Emergency power system, battery charging center for rural village and power
supply for household use and lighting in remote area, etc.
Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines and water
sprayer, etc.
Water pumping, oxygen filling system for fish-farming and insect trapped lighting,
etc.
Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and medical
equipment, etc.
Air navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon navigation aid, illuminated
road sign, railway crossing sign, street lighting and emergency telephone, etc.

Telecommunication
Remote area
Space

Microwave repeater station, telecommunication equipment, portable communication

equipment (e.g. communication radio for service and military exercise) and weather
monitoring station, etc.
Hill, island, forest and remote area that the utility grids are not available, etc.
Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.

Basics of MPPT Solar Charge Controller

What is MPPT?

How MPPT works?

Main features of MPPT solar charge controller

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV modules

How to set system configuration of MPPT solar charge controller

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery

What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers used for extracting maximum
available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power
is called maximum power point (or peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient
temperature andsolar cell temperature.
Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when measured at a cell temperature of
25C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.

Figure 1 The I-V curves show maximum power from PV modules when exposed
to irradiance 1000 W/m2
Source: The parameters are measured by the IVTracer program by Sandia National Laboratories

Figure 2 The I-V curves show maximum power from PV modules when exposed to irradiance 100 W/m 2
Source: The parameters are measured by the IVTracer program by Sandia National Laboratories.
As the graphs in figure 1 and 2, we see that at the different solar radiations, PV modules deliver the variations in
parameters as follows:
(1) Maximum power; Pm
(2) Maximum power voltage; Vpm
(3) Open circuit voltage; Voc
(4) Maximum power current; Ipm
(5) Short circuit current; Isc
How MPPT works?
The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them operate at the
most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that PV module can
produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. It can also supply
power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.
MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and MPPT is utilized to
extract maximum power available from them.
When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of charge in
the battery is lowers.
MPPT solar charge controller
A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with
MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount of current going into the battery
from PV module.
MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV
module, changing it to AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage
and current to exactly match the PV module to the battery.

Examples of DC to DC converter are

Boost converter is power converter which DC input voltage is less than DC output voltage. That means PV input
voltage is less than the battery voltage in system.
Buck converter is power converter which DC input voltage is greater than DC output voltage. That means PV input
voltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.
MPPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system design. Normally, for battery system voltage is
equal or less than 48 V, buck converter is useful. On the other hand, if battery system voltage is greater than 48 V, boost
converter should be chosen.
MPPT solar charge controllers are useful for off-grid solar power systems such as stand-alone solar power
system, solar home system and solar water pump system, etc.
Main features of MPPT solar charge controller
In any applications which PV module is energy source, MPPT solar charge controller is used to correct for detecting
the variations in the current-voltage characteristics of solar cell and shown by I-V curve.
MPPT solar charge controller is necessary for any solar power systems need to extract maximum power from PV
module; it forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum power point to draw maximum available power.
MPPT solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than operating voltage of
battery system.
For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller and battery, its wire size must be very
large to reduce voltage drop. With a MPPT solar charge controller, users can wire PV module for 24 or 48 V
(depending on charge controller and PV modules) and bring power into 12 or 24 V battery system. This means it
reduces the wire size needed while retaining full output of PV module.
MPPT solar charge controller reduces complexity of system while output of system is high efficiency. Additionally, it
can be applied to use with more energy sources. Since PV output power is used to control DC-DC converter directly.
MPPT solar charge controller can be applied to other renewable energy sources such as small water turbines,
wind-power turbines, etc.
How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module
Table 1 Specifications of PV modules separated by manufacturers
PV Manufactures

Model

Wp

Vpm

Ipm

Isc

Voc

SHARP
[View Specifications]

NE-78T1
ND-130T1

78
130

17.1
17.4

4.57
7.48

5.08
8.09

21.4
22

Kaneka
[View Specifications]

GPA

64

68

0.94

1.17

92

SANYO
[ View Specifications]

HIP-180B2

190

54

3.33

3.15

66.4

Bangkok Solar
[View Specifications]

BS 40

40

44.8

0.9

1.16

62.2

Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m2, Cell temperature = 25C, Air mass = 1.5
How to set system configuration of MPPT solar charge controller

Figure 3 General configuration of the MPPT solar charge controller

SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

WITH MPPT AND
DC LOAD TIMER 10A

Advance microprocessor control

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Solar charge controller with DC load control

Reverse polarities protection of PV and battery

Battery overcharge and overdischarge protection

Temperature compensation (-3 to -7mV/Cell/Celsius)

Lighting surge protection (TVSS)

3-step charging to provide quick and safe charging for battery

Automatic cooling fan (outside enclosure)

7 modes timer control (ON/OFF DC load) selectable

Buck regulator wide input range

Table 2 Specifications of the SOLARCON SPT-series MPPT solar charge controller

click to enlarge
How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery
Steps to consider for choosing MPPT solar charge controller
SPT-XXYY (XX is nominal battery voltage, YY is maximum charge current)
Find out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and select XX
Find out what is Wp of PV module and
Select the suitable charge current (CC) = (Wp) / XX
Find out YY by multiply CC by safety factor (NEC requirement) = (CC) x 1.2
Select SOLARCON SPT-series model that covers YY
Check that Vpm(system) is in range that SPT-XXYY can handle (MPPT voltage range)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module) x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module)
Check that Voc(system) is not more than SPT-XXYY range (Maximum open circuit voltage)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module) x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module)
Examples of MPPT solar charge controller selection and calculation
Example 1: When Kaneka GPA PV modules are used for a 128 Wp solar home system
Example 2: When SHARP NE-78T1 (type 1) or ND-130T1J (type 2) PV modules are used for a 150-260 Wp solar home
system
Example 3: When BSC BS 40 PV modules are used for a 120 Wp solar home system
Example 4: When BSC BS 40 PV modules are used for a 800 Wp stand-alone solar system

Advantage of Solar Power

The increasing demand of electricity, the high price of oil and the growing concerns for our environment are some of
several factors that forcing us to enhance the uses of alternative energy sources. Among a variety of renewable energy
sources, solar energy is a sustainable alternative option that can be utilized in various ways and can be used for many
applications.

Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting into electricity, heat and lighting. This is done by using
solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity, and using solar thermal collectors to absorb solar energy for heating
water.
Advantages of solar power
The energy and heat from the sun is free and unlimited.
Solar power is non-polluting. Solar power usage does not emit any greenhouse gases or harmful waste.
Solar power is perfect and saving for power generation in remote areas or where the cost of expansion utility grid is
high.
Solar power is versatile. It can be used for low-power purpose as well as larger ones - from hand-held calculators,
watches, and solar powered garden lights to water heaters, cars, buildings and satellites.
Solar power system requires very little maintenance and last for many years.

Applications of solar energy

Daylighting
The oldest solar application is daylighting. Daylighting system collects and distributes sunlight to provide effective
internal illumination inside buildings. Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and
orientation may be considered as well. There are also other architectural features such as light shelves and even
active sun tracking system which combine with fiber optics or mirrors to provide light to interior of large buildings.

 Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating in homes or commercial and space heating or space
cooling for buildings. Solar water heating systems use different type of collectors to gather and store the solar
energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial applications. For space heating and cooling
in warm temperature region, the thermal mass materials is needed to keep building cool by absorbing solar energy
during a day and radiate stored heat to cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperature
areas to maintain warmth as well.

Solar Electric Power Generation

Solar energy can be directly converted to electricity by photovoltaic cells. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems provide
electricity to home or business for lighting, TV, fan, computer, stereo, refrigerator, water pump or livestock feeders,
without connection to utility grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators and sign lights.

Understanding Electricity
What is Electricity?

Current, Voltage and Resistance

How to measure Current, Voltage and Resistance

How Electricity works?

What is Electricity?
Any appliances that we use in our daily lives such as
household appliances, office equipments and
industrial equipments, almost all of those things take
electricity. Therefore, we should understand
electricity.
The first question that we will find out the answer is
"where does electricity come from?"
All matters are made up of atoms. Then ask the next question, "What are atoms?"
Atoms are the smallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and electrons, electrons surround nucleus.
Elements are identified by the number of electrons in orbit around nucleus of atoms and by the number of protons in
nucleus.

Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and neutrons are balanced. Neutrons have no
electric charge, protons have positive charges (+) and electrons have negative charges (-). A positive charge of proton
equals a negative charge of electron.
Electrons are bound in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the outer band can become free of their orbit by
some external forces. These are referred to as free electrons, which move from one atom to the next, electron flows are
produced. These are the basis of electricity. Materials that allow many electrons to move freely are called conductors and
materials that allow few free electrons to move are called insulators.
All matters are made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have electric charges. For the matter that
has a balanced the number of protons and electrons, positive charge force and negative charge force are balanced. It is
called neutral state of an atom. (The number of protons and electrons remains equal.)

"Static electricity" represents a situation that all things are made

up of electric charges. For example, the rubbing of material
against another can cause the static electricity. Free electrons of
one material move forcefully till they are freed of their orbits
around nucleus and move to another. Electrons of one material
decrease, it presents positive charges. At the same time,
electrons of another increase, it has negative charges.

In general, charge producing of the matter means the matter has

electric charges. It has positive and negative charges, which is
expressed in coulomb.
Current, Voltage and Resistance
What is Current?
An electrical phenomenon is
caused by flow of free
electrons from one atom to
another. The characteristics
of current electricity are
opposite to those of static
electricity.
Wires are made up of
conductors such as copper
or aluminum. Atoms of metal
are made up of free
electrons, which freely move
from one atom to the next. If
an electron is added in wire,
a free electron is attracted to
a proton to be neutral.
Forcing electrons out of their
orbits can cause a lack of
electrons. Electrons, which
continuously move in wire,
are calledElectric Current.

For solid conductors, electric current refers

to directional negative-to-positive electrons
from one atom to the next. Liquid conductors
and gas conductors, electric current refers to
electrons and protons flow in the opposite
direction.
Current is flow of electrons, but current and
electron flow in the opposite direction.
Current flows from positive to negative and
electron flows from negative to positive.

Current is determined by the number of electrons passing through a cross-section

of a conductor in one second. Current is measured in amperes, which is
abbreviated "amps". The symbol for amps is a letter "A".
A current of one amp means that current pass through a cross-section of two
conductors, which are placed in parallel 1 meter apart with 2x10 -7 Newton per
meter force occur in each conductor. It can also mean charges of one coulomb (or
6.24x1018 electrons) passing through a cross-section of a conductor in one second.
What is voltage?
Electric current is flow of electrons in
a conductor. The force required to
make current flow through a
conductor is
calledvoltage and potential is the
other term of voltage. For example,
the first element has more positive
charges, so it has higher potential.
On the other hand, the second
element has charges that are more
negative so it has lower potential.
The difference between two points is
called potential difference.
Electromotive force means the
force which makes current
continuously flows through a
conductor. This force can be
generated from power generator,
battery, flashlight battery and fuel
cell, etc.
Volt, abbreviated "V", is the unit of
measurement used interchangeably
for voltage, potential, and
electromotive force. One volt means
a force which makes current of one
amp move through a resistance of
one ohm.

What is resistance?
Electrons move through a conductor when electric current flows. All materials
impede flow of electric current to some extent. This characteristic is
called resistance. Resistance increases with an increase of length or decrease of
cross-section of a material.
The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms and its symbol is the Greek letter
omega (). The resistance of one ohm means a conductor allows a current of one

amp to flow with a voltage of one volt.

All materials are difference in allowing electrons flow. Materials that allow many electrons to flow freely are
called conductorssuch as copper, silver, aluminium, hydrochloric solution, sulphuric acid and saltwater. In contrast,
materials which allow few electrons to flow are called insulators such as plastic, rubber, glass and dry paper. Another
type of materials,semiconductors have characteristics of both conductors and insulators. They allow electrons to move
while being able to control flow of electrons and examples are carbon, silicon and germanium, etc.
The resistance of conductor depends on two main factors as the followings:
1. Types of material
2. Temperature of material
How to measure current
The instrument used to measure current is called ampere meter or ammeter.
Steps for current measurement Connect a small light bulb to a dry cell. Measure
current that passes through light bulb by connecting positive terminal (+) of ammeter
to negative terminal (-) of a dry cell (see figure)
Safety instructions for current measurement;
1. Estimate current that required measuring then choose a suitable ammeter, since
each ammeter has different limit of current measurement.
2. Be sure that the connection to positive terminal (+) and negative terminal (-) of
ammeter are correct.
3. Do not directly connect ammeter terminals to dry cell terminals. Since it can
damage the meter.

How to measure voltage

The instrument used to measure voltage, difference potential or electromotive force is called voltmeter.
Steps for voltage measurement
Connect a small light bulb to a dry cell. A voltmeter is wired in parallel with the light
bulb to measure voltage across the light bulb. Connect positive terminal (+) of
voltmeter to positive terminal (+) of a dry cell and connect negative terminal (-) of
voltmeter to negative terminal (-) of a dry cell (see figure).
Safety instructions for measuring voltage;
1. Estimate voltage that required measuring then choose
a suitable voltmeter, since each voltmeter is designed with
the limit of voltage measurement.
2. Be sure that the connecting of positive terminal (+) and negative terminal (-) of
voltmeter are correct.

How to measure resistance

The
instrument
used to measure
resistance is called test meter or multimeter. The multimeter or test meter is used to
Steps
for resistance
measurement
make
various
electrical
such asmeasuring,
current, voltage
and resistance.
It combines the functions of ammeter,
Turn
the face
dial to measurements
a position for required
resistance,
then
voltmeter
and ohmmeter.
touch both
of terminals of multimeter (see figure 1) and adjust the meter
range to 0 . Touch both of terminals of meter to a resistance and take the
reading (see figure 2).

How Electricity works?

Electric current is the ability to do work. Electric current can be converted to heat, power and magnetism, to name a few.
Electric current is classified by its functions and three primary types are:
1. Heat and power
2. Electrochemistry
3. Magnetism

1. Heat and power is used to make heat and power.

For example, current-carrying nichrom wire that nichrom wire has a high resistance and creates heat. This is applied
to be component of electric ovens, toasters, electric irons and light bulbs, etc.

Experiment is made by measuring heat quantity of water by calorimeter. Increase voltage across wire by the variac
and connect ammeter and voltmeter to measure current and voltage.
Set the variac scale to adjust voltage and current value of nichrom wire and current is passed through periodically
and measure heat quantity from nichrom wire. There are any indications of voltage and current. If voltage, current and
time increase, heat quantity will also increase. They are expressed by the relation as below.

This is called Joule's law. Heat quantity depends on voltage time current and interval of time. From Ohm's law, V
(Voltage) = I (Current) x R (Resistance) therefore

Heat quantity depends on current squared times resistance and interval of time.
When current is passed through nichrom wire in water, current is converted to heat and temperature rises. Work is
done by heat generated in an electrical circuit, which is called Electric power.

Electric power is measured in Watts-hour (Wh) and heat quantity is measured in calories (Cal).

Work is done by heat generated in an electrical circuit is written in power, which it means that the rate work is done in
a circuit when 1 Amp flows with 1 Volt applied and its unit of measurement is Watt.

Conclusion

2. Electrochemistry
For example, when current is passed through sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, a chemical reaction called electrolysis
occurs. This is applied to produce electrolysis, galvanizing and battery, etc.
Experiment is made by soaking two platinum (Pt) plates in
molten salt. Connect batteries to two platinum plates,
current is passed through molten salt and produces
chlorine bubbles around positive plate (+) and hydrogen
bubbles around negative plate (-) since sodium chloride
composes of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). When sodium
chloride melts in water, the elements are separated.
Sodium has positive charges (+), while chlorine has
negative charges (-) and these charges are called ions.
The molten salt has both positive charges, called anodes,
and negative charges called cathodes. The state of
separated elements is called ionization. If salt is melted
by water, solution is available ions, called electrolyte
solution. And if current is passed through electrolyte
solution, a chemical reaction known as electrolysis occurs.

3. Magnetism
The example of this electric work is a current-carrying wire, magnetic lines of flux occur. This is applied to produce
electric motors, electric transformers and tape recorders, etc.
Understanding meaning of magnetism:
What is magnetism?
The compound formula of magnet is Fe3O4. All magnets have two characteristics.
First, they attract and hold iron. Secondary, if free to move like the compass needle,
they will assume a north-south position. Any materials have these characteristics, they
are calledmagnet.
The characteristics of magnet are

 Every magnet has two poles, one north pole and one south pole.
Opposite poles attract each other, while like poles repel each other.

Electricity and magnetic field

When magnetic needle is placed near electric wire, which current
is passed through, magnetic needle turns on the direction of
current flow (see figure 1 and 2). Therefore, electric current flow
also produces an associated magnetic force or it is said that
electricity is able to produce magnetic field.

When magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with one loop (see
figure) and current is passed through wire coil, magnetic needle
turns on the direction as shown in above figure. And the directions
of magnetic lines of flux are shown by the arrows.

When magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with many loops as

shown in right figure, then current is passed through coil. The
direction of magnetic lines of flux parallels wire coil. The
characteristics of magnetic lines of flux like the characteristics of
magnet, but no magnetic pole.

When a current-carrying wire coil is placed near iron bar, the iron
bar move slightly (see figure 1). If core is placed in a wire coil, the
iron bar is attracted strongly (see figure 2). Because core is a soft
iron, which conducts magnetic lines of force, when current is
passed through wire coil around core, the core becomes
magnetized with high power that is called electromagnets. This
function is widely applied for using in industries.

Basics of Current
Current is classified into two types:
Direct Current (DC): DC is unidirectional flow of electric charge that
means its direction remains constant.
Examples of DC power source are battery and solar cell, etc.
Direct Current or DC is suitable for using with DC appliances not to
reverse polarity.

Alternative Current (AC): AC is an electric current which direction

reverses cyclically. The usual waveform of AC power is sine wave
with frequency 50 or 60 Hz.
Examples of AC power sources are utility power supplies to
residences and businesses, audio and radio signals, etc.

Electrical power consumption

Electrical power consumed by DC electrical appliances can be determined by voltage that they work on and current that
they consumed.
DC power consumption = Voltage (Volts) X Load Current (Amps) = Watts
Electrical power consumed by AC electrical appliances is more complicated than DC electrical appliances because the
direction of current is changed periodically then the value of voltage and current should be measured in term of RMS
(Root Mean Square) to eliminate changing of current direction.
AC electrical appliances or AC loads are classified into two types as the followings;
Linear load is electrical load consuming AC power both real power and apparent power with a power factor of 1.
Example of linear load is incandescent lamp.
Non-linear load generates harmonic currents in addition to the original AC current and its power factor is less than 1.
Examples of non-linear load are fluorescent lamp, electronic ballast of fluorescent lamp, PC and TV, etc.
Each type of AC load has different consuming current characteristic and the figures below show the current characteristic

of linear load and non-linear load with same input voltage at same power rating of load.

Current characteristic of
incandescent lamp,
which power factor = 1

Current characteristic of
a set of PC,
which power factor = 0.52

What are Watt and VA?

Watt is unit of power. Its measures a rate of energy use or production and its symbol is W.
VA or volt-ampere is unit of electrical power consumed by non-linear load. It measures apparent power.
Example
A Computer is consumed power as a non-linear load then VA should be the measuring unit that indicates power
consumed by PC.
A UPS is used to supply power to PC once the utility power is failed then a UPS should be declared its power in VA as
well.
AC power (Watt) measuring
To measure real AC power of electrical appliances, the measuring equipment called "Power meter" is requested. This
equipment will measure voltage and current at the same time and make calculation to get power in "Watt".
The following figures show measuring of a PC with 17" monitor power consumption by using power meter.

AC apparent power (VA) calculating

We can measure the power of the same set of a PC with 17" monitor by measuring voltage (RMS) and current (RMS)
after calculation power by multiply working voltage with consumed current.

AC apparent power = Voltage (RMS) X Load Current (RMS) = VA

= 229.3 X 1.10 = 252.23 VA
The relation of AC power and AC apparent power

AC power = AC apparent power X Power factor

(Watts) = (VA) X Power factor
Power factor (pf) of an AC electrical power system is defined as ratio of real power to the apparent power and is a
number between 0 and 1.
Power factor of linear load equals one (=1) and power factor of non-linear load is less than one (<1).
From a sample of a PC with 17" monitor, we can calculate power factor by
Watts = VA X pf
132 = 252.23 X pf
pf = 132 / 252.23 = 0.523

What is surge? What is transient voltage surge?

Surge and Transient Voltage Surge are temporary rise in voltage and current on an electrical circuit. Their voltage ranges
are greater than 2000 volt and current ranges are greater than 100 ampere. Typical rise time is in the 1 to 10 microsecond
range. Transient or surge is the most common power problems and its compacts are caused significant damages such as
electrical or electronic equipments failure, frequent downtime, lost data, lost time and business downtime, etc.
Where do surges come from?
The major of electronics damage from surge is lightning strikes. The most damages is not caused by direct lightning
strikes, but is the result of transient voltage and current surges induced on power, telecommunications or RF transmission
lines by the strong electromagnetic fields created by during a lightning strike. And more common causes of power
surgeare the operation of high-power electrical devices, such as elevators, air conditioners and refrigerators by switching
on-off compressors and motor. Other sources of power surge include faulty wiring, utility power supply failure and electrical
noise.
What is surge protector?
Surge protector also known as Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor (TVSS), Surge Protection Devices (SPD)
or Surge Suppression Equipment (SSE) is the equipment designed to protect electrical and electronic equipments
from power surges and voltage spikes. Surge protector diverts the excess voltage and current
from transient or surge into grounding wire.
How surge protector works
Surge protector diverts the excess voltage and current from transient or surge into grounding wire and prevents it from
flowing through the electrical and electronic equipments while at the same time allowing the normal voltage to continue
along its path. This excess energy can cause damages in electrical and electronic equipments, process control instrumentsequipments.
Two main functions of the surge protector are
1. Provides low impedance path for conducting a lot of current to eliminate the extra voltage.
2. Absorbs and diverts the extra current to ground for protecting the effects of transient or surge.
Surge protector types
Surge protector are classified into two types as

Filter is a device that serves as barrier to high frequency current that is often noise, while allowing the low
frequency power current to pass through unaffected.
Transients Diverter is a device that presents a very low impedance path to ground whenever voltage across the
device exceeds certain value, but reduces voltage that could be presented to the sensitive equipments.

Surge protector components

The components used to reduce or limit high voltage usually includes MOV, Gas Discharge Tube, Silicon Avalanche
Diode, etc. or combinations of these components. Each of these components is different features as follows:

MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) composes of zinc oxide material, which is semiconductor with a variable resistance.
In normal condition, MOV presents itself as a high impedance device but when voltage is too high, the resistance
ofMOV drops rapidly to provide a low impedance path of flow. MOVs have finite life expectancy and degrade when
exposed to a few large transients, or many smaller transients. MOV is the most common component in AC surge
protector.
Gas Discharge Tube (GDT) can divert the excess current from line to ground by using inert gas as conductor from
hot line to ground line. In normal condition, the inert gas acts as poor conductor, but when voltage is above the
acceptable level, the inert gas is ionized to be effective conductor to pass on current to ground until voltage returns
to normal level. GDT will conduct at a voltage less than the high voltage that ionized the gas and able to conduct
more current for their size than other components. GDT has a finite life expectancy, and can take a few very
largetransients or a greater number of smaller transients.

Silicon Avalanche Diode (SAD) provides the perfect limiting action of protective component, but has a lower
current capability. When voltage increases above the limit level, SAD will tolerate avalanche breakdown resulting
voltage is conducted to ground.

Other important components, such as resistors, capacitors and/or inductors, are used in conjunction with these
protector components above.

Why do you need surge protector?

Nowadays a lot of electronic components in modern electrical devices are much smaller, delicate and more sensitive to
current increases. Microprocessor which is an integral part of all computers and many modern electrical equipments, are
particularly sensitive to surge. Your electrical equipments can be exposed to damaging surges from AC power line and
telephone or signal lines.
Surge protector is suitable to use in every applications that connect to electricity (the utility power supplies or the locally
generated), telephone lines (such as modem, fax, data, etc.), computer data lines and communication lines, etc. as follows:

Computers and peripherals such as printer, monitor, speaker, fax machine and modem, etc.

Entertainment components

Medical equipments, surgical equipments and scientific equipments, etc.

Weighting bridges and measuring equipments, etc.

Electrical equipments

Security systems

PABX and communication equipments, etc.

Surge protector location

Surge Protector is typically applied at several points throughout a facility. ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991 standards define three
categories of surge level, based on strategic location within a facilities wiring network, where power problem may be
encountered. They classify the surge protector type, the potential impact of transient surge or spikes, and location as
follows:

Category A: Defined as any outlets and long branch circuits extending more than 10 meters (30 ft.) from category
B location or 20 meters (60 ft.) from category C. Surge protector for this location category is applied at the outlets
or individual circuit level for individual protection of a specific piece of equipment such as computers, weighting
bridges, measuring equipments, process control equipments and DC power supplies, etc.
Category B: Defined as all major sub-feeders, bus systems, and short branch circuits such as distribution panels,
industrial busses and feeder systems, heavy appliance circuits, lighting systems in large building. The protection at
this location is very effective in suppressing the much more frequent internally generated transients, everchangingtransient conditions, especially, sensitive equipments and equipments which are fed from the
substations.
Category C: Defined as outside and main service entrance which includes main supply lines, transformer, service
connections, and feeder line to main service entrance panels, any overhead or sub-feeders lines, underground
lines to well pump. This surge protector type is applied to protect against externally caused power disruptions.
This installation will help guard against lightning strike entering a facility via the power line.

These three categories A, B and C determine which surge protector or TVSS should be used at which location.

Surge protector or TVSS (Transient voltage surge suppressor) is the equipment designed to protect your electrical
equipments (loads) and AC electrical circuits from power surge or voltage spike. Surge protector diverts the excess
voltage and current into grounding wire.
Your electrical equipments can be exposed to damaging surges from AC power line and telephone or signal lines. Surge
protector helps to protect equipments from lightning surges, switching surges and voltage spikes. Many factors
influence the selection of the right surge protector as follows:
Surge protector location
ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991 standards provide the location categories for the correct selection of surge protector. It defines
three categories of surge level, based on strategic location within a facilities wiring network, where power problem may be
encountered.
Category A
Outlet and long branch circuit panels
All outlets at more than 10 metres (30 feets) from category B location.
All outlets at more than 20 metres (60 feets) from category C location.
Category B
Feeders and short branch circuits.
Distribution panel devices.
Bus and feeder industrial plants.
Heavy appliance outlets with short connections to service entrance.
Lighting systems in large building.
Category C
Outside and service entrance.
Service drop from pole to building
Run between meter and panel.
Overhead line to detached building
Underground line to well pump.
Exposed or critically important sites.
These three categories; A, B and C, determine that what level of surge protection each location need as shown in the
figure below.

Clamping voltage
Clamping voltage is the voltage at which a surge begins to work by conducting electricity to the ground line. A
lowerclamping voltage indicates better protection, but a shorter life expectancy. Clamping voltage is also often called
Let-through voltage, but the two are not actually the same thing. The let-through voltage is the voltage that is allowed to
pass on to your equipments by the surge protector.
Energy absorption/dissipation (Joule rating)
Joule rating indicates the amount of energy that surge protector can absorb without failure. A higher joule
rating indicates the better protection because surge protector will divert more energy elsewhere and absorb less energy
resulting in a lower voltage spike.
Response time
This rating indicates how fast a surge protector can react. The longer response time tells you that the connected
equipments will be exposed to surge for a greater amount of time. Choose a surge protector that responds in

nanosecond.
Indicator lights

Surge protector with indicator lights let you know the surge protector is functioning properly whether or not.
Surge protector connectivity
Choosing a surge protector depends on what sort of equipment you are connecting to power supply. Some surge
protectors can protect your equipments from surge damage on wall outlets connection and from telephone or signal
lines connection, too. Some surge protectors can protect only surge damage on signal lines connection.

Surge protection on all electrical wires: Make sure that surge protection is on all electrical wires. Surge
protectorshould indicate protection for Line to Neutral (L-N), Line to Ground (L-G) and Neutral to Ground (N-G)
Telephone line protection: Look for a surge protector with telephone jack for protecting telephone, computer,
fax and modem from power surge on telephone lines.
Coaxial line protection: Look for a surge protector with coaxial jack for protecting TV or VCR from power surge
on coaxial lines.

Proper grounding imperative

Without proper grounding, surge protectors ability to protect against power surge will be diminished.

Energy Conservation Systems

What are the components of solar PV system?
How much does a PV system cost?
How much electricity does a PV system generate?
How much maintenance does a PV system require?
What type of battery should I use in solar PV system?
What kind of load can I run on PV system?
How long do solar photovoltaic (PV) systems last?
What is the payback for solar PV system?
How big a solar PV system do I need?
What is the difference between solar thermal and solar electric?
What is solar thermal or solar water heating system?
How do solar water heating system work?
How long do solar thermal panels last?
What is the average payback for a solar thermal system?
Can business benefit from a solar thermal system?

Energy Conservation Systems

What are the components of solar PV system?
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your system type, site location and
applications. The major components for solar PV system are PV modules, solar charge controller, inverter for utility grid
connected system and when alternating current (AC) rather than direct current (DC) is required, battery bank, auxiliary
energy sources and loads (appliances). In addition, an assortment of balance of system (BOS) hardware, including wiring,
mounting systems, protection and disconnect devices and other power processing equipment.
How much does a PV system cost?
The total cost for purchasing and installing a solar PV system depends on your application, size of system you require and
your equipment options. Residential and commercial PV systems are different cost. These are variables affecting system
cost.

Site orientation
Climate and other geographical factors
Site preparation needs (e.g. tree or other shading at installation site, condition of roof or ground, etc.)
Shipping costs for equipments and parts
Contractor and professional services cost
Optional energy usage, management or monitoring services

How much electricity does a PV system generate?

The amount of power produced will depend on how large the PV system is. The greater area of PV panels, the more
electricity is generated. For example, a 1.5 kW grid tied system produces about 2,190 kWh a year. Over 25 year lifespan,
this comes out to be 54,750 kWh.
How much maintenance does a PV system require?
Stand-alone systems need maintenance on other system components such as batteries. If you have a flooded lead acid
battery, you should check the distilled water levels once a month. If you have a sealed lead acid battery, it will never need
maintenance. Grid tie systems require very little maintenance, generally limited to ensuring that the solar panels are kept
relatively clean and that shade from trees has not become a problem. The wiring and other components should be checked
regularly by a qualified technician.
What type of battery should I use in solar PV system?
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically
designed for a deep discharge and rapid recharge or cycle day after day for years. While the car battery is designed to
provide high starting current for short periods of time and is not appropriate for solar PV system.
The next decision is whether the battery is flooded or sealed.
Flooded lead acid battery, also called wet cells, is commonly used in renewable energy systems, and requires periodic
maintenance consisting mainly of adding distilled water to the cells. Flooded batteries are often the least expensive type
of deep-cycle battery and can last longest. They are an excellent choice for systems which require a lot of energy
storage.
Sealed lead acid battery includes Gell cell and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) battery that are sealed and do not require the

addition of distilled water. The advantages of sealed batteries are that they can be placed in any orientation, easy to
transport and better performing in very cold temperatures or in very deep-discharge applications. In a remote area where
regular maintenance is not possible, sealed battery will be a better option.
What kind of load can I run on PV system?
With a correctly designed PV system you can power almost any electrical load. However, as the load size increases the
expense also increases. Air conditioning and electric heating equipments (hot water heaters, electric stoves) should be
avoided. Because of these loads use large amount of electricity. Propane or natural gas is a popular alternative to electricity
cooking which is less expensive than solar energy.
How long do solar photovoltaic (PV) systems last?
A well-designed, installed and maintained solar PV system will operate for more than 20 years. The PV module, with no
moving parts, can last 25-30 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by
having it installed and maintained properly.
The most common cause of system problems is the poor installation and failure of electronic parts include in the Balance of
System (BOS) - the charge controller, inverter and protection components. In many PV systems, the batteries are
discharged and recharged slowly, maybe over a period of days or weeks. Batteries will fail quickly under these conditions.
Be sure the batteries specified for your system are appropriate for the application.
What is the payback for solar PV system?
Solar photovoltaic system can pay for themselves between 7-14 years. Much depends on the overall cost of the system,
which is the type and size of the installation.
How big a solar PV system do I need?
The size of a solar PV system depends on the amount of power that is required (watts), the amount of time it is used
(hours), the amount of solar energy available where you are, and how much you're willing to invest. To get an idea of solar
PV system sizing, see How to Design Solar PV System or you can contact our system engineer to determine what type of
system would suit you needs.
What is the difference between solar thermal and solar electric?
These are two most economical, technically advanced and easy to use. Solar thermal is an old technology but has efficiency
of 70%-80% where as PV or solar electric has efficiency in the range of 14-18%. Solar thermal is the best way to own a
system and appreciate the benefits of a solar energy system because it is cheaper than a PV system.
What is solar thermal or solar water heating system?
Solar thermal or solar water heating system is one of most cost-effective renewable energy systems. Solar thermal
systemsare designed to collect or absorb solar energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial
applications. Solar thermal systems use different type of collector to gather and store the solar energy. The systems can
reduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel required to heat water.
How do solar water heating systems work?
Solar water heating systems work very similar to solar electric systems, except they do not produce electricity. Solar water
heating systems include solar collectors and storage tanks. The solar collectors collect solar energy and transfer heat to the
storage tank via heat exchanger. The storage tank in hot water system is like the batteries in a solar electric system, storing
energy to provide hot water for your home and business.
How long do solar thermal systems last?
A well-designed and installed solar thermal system may last 15 years or more.
What is the average payback for a solar thermal system?
Solar thermal systems can save the home owner or business amount of money and can reduce the amount of electricity,
gas or fuel required to heat water. At current energy prices, these systems can pay for themselves in 4-6 years depending
on the application.
Can business benefit from a solar thermal system?
Businesses that use large quantities of hot water or use hot water to supplement a convention heating system can cost
saving by using solar. Solar thermal system can reduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel required to heat water.
Hospitals, hotels, resorts, apartment buildings and restaurants are examples of some of most satisfied customers. You will
also be directly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Energy Conservation Products

What is the difference between PV panel, PV module and PV array?
What is the energy payback of PV?
How long do PV panels last?
Will PVs efficiency reduce in warm temperature?
Why do I need a solar charge controller?
What is 3-step charging?
How does overcharging damage the battery?
What type of inverter do I need?
What is grid tie or grid connected inverter?
How Lighting Energy Saver can help you save the money?
What kind of lamp that LES is applicable to? How much it can save?

Energy Conservation Products

What is the difference between PV panel, PV module and PV array?
PV module or solar module is a smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of interconnected solar cells.
PV panel is a group of modules fastened together, pre-assembled and wired, designed to serve as an installable unit in
an array.
PV array is a mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels and its support structure. An array does not include
its foundation, tracking apparatus, thermal control, and other such components.
What is the energy payback of PV?
Energy payback estimates for both rooftop and ground-mounted PV systems are roughly the same depending on the
technology and type of framing used. Paybacks for multi-crystalline modules are 2 - 4 years. For amorphous modules,
paybacks are 1 - 3 years.
How long do PV panels last?
In photovoltaic electrification, the interaction of sunlight with certain semiconductor materials makes the electrons free and
becomes electricity. There is no moving parts, therefore, no vibration in photovoltaic. The lifetime of photovoltaic will typically
last for 20-25 years.
Will PVs efficiency reduce in warm temperature?
Yes, a PV works better and more efficient at cooler temperature. Because of its efficiency is varied by temperature. PV
generates less energy in winter than summer because of the shorter daytime, lower sun angles and greater cloud cover.
Why do I need a solar charge controller?
A solar charge controller is an essential part of any PV systems containing batteries. It regulates the voltage and current
coming from the solar panels going to the batteries. A charge controller prevents batteries from being overcharged, prevents
batteries from discharging through the solar panel at night, helps you maximize your energy harvesting and prolongs the
battery life.
What is 3-step charging?
The 3-step charging provides optimal and safe battery charging to ensure that battery is properly and fully charged resulting
in enhanced battery performance. Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current delivered to battery in three
automatic steps:
Bulk Charge: Battery is being charged up with maximum current, the voltage of the battery increases gradually. When
the battery voltage reaches the Boost charging voltage the charge controller goes to next step.
Boost Charge: Battery continues to be charged at constant voltage. The charging voltage is held constant at Boost
charging voltage providing the battery to nearly full charge at a slow and safe rate, then goes to next step.
Float Charge: Voltage is reduced and held constant at Float charging voltage level in order to prevent damage and keep
battery at a full charge until the end of day.
How does overcharging damage the battery?
When the battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. If energy continues to be applied at the full
rate, the battery voltage gets too high. Water separates into hydrogen and oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. There is
excessive of water and a chance that gasses can ignite and cause a small explosion. The battery will also degrade rapidly
and may possibly overheat. Excessive voltage can also stress your loads or cause your inverter to shut off.

What type of inverter do I need?

Inverters are used in any solar PV systems where AC power output is needed. The type and size of inverter necessary
depends on your application. There are two entirely different types of inverter that based on whether or not utility grid is
available at your location stand-alone (off-grid) inverter and grid tie (on-grid) inverter.
The stand-alone inverters are common used for homes or business applications. It covers a wide range of power capacity.
To determine this you must first calculate the maximum amount of load you will be running on the inverter at one time. The
other is the type of wave form. Sine wave inverter is good for the sensitive electronic equipments. It generally produces
power that is similar to the quality of utility power. Modified sine wave inverter is fine for loads that are not supersensitive to
clean power. It is good choice for smaller sized PV system.
What is grid tie or grid connected inverter?
Grid tie inverter or grid connected inverter is used in solar PV system that is connected to the utility grid. It converts DC
power generated by solar panels or wind generator into AC power used by AC electrical devices and the surplus power will
sell back to the grid. The grid tie inverter can use with/without battery bank. For the grid-tie without battery backup is the
simplest and least expensive option for home energy systems. The grid tie inverter also can be configured with a battery
backup system. There will be some loss in overall efficiency for feeding the grid which depends on the inverter and the size
and type of batteries.
How Lighting Energy Saver can help you save the money?
Lighting Energy Saver reduces electricity supplied to your lighting system and provides high energy efficiency energy saving.
Your lamps will prolong life and generate less heat resulting in less air conditioning bills.
What kind of lamp that Lighting Energy Saver is applicable to? How much it can save?
Lighting Energy Saver is applicable to fluorescent lamps and gas-discharged lamps, such as high-pressure sodium lamps,
low-pressure sodium lamps, metal halide lamps, etc. The rate of energy saving of each lamp type shows below.
High-pressure sodium lamp save 45% - 50%
Low-pressure sodium lamp save 35%
Metal halide lamp save 40%
Fluorescent lamp with choke ballast save 25% - 30%
Fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast save 30% - 40%
Compact fluorescent lamp save 30% - 40%

Leonics Support

 FAQ
Energy Conservation
Products
Energy Conservation
Systems
Energy Conservation Guide
How to Design Solar PV
System
Basics of Solar Cell
Basics of MPPT Solar
Charge Controller
Advantages of Solar
Power

Power Quality Guide

Understanding Electricity
Basics of Current
Basics of Surge Protector
Choosing a Surge
Protector

http://www.leonics.com/support/support/support_en.php
http://www.homepower.com/

Solar Photovoltaic System or Solar Power System is a system which uses PV modules to convert sunlight into
electricity. The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one or
more other electricity generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV systems are very reliable and clean source
of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock, etc.

Solar Island Hybrid Power System or Hybrid Solar System combines PV systems with diesel generator or
otherrenewable energy supply e.g. wind turbine to supply continuous electric power. The Hybrid system is
suitable for the remote areas or islands where the cost of expansion utility grid is high.
Solar Farm also known as PV power farm, BIPV and Roof top PV system is typically called for the large scale
centralized PV grid tie system that can produce large scale of electricity from sun and sell electricity back to the
utility grid, simulated by government incentives (different campaign in each country).
Stand-alone Solar Power System operates independent of the electric utility grid and most often use in remote
areas where the utility grid is not available. Stand-alone system is used to power remote home, school or village.
Solar Grid Tie System or Grid connected System is connected to utility grid and feeds power back into the grid.
Grid tie system varies in size from residential to solar power stations.
Solar Home System is a stand-alone system, suitable for residential applications such as home appliances,
lighting, computer and water pump. Solar home system is generally designed and sized to supply DC and/or AC
electrical appliances.

http://www.homepower.com/
ASK THE EXPERTS: Voltage Drop
Share
EmailPrint
By:
Justine Sanchez
Published In:
Issue #153, February / March 2013

Inside this Article

Resistance Table for Stranded Uncoated Copper Wire

Voltage drop is a function of voltage (regardless of DC or AC), amperage, distance, and the resistance of
the wire.
Is there a different voltage drop calculation for direct current (DC) as opposed to alternating
current (AC)? I have a project that will take my solar-electric module string wires about 300 to 400
feet, carrying 9 amps at 480 volts DC. What size of wire do you recommend, and how do I
calculate that?
Rance Macdonald Denver, Colorado
There is not a different calculation for AC versus DC voltage drop. Voltage drop is a function of voltage
(regardless of DC or AC), amperage, distance, and the resistance of the wire.
This equation calculates voltage drop by percentage:

By rearranging the voltage drop equation, you can solve for a specific ohms/Kft. value. Then, you can use
the National Electrical Code (NEC) Chapter 9, Table 8, to find the wire size having an ohm/Kft. value that
does not exceed the calculated ohms/Kft. value.

Lets say you are aiming for a maximum voltage drop of 2%. Assuming 480 V, 9 A, and 400 ft., you have:

On the NEC table, we find that #10 AWG stranded (uncoated) copper yields 1.24 Ohms/Kft., less than
1.33. This means we can use #10 AWG or larger diameter wire and not exceed a 2% voltage drop.

Design Tools : System Sizing Estimator

http://www.freesunpower.com/

Detailed Instructions for the System Sizing Estimator.

Step 1 is to calculate the daily WattHour usage of each item. This is done by multiplying the item
wattage by the number of hours used each day. The wattage of a UL listed/approved appliance
can usually be found near the AC power cord. Sometimes only the voltage (120) and amps
(example 1.5) are given. No problem. Simply multiply 120 x 1.5 and you have watts, 180 in this
example. P=E*I This is the power formula from Ohm's Law.
SPECIAL NOTE: In the case of refrigerators, freezers, and similar appliances, keep in mind that although they are on
24 hours per day, they actually cycle on and off and really only run about 1/3 of the time. The more times you open
the door, the longer they run. In the Estimator, this is figured into the equation.

Step 2 is to add up the WattHour results for all of your appliances. This will give you the total
daily WattHours required.
Step 3 is to assume that you want at least 3 days of operation before the batteries need to be
recharged. So you multiply the total daily WattHours by 3. In practice, you will only have to be
concerned about this in bad weather or winter. See Meters and Monitors for more about keeping
an eye on things.
Step 4 is to find the total battery capacity required by multiplying the 3 day WattHour figure by
2. This way, if you run for 3 days without recharging, you will only discharge the batteries to
about 50% capacity. You can greatly increase performance and battery life by not going below
50% charge. (except of course for emergencies) Get more information about this in the Storage
Batteries tutorial.
SPECIAL NOTE: You can combine step 3 & 4 by simply multiplying the total daily WattHours (from step 2) by 6.

Step 5 will calculate the size of the battery bank in AmpHours. We use AmpHours because this is
how batteries are rated. (Kind of how much fuel they can hold). This is figured by dividing
the total battery capacity required (from step 4) by your system battery voltage, usually 12, 24,
or 48 volts. Simply stated, the higher battery voltage you use, the smaller (and therefore cheaper)
size copper wire can be used to connect the solar panels to the batteries. (The Wires and
Cables tutorial has a chart for calculating wire sizes.) Here is an example of this calculation: The
default values in the Estimator give you a total battery capacity of 21120/12 volts = 1760
AmpHours. Then divide the 1760 AmpHours by the 105 AmpHour rating of a typical 12 volt
battery (1760/105 = about 17). In this example you would need about 17 batteries rated at 12
volts & 105 AmpHours each. More information is available in the Watts & Power tutorial.
Step 6 is to determine the number of solar panels you'll need. For this step you will divide your
total daily WattHours by your solar panel wattage times the hours of sunshine. Example: 3520/
(90*5)=8. The Estimator uses the value of 450. This assumed a 90 watt solar panel times 5 hours
average daily sunshine for mid latitudes in the US. So, using the Estimator's default selections as
an example, you get 3520 daily WattHours divided by 450 = 8 solar panels rounded up to the next
panel. See Solar Radiation to find the number of average daily hours of sunshine for your area.
DISCLAIMER : Alway make sure that all of your equipment is properly fused and grounded for
safety. Also, be sure to read and follow the advice and instructions that come with your
equipment. Additionally, our Design Tools, while reasonably accurate, are not meant as a

substitute for the recommendations of a licensed electrician. We provide these Design Tools
as a guide only and to assist in the explanation of the information presented. We do not
warrant their accuracy where equipment is improperly installed or operated under extreme
or unusual conditions.

Detailed Instructions for using the Wire Size Calculator

Step 1 - The first step is to decide on the voltage for your system: 12, 24, or 48 volts. The main issue is the wire
size needed for the (usually) fairly long run to the Solar Panels. Simply stated, the higher the voltage, the smaller
the wire size that is needed to carry the current. The formula P=E*I says that the wattage/power P is equal to the
voltage E times the current I in a circuit. So, you can see that as the voltage goes up the current goes down since
E*I always = P. (More details on formulas are available under Watt & Power). Less current means smaller (less
expensive) wire. So, as a general rule, you would normally choose a higher system voltage. The only reason not to
would be if you planned on using lots of 12 volts DC only equipment. Also, keep in mind that whatever system
voltage you decide on 12, 24, or 48, all of your equipment must work on this voltage. If you choose 24 volts for
example, your solar panels, charge controller, inverter, and battery bank will all need to be 24 volts. By playing
with the numbers in the Wire Size Calculator you can get an idea of what voltage will be best for your system.
Step 2 - Next, enter the maximum amps/amperage that your solar panels will produce. This will be the rating of
one panel times the number of panels in your array. If you put two 12 volt panels in series to increase the voltage
to 24 volts, you would count the two panels as one. The same would be true if wiring two 24 volt panels to equal
48 volts. The reason for this is that in a series circuit the voltage increases, but the current or amperage stays the
same. More details on this are available under Battery Wiring Diagrams which explains series and parallel wiring.
For example: 10 solar panels rated at 5 amps at 12 volts. You want a 24 volt system so you wire 2 panels in series
to make 24 volts. You do this 5 times. The 5 pairs will be wired in parallel where the current adds to give you 5
sets times 5 amps per set equals 25 amps. Enter the 25 as the maximum amps your wires need to carry.
Step 3 - This is the distance in feet from your solar panels to the charge controller and battery bank location. Even
though you will actually be running 2 wires, one negative & one positive, do NOT double the distance. The Wire
Size Calculator assumes this and does it for you in the calculation.
Step 4 - The loss you will get in the transmission of the electrical power from your solar panels to your equipment
location is due to the resistance of the wire. This cannot be avoided. A common practice is to use 3, 4, & 5 percent
figures for 12, 24, and 48 volt systems respectively. I like the 3 percent choice for all systems, but even 5 percent is
not too bad. The Wire Size Calculators' answers are based on copper wire using the standard AWG (American
Wire Gauge) sizes. Also note that 00, 000, and 0000 gauges (generally refered to as 2/0, 3/0 and 4/0 are
progressively larger in size and are represented in the Wire Size Calculator as -1, -2, and -3. If you enter numbers
that would result in sizes larger than -3 (pretty darn big), you will get an error message to that effect. In this case,
the best response would be to increase system voltage (resulting in less current required) or/and increase the
percent of loss.
By the way, a -3 size wire (4/0) is pretty large and if used in a 48 volt system with a 5% loss factor, you could
move 100 amps over 250 feet. This would be a VERY large system. The calculator does not fiqure systems larger
than this. Whatever gauge wire you use, you must also make sure it is capable of carrying the amount of current
your system will produce.

How to Design a Solar PV System 101: The Basic Terms

Want a basic technical understanding of solar PV project terminology? Read on

If youre an experienced installer, none of this information will be new to you. If

youre brand new to solar, it will be helpful. But keep in mind, well be skimming the
surface.
Were going to begin with the basic terms. This is very important for design because
you need to understand the concepts before you start applying real numbers to a
design. It will also help with sales because it will help you explain some basic terms
to curious customers.
Performing high quality and efficient site visits is absolutely critical to the success of
profitable solar projects, especially residential projects! You need to be able to capture
all of the information you need to 1) quote the system correctly 2) design the project
and 3) inform the installation crew what to expect. An efficient site visit process will
lead to smooth operations and profitable jobs while complex process can lead to
unprofitable jobs and a lot of confusion.
Power
Power is an AMOUNT of energy. Its the measurement of energy, measured in
kilowatts (kW). Power is measured in an instant. Most of the sizing done in solar PV

design; conductors, inverters, fuses, the size of the solar rates is based on how much
power will be passing through a specific component of the system. Because power is
measured in an instant, it can vary widely over time and from minute to minute.
Power (watts) = current (Amps) X voltage (volts)
Energy
Energy is the is the actual work done by power. It is measure in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Consumers pay for kWh. Its a measure of power over time.
Power (kW) X Time (hours) = Energy (kWh)
Current
Electricity is the flow of negatively charged electrons. The current is the amount of
negatively charged electrons in a specific part of a circuit.
Many people find it useful to use a water analogy when discussing electrical terms. In
the water example, its useful to think of a dam with a pipe at the bottom that water
can flow out of. The amount of water that can pass through a slice of the pipe, in
other words the area of the cross section of the pipe, is analogous to electric current.
Voltage
Voltage is a measure of the force or pressure of the electric current in a circuit. Its
measured in volts. Electrons of the same material WANT to be homogeneous, i.e.
they want to be evenly spread out. Thus, if one area has less electrons then another,
the electrons will move in an attempt to equalize. This flow is what created a voltage
potential and causes electrons to move.
To use the water example with a dam. If the size of the pipe at the bottom of a dam is
a measure of current, the height of the dam is a measure of voltage. The higher the
water is one on side of the dam versus the other, the more pressure there is.
Resistance

Electrical Resistance is the resistance of the flow of electricity through a conductor. It

does not reduce the current flow of electrons (how many electrons there are in the
circuit) but it does reduce the voltage (how fast theyre going, remember the dam
example). It is measured in ohms.
Voltage Drop (volts) = Current (amps) X Resistance (ohms)
Series Circuit
A series circuit is when one negative and positive of each power source or appliance,
are connected together.
Remember, CURRENT is constant and Voltage ADDS in series circuits.

Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, all of the positives are connected together and the negative are
connected together, each separate.
In parallel circuits, CURRENT ADDS and voltage stays constant.

AC Current
AC refers to alternating current. It refers to electrical systems where the voltage and
current are constantly changing between positive and negative. A complete cycle is
completed when when the current reaches returns to either the peak, or trough of the
wave. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and is measured in number of cycles per
second. The power in the US is operated at 60 Hz.

DC Current

DC means direct current. DC is the type of electricity where the voltage and current
stay constant over time. Typical DC applications are batteries, solar modules, and
wind turbines.

Calculating and Correcting Solar Resource

Irradiance
Irradiance is the amount of solar radiation falling on a particular area at any given
time. It is a RATE. Its a measure of POWER, in that its an instantaneous term that
does not consider time. Remember the difference between power and energy.
It is measured in watts per square meter.
Irradiation
Irradiation is a measure of solar energy, the amount of irradiance that falls on a
location over time.
Irradiation is measured in kWh / square meter / day.
Irradiation was formerly called insolation.
Solar Energy in the US
The below pictures shows that amount of solar irradiation that falls on the various
surfaces across the US depending on average local weather circumstances.

Horizontal Tilt
The tilt angle from the sun is the angle from the horizon to the sun. Solar PV modules
will produce the most energy when the sun is shining directly onto them, from a 90
degree angle. Thus, all else equal, for fixed PV modules the best tilt angle will be the
same as the latitude of the site. For example, if the PV site is at 44 N, the best tilt will
be 44 degrees. However, most roofs and and commercial racking are not at 44
degrees, so you must apply correction factors for projects that are not at perfect tilts.
We will discuss this in a later article.
Azimuth
The azimuth is the number of degrees from true south that the sun, or another object,
is facing. Its used when designing a solar PV system because due south will provide
the best production, all else equal, over the course of a year. Were not going to get
into tracking systems in this series so all of our arrays will be fixed. However, if the
object is not directly south, you will need to apply correction factors that we will get
to in later articles.

Magnetic Declination
Keep in mind that if youre doing site visits with a magnetic compass you will need to
correct your magnetic readings to find truth south. The process is simple.
Determine your declination by look at diagram like the one below and determining
your location.

If youre location has a eastern declination, youll need to add the numbers to reading.
If from the west, subtract.
EAST Subtract. If youre compass reading was 190 degrees and you lived in San
Francisco, about 17 degrees east, you would need to subtract 17 degrees to find true
south. Youre TRUE SOUTH reading is 173 degrees.
WEST ADD. If you live in Belfast, Maine (about 19 degrees west) and your compass
reading was 165 degrees, you would need to ADD 19 degrees to get TRUE SOUTH
of 184 degrees.

Solar Module Terms: The below terms are terms you will need to understand when
sizing your system.
Voc: Volts open circuit is the maximum voltage a solar module can ever make when it
has no load on it. Voc is used when sizing solar arrays along with temperature
coefficients to determine worst case voltage scenarios.
Vmp: Volts maximum power is the reading of the maximum volts a module can
produce when under load under standing testing condition, STC, irradiance levels
(1000 W / M2) . If you look at the below curve, the Vmp would be somewhere in
curve on the right in the bend. It will be on the place in the curve the creates the most
power (volts times amps). The number is actually rather to difficult to calculate
exactly and can change rapidly from second to second as the current changes.

Isc: Amps short circuits it the maximum amount of amps that a solar module could
produce. You will find Isc on the x axis of the above graph where there is no voltage
and thus no power being produced.
Imp: Amps max power, like volts max power, is the current point on the power curve
when the module is producing maximum power.
Youll find the above material on the back of every individual solar PV module and it
is standard information that manufacturers and distributors will tell about their

product. Below is a product description for two Sharp modules from AEE Solar. All
the data is public and available on AEEs website.

Temperature and Voltage: Its important to understand the relationship between

temperature and voltage in solar modules for design purposes. While temperature does
have a slight impact on current, its considered to be negligible. However, temperature
has a large impact on voltage. When you are determining the maximum number of
solar modules in a string, based on the inverters acceptable voltage window, you will
need to take into account expected lowest temperature ranges that can increase
voltage.

Irradiance and Current:

Irradiance and current also have a direct relationship. The amount of irradiance falling
on a solar PV module will directly impact the current that module is producing. This
is key for understand when performing designs, and troubleshooting systems.

https://blog.heatspring.com/solar-basics/

http://www.builditsolar.com/

Deciding What Type of System to Install

Grid-Tie vs Off-Grid vs Grid-Tie with Batteries
There are basically three types of PV systems in common use:

Off-Grid Systems:
Off-Grid systems are independent of the utility power grid. They generate
electricity, store it, and make it available for use without any connection to the
power grid.
Off-Grid systems use PV panels connected to a Charge Controller to charge a
set of batteries. The stored energy from the batteries is usually converted to
regular 120 volt, AC power by an inverter. But, some small systems just use
the DC power directly from the batteries.
Grid-Tied Systems:
Grid-Tied systems use PV panels to generate DC power. The DC power goes
to a grid interactive (grid-tied) inverter which converts the PV panel DC power
to 240 volt AC power that is compatible with the power grid. The power from
the PV panels goes (via the grid tie inverter) to supply the household power
needs. If the PV system is generating more power than the house can use,
the excess is sent out over the grid to supply others. If the house needs more
power than the PV system can supply, then the extra is drawn from the grid as
usual.
Grid tied systems only work when the grid is up. If the grid power goes out,
the grid tie inverter is required to shut down immediately.
Grid-Tied with Batteries:
A grid tied with batteries system is kind of a mix of the two system. It basically
operates like a grid tied system when the grid is up, but it also charges a set
of batteries. If the grid goes down, the inverter disconnects from the grid (to
protect line workers), but it continues to supply power to the house from the
batteries and inverter -- essentially behaving like an off-grid system when the
grid is down.
Here is a run down on the pros and cons of each system:
Grid-Tie:
Pro:
- Lowest initial cost (because there is no need for batteries and charge
controller)

- Lowest ongoing maintenance cost (no batteries to maintain and replace)

- Simplest to install
- Most efficient (because there are losses associated with charging batteries)
- You can start small and add (with some limitations)
Con:
- No power when the grid is down.
- Access to the utility power grid is required.
Off-Grid:
Pro:
- Provides power independently of the utility grid -- you still have power when
the grid is down.
- Don't have to deal with the utility company
- Can save significantly on initial cost if a long grid extension is needed to get
to your house
- Really encourages conservation and efficiency in the use of electricity -- offgrid people typically get along on far less power than on grid and do it without
any significant life style changes.
Con:
- Higher initial cost (needs a set of batteries and charge controller)
- Higher ongoing time and cost (the cost of batteries over time is significant -some say its about as much as buying grid power)
- A good generator will likely be necessary from time to time
- The system must be large enough to supply your full power needs during the
lowest sun part of the year (although a generator can be used to supplement
during the worst times).
- You are the power company, and responsible for safe and reliable operation,
and maintenance.

Grid-Tie with Battery Backup:

Pro:
- Provides backup power when the utility grid goes down.
- Provides some of the advantages of both systems.
Con:
- Still has a battery system (usually smaller) that is expensive to buy and
maintain.
While I would like to have tried an grid-tie system with batteries, our
conclusion was that it was a lot of extra bother and inefficiency just to have
power during the very few times our grid power is down. Even though we live
in a somewhat rural area, our power has probably been off only at total of
about 10 hours over the last 10 years. We have a small generator that
supplies enough power to run the fridge and a few small things. It seems like
most of the time when we have a power failure, by the time I get the generator
out and gassed up, the power has come back on.
While I would not mind the maintenance involved in keeping a set of batteries
healthy, the fact that the battery set pretty well wipes out any savings the
system would produce and caused it to operate less efficiently made tipped
the scales toward the grid-tie.