SGD Micro Endocrine

1. Discuss the histologic structures of:

A. Artery: Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They are classified
into three types according to their size: large or elastic arteries;
medium (or muscular or distributive) arteries; and small arteries or
arterioles, which are less than 0.5 mm in diameter. These types are all
continuous with one another. A characteristic feature of arteries,
regardless of size, is a well-defined lumen, rounded or oval, maintained
by the muscularity of the vessel wall.
art = artefact
TA = tunica adventitia
TI = tunica intima
TM = tunica media
vv = vasa vasorum
B. Capillary: Capillaries are the smallest diameter vessels and the site
of exchange of metabolites between blood and tissues. Capillaries are
just wide enough to
allow the passage of
red blood cells, only
one cell at a time. (It
is during this
squeezing through the
capillaries that misshapen RBCs, as in
sickle cell anemia and
thalassemia, rupture.)

bv = blood vessel
c = capillary
end = endothelial cell nucl.
nf = nerve fibre
s = nerve cell body

C. Vein: The tunica intima consists of the endothelial lining with its
basement membrane, a small amount of subendothelial connective
tissue and some smooth muscle cells. It blends in with the tunica
media which is relatively thin, and in addition to smooth muscle cells
may contain collagen fibres and some fibroblasts (in contrast with the
media of arteries). The most distinguishing feature of large veins is the
large tunica adventitia. The adventitia is the thickest layer in large
veins and is made of collagen fibres, some elastic fibres and
fibroblasts. Prominent bundles of longitudinally-arranged smooth
muscle are a distinguishing feature.
CT = loose connective
tissue
SM = smooth muscle
bundles of adventitia
TA = tunica adventitia
TM = tunica media

2. Give the different types of:

A. Artery:
Cartoid Artery
The carotid artery is a major artery of the head and neck. There are
two carotid arteries, one on the left and one on the right. From their
origins and for about half their length, the carotid arteries are known
as common carotid arteries . The left carotid arises from the arch of the
aorta, while the right carotid arises as one of the branches of the
bifurcation of the brachiocephalic artery (trunk) into the carotid and
right subclavian artery. The carotids then continue along similar paths
within their respective sides of the neck and skull. At approximately the
level of the third cervical vertebra, the common carotid branches into
the internal and external carotid arteries.
Iliac Artery
The Iliac artery is one of the large arteries supplying blood to the pelvis
and legs. The iliac artery originates from the common iliac artery, with
branches to the inferior epigastric and deep circumflex iliac arteries,
becoming the femoral artery at the inguinal ligament; external iliac
artery.
Femoral artery

The femoral artery is a large artery of the thigh. It is a continuation of

the external iliac artery which comes from the abdominal aorta. The
external iliac artery becomes known as the femoral artery after it
passes the inguinal ligament. For a while at this location, (the femoral
triangle), it can be known as the common femoral, because it has not
yet branched. It usually gives off a branch known as the profunda
femoris or the deep artery of the thigh , while continuing down the
thigh medial to the femur. (The profunda femoris is even closer to the
femur, and is more posterior).
Radial artery
The radial artery is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of
the lateral aspect of the forearm. It arises from the brachial artery and
terminates in the deep palmar arch, which joins with the deep branch
of the ulnar artery. It is palpable on the anterior aspect of the arm over
the carpal bones (where it is commonly used to assess the heart rate
and cardiac rhythm).
B. Capillary:
Capillaries are the smallest and most fragile of the body's blood
vessels. They are responsible for what is known as microcirculation,
meaning that they create a circulatory network within the organs of the
body. There are three different types found in the human body:
continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal. The differences in the various
types is due to their location in the body as well as their particular
function.
The role of the capillary is to connect the arterioles and the venules.
Arterioles are small blood vessels that branch out from arteries, while
the venules branch out from veins. Arteries are the vessels that carry
clean, nutrient- and oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the remainder
of the body. Veins carry the blood back to the heart once the nutrients
have been absorbed by the various cells and tissues of the body. Each
individual capillary does not work alone, as these vessels form a
network in order to carry out their role in the circulatory system.
Continuous capillaries get their name from the fact that the cells
forming them provide a continuous lining with no interruptions. There
are very tight junctions inside of these small blood vessels, which only
allows the smallest of molecules, such as water molecules, to
penetrate through the lining. This type is found in areas of the body
such as the central nervous system, skeletal muscles, and skin.
C. Vein:
The vein wall consists of three layers:
Tunica Adventitia - the strong outer covering of arteries and veins. It is
composed of connective tissue as well as collagen and elastic fibers.

These fibers allow the arteries and veins to stretch to prevent

overexpansion due to the pressure that is exerted on the walls by
blood flow.
Tunica Media - the middle layer of the walls of arteries and veins. It is
composed of muscle and elastic fibers. This layer is thicker in arteries
than in veins.
Intima - the inner layer of arteries and veins. In arteries this layer is
composed of an elastic membrane lining and smooth endothelium
(special type of epithelial tissue) that is covered by elastic tissues.
Veins do not contain the elastic membrane lining that is found in
arteries. In some veins the tunica intima layer also contains valves to
keep blood flowing in a single direction.
3. Discuss the different cells and secretions of islets of langerhans.
The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain
its endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells. Discovered in 1869 by
German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans at the age of 22, the
islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1% to 2% of the mass of
the pancreas. There are about one million islets distributed throughout
the pancreas of a healthy adult human. Each of which measures about
0.2 mm in diameter. Each is separated from the surrounding pancreatic
tissue by a thin fibrous connective tissue capsule which is continuous
with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout the
rest of the pancreas. The combined mass of the islets is 1 to 1.5 grams.
Hormones produced in the islets of Langerhans are secreted directly
into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. In rat islets,
endocrine cell subsets are distributed as follows.
Alpha cells producing glucagon (1520% of total islet cells)
Beta cells producing insulin and amylin (6580%)
Delta cells producing somatostatin (310%)
PP cells (gamma cells) producing pancreatic polypeptide (35%)
Epsilon cells producing ghrelin (<1%)
It has been recognized that the cytoarchitecture of pancreatic islets
differs between species. In particular, while rodent islets are
characterized by a predominant proportion of insulin-producing beta
cells in the core of the cluster and by scarce alpha, delta and PP cells in
the periphery, human islets display alpha and beta cells in close
relationship with each other throughout the cluster.

Islets can influence each other through paracrine and autocrine

communication, and beta cells are coupled electrically to other beta
cells (but not to other cell types).
4. Give the different parts of the cerebrum and briefly discuss their
functions.
The cerebrum (or forebrain), which makes up 75% of the brain by
volume and 85% by weight, is divided by a large groove, known as the
longitudinal fissure, into two distinct hemispheres. The left and right
hemispheres ("left" and "right" refer to the owner's point of view, not
an outside viewer's) are linked by a large bundle of nerve fibres called
the corpus callosum, and also by other smaller connections called
commissures.
Most of the important elements of the cerebrum, are split into
symmetrical pairs in the left and right hemispheres. Thus, we often
speak of the temporal lobes, hippocampi, etc (in the plural), although
this website generally follows the convention of speaking of the
temporal lobe, hippocampus, etc (in the singular), which should
therefore be taken to mean both sides, within both hemispheres. The
two hemispheres look similar, but are slightly different in structure and
perform different functions. The right hemisphere generally controls
the left side of the body, and vice versa, although popular notions that
logic, creativity, etc, are restricted to the left or right hemispheres are
largely simplistic and unfounded.
The cerebrum is covered by a sheet of neural tissue known as the
cerebral cortex (or neocortex), which envelops other brain organs such
as the thalamus (which evolved to help relay information from the
brain stem and spinal cord to the cerebral cortex) and the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland (which control visceral functions,
body temperature and behavioural responses such as feeding,
drinking, sexual response, aggression and pleasure). The cerebral
cortex itself is only 2 - 4 mm thick, and contains six distinct but
interconnected layers. It is intricately grooved and folded into the
familiar convoluted pattern of folds, or gyri, allowing a large surface
area (typically almost 2m2) to fit within the confines of the skull.
Consequently, more than two-thirds of the cerebral cortex is buried in
the grooves, or sulci.
About 90% of all the brains neurons are located in the cerebral cortex,
mainly in the "grey matter", which makes up the surface regions of the
cerebral cortex, while the inner "white matter" consists mainly of
myelinated axons, over 170,000 km of them. As many as five times
that number of glial cells exist to support the active nerve cells.

The cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual

awareness, thought, language and consciousness. It is divided into four
main regions or lobes, which cover both hemispheres: the frontal lobe
(involved in conscious thought and higher mental functions such as
decision-making, particularly in that part of the frontal lobe known as
the prefrontal cortex, and plays an important part in processing shortterm memories and retaining longer term memories which are not
task-based); the parietal lobe (involved in integrating sensory
information from the various senses, and in the manipulation of objects
in determining spatial sense and navigation); the temporal lobe
(involved with the senses of smell and sound, the processing of
semantics in both speech and vision, including the processing of
complex stimuli like faces and scenes, and plays a key role in the
formation of long-term memory); and the occipital lobe (mainly
involved with the sense of sight). The medial temporal lobe (the inner
part of the temporal lobe, near the divide between the left and right
hemispheres) in particular is thought to be involved in declarative and
episodic memory. Deep inside the medial temporal lobe is the region of
the brain known as the limbic system, which includes the
hippocampus, the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, the thalamus, the
hypothalamus, the epithalamus, the mammillary body and other
organs, many of which are of particular relevance to the processing of
memory.
The hippocampus, for example, is essential for memory function,
particularly the transference from short- to long-term memory and
control of spatial memory and behaviour. The amygdala also performs
a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions
and social and sexual behaviour, as well as regulating the sense of
smell.
Another sub-cortical systems (inside the cerebral cortex) which is
essential to memory function is the basal ganglia system, particularly
the striatum (or neostriatum) which is important in the formation and
retrieval of procedural memory.
5. Give the histologic structure layers and cellular contents of the
cerebrum.
The Cerebral Cortex
This is a sheet of neurons and their interconnections.
It plates the corrugated surface of the cerebral hemispheres in a layer
that is only a few millimetres thick.
This thin layer of grey matter is estimated to contain 30 billion
neurons.

Histology of the Cerebral Cortex

Cortex TypeDescription
Neocortex
> 90% our total cortical area.
6-layered structure.
Referred to as homogentic cortex.
Paleocortex
Covers some restricted parts of the base of the telencephalon
(olfactory areas).
Along with the archicortex, it is refereed to as heterogenic cortex.
It does not have a 6-layered structure.
Archicortex
The hippocampal formation.
Cell Types
There are 2 principal cell types in the neocortex; the stellate (granule)
cells and the pyramidal cells.
Other neocortical cell types include: horizontal cells (of Cajal), fusiform
cells, and cells of Martinotti.

Stellate (Granule) Cells

These come in a wide assortment of shapes.
They are typically small (< 10 micrometres) multipolar neurons.
Their short axons do not leave the cortex.
Stellate cells are the principal interneurons of the neocortex.
Pyramidal Cells
These cells are shaped as they are named.
Pyramidal cells range in size from 10 micrometres in diameter to 70100 micrometres of the giant pyramidal cells (Betz cells) of the motor
cortex.
A long apical dendrite leaves the top of each pyramidal cell and
ascends vertically to the cortical surface.
A series of basal dendrites emerges from nearer the base of the cell
and spreads out horizontally.
The apical dendrites of pyramidal cells are studded with dendritic
spines.
These are numerous small projections that are the preferential site of
synaptic contact.

It has been suggested that dendritic spines may be the sites of

synapses that are selectively modified as a result of learning.
Most or all pyramidal ells have long axons that leave the cortex to
reach either other cortical areas or to various subcortical sites.
Therefore, pyramidal cells are the principal output neurons.
Horizontal Cells (of Cajal)
These ramify within the most superficial cortical layer.
These are prominent during development but most disappear after
birth.
Fusiform Cells
These are found in the deepest cortical layer.
They are spindle-shaped with a tuft of dendrites emerging from each
end of the spindle.
They are, however, otherwise like pyramidal cells with an axon that
leaves the cortex.
Cells of Martinotti
These cells are found in all cortical layers but are more abundant in the
deeper cortical layers.
They are unusual in the fact that they have an axon that ascends to
the surface.
Cortical Layers
Number
Name
I
Molecular layer
II
External granular layer
III
External pyramidal layer
IV
Internal granular layer
V
Internal pyramidal layer
VI
Multiform (polymorphic layer)
The cells of the neocortex are arranged as a 6-layered structure though
these layers are more prominent in some areas that others.
The most superficial is the cell-poor molecular layer and the deepest is
the multiform (polymorphic) layer, which is populated largely by
fusiform cells.
Between these two layers are 4 layers that are alternatively mostly
populated by stellate or pyramidal cells.
The six neocortical layers are not equally prominent everywhere.
In the motor cortex, layers II-V are dominated by large pyramidal cells
to the extent that individual layers are no longer obvious.

Because of the apparent lack of stellate cells, this type of cortex is

known as agranular.
In contrast, the primary sensory cortex projects mainly to cortical
regions and does not give rise to many long axons.
Layers II-V are thus dominated by small stellate cells and pyramidal
cells.
This type of cortex is thus known as granular cortex or koniocortex (G.
konia, dust).
The agranular and granular types of cortex are collectively called
heterotypical.
There is a continuum of structure types ranging between the thick (4.5
mm) agranular cortex to the think (1.5 mm) granular cortex.
The intermediate types of cortex in which the 6-layered structure can
be seen is called homotypical cortex.
Cortical Connections
Layer Afferent Input
Efferent Output
I
Association nuclei (thalamic)
II
Other cortical areas
III
Other cortical areas
Corticocortical fibres
IV
Thalamic nuclei (e.g., VPL, VPM, VA)
V
Corticostriate and fibres to brainstem and spinal cord
VI
Intralaminar nuclei (thalamic) Corticothalamic fibres
Afferents from other cortical sites may arise in:
The same hemisphere (association fibres);
Or in the contralateral hemisphere (commissural fibres).
Corticocortical Fibres
Most efferents to the cortex of the contralateral hemisphere pass
through the corpus callosum.
Those interconnecting parts of the temporal lobes traverse the anterior
commissure.
The efferents to the ipsilateral cortical areas come in all lengths:
There are very short ones that never leave the cortex;
Or U-shaped fibres that dip under one sulcus to reach the next gyrus;
And longer association fibres that travel to a different lobe.
Commissural Fibres
Corpus Callosum
This is the largest fibre bundle in the human brain.
It contains more than 300 million axons.

Most of these fibres interconnect mirror-image sites, but a substantial

number end in different areas from those in which they arise.
Nearly all cortical areas receive commissural fibres.
There are a few notable exceptions to this including:
The hand area of the somatosensory cortex;
And all of area 17 not representing areas adjacent to the vertical
midline.
Anterior Commissure
The commissural fibres to and from much of the temporal lobe pass
through this, especially those of the middle and inferior temporal gyri.
Association Fibres
The longer association fibres collection into well-defined bundles that
can be found in gross dissections.
None of the association bundles are discrete, point-to-point pathways
but rather fibres enter and leave them all along their course.
The most prominent of these bundles are:
The superior longitudinal fasciculus;
The superior and inferior occipitofrontal fasciculi;
And the cingulum.
Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
This is also known as the arcuate fasciculus.
It sweeps along in a great arc above the insula.
It travels from the frontal lobe to the posterior portions of the
hemisphere where it fans out among the parietal, occipital, and
temporal lobes.
Superior Occipitofrontal Fasciculus
It runs between the frontal and occipital lobes parallel to the corpus
callosum and the caudate nucleus.
It is thus also known as the subcallosal bundle.
Inferior Occipitofrontal Fasciculus
This passes below the insula.
It is from the frontal lobe, passes through the temporal lobe, and back
to the occipital lobe.
Its fibres fan out at both ends of the fasciculus.
Those fibres that hook around the lateral sulcus to interconnect the
orbital cortex and the anterior temporal cortex are often considered
separately as the uncinate fasciculus (L. uncus, hook).

Cingulum
This courses within the cingulate gyrus.
It also continues around the parahippocampal gyrus and to nearly
complete a circle.
6. Discuss the circle of willis.
The circle of Willis (circulus arteriosus cerebri) is an anastomotic
system of arteries that sits at the base of the brain. The circle was
named after Thomas Willis by his student Richard Lower. Willis was the
author of Cerebri Anatome, a book that described and depicted this
vascular ring. Although such a vascular ring had been described
earlier, the name Willis has been eponymously propagated.
The circle of Willis encircles the stalk of the pituitary gland and
provides important communications between the blood supply of the
forebrain and hindbrain (ie, between the internal carotid and
vertebrobasilar systems following obliteration of primitive embryonic
connections). A complete circle of Willis is present in most individuals,
although a well-developed communication between each of its parts is
identified in less than half of the population.
Function
The Circle of Willis provides multiple paths for oxygenated blood to
supply the brain if any of the principal suppliers of oxygenated blood
(i.e., the vertebral and internal carotid arteries) are constricted by
physical pressure, occluded by disease, or interrupted by injury. This
redundancy of blood supply is generally termed collateral circulation.
Location
Found on the inferior brain surface surrounding the pituitary gland
which was cut off to show the circle. The stalk of the pituitary remains
highlighted in aqua. The optic nerves are also cut (yellow ).

Photo Explanation
The arteries on the right side are easily viewed. The left side of the
circle is folded but the middle cerebral artery (f) is seen disappearing
into the temporal lobe. The vertebral arteries that lead into the basilar
artery (e) have been cut off.

Circle of Willis Arteries

a. anterior cerebral artery

b. internal carotid artery
c. posterior communicating artery
d. posterior cerebral artery
e. basilar artery
f. middle cerebral artery
g. anterior communicating artery
(minute connection between the
left and right anterior cerebral
arteries)

7. Enumerate and discuss the center for consciousness.

Consciousness is the quality or state of being aware of an external
object or something within oneself. It has been defined as: sentience,
awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel,
wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control
system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many
philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition
about what consciousness is. As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider
wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness: "Anything that we
are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness,
making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most
mysterious aspect of our lives."
Philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to
comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential
properties. Issues of concern in the philosophy of consciousness
include whether the concept is fundamentally valid; whether
consciousness can ever be explained mechanistically; whether nonhuman consciousness exists and if so how it can be recognized; how

consciousness relates to language; whether consciousness can be

understood in a way that does not require a dualistic distinction
between mental and physical states or properties; and whether it may
ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to
be conscious.
At one time consciousness was viewed with skepticism by many
scientists, but in recent years it has become a significant topic of
research in psychology and neuroscience. The primary focus is on
understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for
information to be present in consciousnessthat is, on determining the
neural and psychological correlates of consciousness. The majority of
experimental studies assess consciousness by asking human subjects
for a verbal report of their experiences (e.g., "tell me if you notice
anything when I do this"). Issues of interest include phenomena such
as subliminal perception, blindsight, denial of impairment, and altered
states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs or spiritual or
meditative techniques.
In medicine, consciousness is assessed by observing a patient's
arousal and responsiveness, and can be seen as a continuum of states
ranging from full alertness and comprehension, through disorientation,
delirium, loss of meaningful communication, and finally loss of
movement in response to painful stimuli. Issues of practical concern
include how the presence of consciousness can be assessed in severely
ill, comatose, or anesthetized people, and how to treat conditions in
which consciousness is impaired or disrupted