ANDHR LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada)

(An ISO 9001:2008 certified Institution)
VIJAYAWADA - 520008
ANDHRA PRADESH
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATION LAB

MANUAL / OBSERAVTION
II B.Tech. (II SEMESTER)

STUDENT NAME:
ROLL NO:
ACADEMIC YEAR:

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LABSYLLABUS

List of Experiments [twelve experiments to be done]
[a).Hardware, b). Matlab Simulink, c). MATLAB Communication tool box]
A. Amplitude Modulation Mod. & Demod
B. AM-DSB SC- Mod & Demod.
C. Spectrum Analysis of Modulated signal using Spectrum Analyzer
D. Diode Detector
E. Pre emphasis & De-emphasis.
F. Frequency Modulation Mod & Demod.
G. AGC Circuits.
H. Sampling Theorem.
I. Pulse Amplitude Modulation Mod. & Demod.
J. PWM, PPM Mod & Demod.
K. PLL
Equipments & Software required:
Software:
i. Computer Systems with latest specifications
ii. Connected in LAN (Optional)
iii. Operating system (Windows ZP)
iv. Simulations software (Simulink & MATLAB)
Equipment:
1. RPS 0-30V
2. CRO 0-20MHz
3. Function Generators 0-1MHz
4. Components
5. Multimeters
6. Spectrum Analyzer

Exp. No.:

Date:
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim: To study the amplitude modulation and demodulation for different

modulation index
Apparatus Required:
1. Resistors

10k

- 3

22k - 1
100k - 1
2. Capacitor

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

0.01 f

- 1

0.001 f

- 1

0.1 f

- 1

Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V DC - 1

C.R.O.
Function Generators - 2
Diode - IN4007.
Transistor - BC107.
Connecting Wires.

Theory:
Modulation is defined as process in which changing the characteristics
usually amplitude, frequency and phase of high frequency wave (Carrier wave) by
using instantaneous values of the low frequency signal (modulating signal).
Need for modulation:
3.1.1

Antenna height and operating frequencies are related each

other. So antenna heights are comparable to the quarter wavelengths. For
usual audio frequencies antenna heights are unthinkable and
impracticable.

3.1.2

Audio frequencies are directly transmitted when there is a

possibility of mixing with the other frequencies in nearby station.

3.1.3

If high frequency signals are directly transmitted there is no

varying parameter compared to the audio frequency

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which changing the

amplitude of the Carrier wave by using the instantaneous voltages of the
modulating signal. In this carrier signal frequency remains constant.
Circuit Diagram:
1. Modulation:

Fig: AM Modulator

2. Demodulation:

Fig: AM Demodulator

Tabular Forms:
1.

Modulation:
Vc(V)

Vm(V)

Vmax(V)

Vmin(V)

m=(Vmax-Vmin) /
(Vmax+Vmin)

%m=m*100

2. Demodulation:
Amplitude

Time Period

Frequency

Model Waveforms:

Modulating
Signal

Carrier
Signal

AM modulating
Signal(M<1)

AM modulating
Signal(M=1)

AM modulating
Signal(M>1)

De-modulated
Signal

Fig: Waveforms for AM

Procedure:
1. Switch on the power supply through mains cards.
2. Observe the modulating signal on CRO and set the modulating voltage to 2v
and frequency to 1.56 kHz.
3. Observe the carrier signal on CRO and set the carrier voltage to 2.6V and
frequency to 1.66 kHz.
4. Connect the carrier and modulating signals to modulator and also connects
the output of modulator to CRO and note down the wave forms.
5. Find out the maximum and minimum voltages from CRO and from these
values calculate modulation index by using the above formula.
6. Repeating the above procedure for different modulation index and draw the
wave forms.
7. Connect the amplitude modulated signal to the demodulator.
8. Connect the CRO across the output terminals of the demodulator.
9. Observe the wave forms the modulating signal for different modulation
index.
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Check for loose contacts of wires and components.

Keep all the control knobs in the minimum position.
Before switch on the power supply get the circuit connections.
Adjust the control knobs smoothly.
After taking the readings bring back all the control knobs to minimum position.
6. Switch off the power supply before leaving the experimental table.
Result:

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No:

Date:
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim: To conduct a suitable experiment to generate a wave using IC 8038, to find

modulation index, band width and demodulate the wave.
Apparatus Required:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Regulated power supply

CRO
Function generator
IC 8038
Capacitors
0.1f
0.01f

6. Resistors

7.

-1
-1
-1

10k

-4

100k

-1

1.5k

-1

IC 565

-1

8. Connecting Wires.
Theory:
FM Modulation is a non-linear modulation technique. In FM the frequency
of carrier is varied in accordance with amplitude of modulating signal (AF signal).
But amplitude is maintained constant. Since the variation in phase angular term it
is comes under angle modulation scheme, the most important feature of FM
modulation is that it can be provide better discrimination against noise and
interference than AM. The disadvantage of FM is it requires more transmission
bandwidth than AM and we transmit the FM signals to longer distances.
The quantity Kf represents frequency sensitivity of modulator. Hence Kf

Am represents the total deviation f. The ratio of max frequency deviation to

modulating frequency defines as modulation index, which is given by
Max frequency deviation
Modulation index

------------------------------------------Modulating frequency

If Modulation index is less than one then the modulated wave is called
Narrow Band FM signal. If Modulation index is greater than one then the
modulated wave is called Wide Band FM signal.
Circuit Diagram:
1. Modulation:

Fig: Frequency Modulation Circuit

2. Demodulation:

Fig: Frequency Demodulation Circuit

Model Waveforms:

Modulating Signal
t

Carrier Signal
t

FM Modulating
Signal

Demodulated Signal

Fig: FM waveforms

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. By switching OFF modulating signal note down the carrier frequency at P in-1
to Pin-2 of IC 8038.
3. Apply the modulating signal with suitable amplitude, to get undistorted FM
wave.
4. Note down the maximum and minimum frequency of carrier in FM signal (f cmax,
fcmin).
5. Find the values of frequency modulation, deviation modulation index and
bandwidth.

fcmax= fc(1+KVm) Hz
fcmin=fc(1+(-k)Vm) Hz
=fc(1-KVm) Hz
1=(fcmax-fc ) Hz
2=(fc-fcmin) Hz
=max (1,2 ) Hz
Modulation Index= = /fm
Carrier swing= T =2 Hz
Precautions:1. Loose connections should be avoided.
2. IC terminals should be observed clearly before making connections.
Result:-

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No.:

Date:
SAMPLING THEOREM

Aim: To study and verify the sampling theorem and reconstruction of sampled
wave form.
Apparatus Required:
1. Sampling Theorem Trainer kit.

2. Function Generator
3. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
4. Connecting Wires.

Theory:
The analog signal can be converted to a discrete time signal by a process
called sampling. The sampling theorem for a band limited signal of finite energy
can be stated as,
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency component
higher than W Hz is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at
instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds.
It can be recovered from knowledge of samples taken at the rate of 2W per
second.

Circuit Diagram:
1. Signal Sampling:

Fig: Sampling Trainer Kit

2. Signal Reconstruction:

Fig: Reconstruction circuit

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply the input signal with a frequency of 1KHZ using a function generator.
3. Sampling clock frequency which is variable of 500KHZ should be connected
across the terminals which indicated.
4. Now observe the sampling output at the circuit.
5. By using the capacitors provided on the trainer reconstruct the signal it with the
given input.
6. Reconstructed the signal voltage will be depend on capacitor value.
7. Vary the signal frequency and study the change in reconstructed signal.
8. If the sampling frequency clock frequency is below 2KHZ you will observe
distorted output.

Model Waveforms:

Fig: Sampling Theorem Waveforms

Precautions:

1. Handle the sampling kit carefully.

2. Avoid short circuit and loose connections.
3. Frequency must be varied carefully.
Result:

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No.:

Date:

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION & DEMODULATION

Aim:- To generate and to demodulate a pulse amplitude modulated wave.
Apparatus Required:
1. Resistors

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

22k

47k

300k

Transistor
BC107
1
Regulated Power Supply
Function Generator
2
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
Connecting Wires.

Theory:
PAM is the simplest form of data modulation. The amplitude of uniformly
spaced pulses is varied in proportion to the corresponding sample values of a
continuous message m(t).
A PAM waveform consists of a sequence of flat-topped pulses. The
amplitude of each pulse corresponds to the value of the message signal x(t) at the
leading edge of the pulse.
The pulse amplitude modulation is the process in which the amplitudes of
regularity spaced rectangular pulses vary with the instantaneous sample values of a
continuous message signal in a one-one fashion. A PAM wave is represented
mathematically as,

Where

x (nTs) - represent the nth sample of the message signal x(t)

K - is the sampling period.
Ka - a constant called amplitude sensitivity
P(t) - denotes a pulse
Circuit Diagram:
1. Modulation:

Fig: Pulse Amplitude Modulation Circuit

2. Demodulation:

Fig: Demodulation Circuit

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. A sine wave of 2V p-p with frequency 1 k HZ is to be applied as a message
signal from function generator.
3. A square wave of 10V p-p and frequency 10 k HZ is applied as a carrier from
function generator.
4. The CRO probe should be connected at the emitter terminal of BC107 for the
output.
5. The value of Vmax & Vmin is to be noted and modulation index should be
calculated using the formula.
m=

(V maxV min)
(V max+ V min)

6. The output should be applied to the demodulator circuit to observe the output of
demodulator circuit.
Model Waveforms:

Fig: PAM waveforms

Precautions:1. The power supply should not power on before wiring the circuit.
2. The terminals of the transistor should be identified properly.
3. Connections are made properly.

4. Loose connections should be avoided.

Result:-

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No.:

Date:
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim: To generate a pulse width modulated wave and Demodulate wave.

Apparatus Required:
1. IC 555
2. Resistors

3. Capacitors

-1
10k

-1

1 M POT

-1

1.6 k

-1

3.1k

-1

0.01F

-3

47F

-1

4. Diode 1N4007

-2

5. Function Generator
6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
7. Regulated Power Supply
8. Connecting Wires.
Theory:
Pulse Time Modulation is also known as Pulse Width Modulation or Pulse
Length Modulation. In PWM, the samples of the message signal are used to vary
the duration of the individual pulses. Width may be varied by varying the time of
occurrence of leading edge, the trailing edge or both edges of the pulse in
accordance with modulating wave. It is also called pulse Duration Modulation.

Circuit Diagram:
1. Modulation:

Fig: PWM Circuit

2. Demodulation:

Fig: PWM Demodulation Circuit

Model Waveform:

Procedure:
1. Connections should be made as per circuit diagram.
2. A sine wave of 2 Vp-p and 1KHZ frequency should be applied as input to 5 th
pin of IC 555 from the function generator.
3. The output should be observed at 3rd pin of IC 555 by adjusting the
potentiometer.
4. If necessary the amplitude and frequency knobs can be adjusted.
5. The output of the modulator circuit should be given as input to the
demodulator circuit.
6. The output of demodulation can be observed.

Tabular Forms:

Message
Voltage
(V)

Time
period
(msec)

Carrier
Voltage(V)

Time
period
(msec)

Modulated wave
Amp(V)

T(msec)

Demodulated Wave
Amp(V)

T(msec)

Precautions:
1. The power supply should not be switched on before wiring the circuit.
2. The terminals of the transistors should be identified properly.
3. The connections should be made correctly.

Result:

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No.:

Date:

PHASE LOCKED LOOP

Aim :To verify the capture range and lock range using IC LM565.
Apparatus Required:
1. IC LM565

-1

2. Resistors

12k

-1

3. Capacitor

10pF

-1

0.01F

-2

4. Function Generator
5. CRO
6. RPS
7. Connecting Wires.
Theory:
The phase locked loop can be used to track the phase and frequency of the
carrier component of an incoming signal. Therefore it is a useful device for
synchronous demodulation of AM. With suppressed carrier, it can be used for the
demodulation of angle-modulated signals, especially under low SNR conditions.
For this purpose PLL is used in such applications as space vehicle to earth data
links and demodulation of commercial FM receivers.
PLL is used ve feed back system, consists of three major components phase
detector, loop filter and VCO. In typical feedback system, the signal is fed back to
follow input signal, if the signal feedback is not equal to the input signal, the
difference will change the signal feedback until it is close to the input signal.

A PLL operates on a similar principle except that the quantity fed back and
compared is not amplitude, but the phase. The VCO adjusts its own frequency until
it is equal to that of the input sinusoid. In practical VCO can generate either
sinusoidal or square signals.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Phase Locked Loop Circuit

Tabular Forms:
Theoretical

Practical

FL
F0
FC

Procedure:1. The connections are to be made as per circuit diagram.

2. The free Running frequency has to be obtained. The square wave should be
given as input and 2nd pin and the input frequency should be varied when the
input signal is located with VCO Output in forward direction the values of input
signal frequency (fc1) is noted down. Again the input signal frequency is varied
and frequency at which the voltage becomes unlocked is noted. The Values of
input Frequency is noted (fc2).
3. The input frequency is reduced in backward direction and frequencies (fc2) at
which the frequency is locked is noted.
4. Using formulae the lock range and capture range are calculated.
Formulae :f0 = 12/(4R1C1)
f L = 8o/V
f c = [f L/(2R1C1)]^1/2
Result :-

VIVA Questions:

Exp. No.:

Date:
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

Aim: To observe the effects of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis on a given input.

Apparatus Required:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Regulated power supply

Function generator
Transistor BC 107
Resistors
82 k
330
75 k
1 k
5. Capacitors
100F
10 F
1 nF
10 nF
6. Inductors
22 MH
7. CRO
8. Connecting Wires.
Theory:

-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1

In FM the interference (The noise) increases linearly with frequency, and the
noise power in the receiver output is concentrated at higher frequency.
At the transmitter, weaker high frequency components of audio signal are
boosted before modulation by pre-emphasis filter. At the receiver, the demodulator
output passed through the De-emphasis filter, which undoes the pre-emphasis by
attenuating the higher frequency components, where most of the noise is
concentrated. The transfer functions of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis (PDE) are
having exact opposite. Thus the process of pre-emphasis and d-emphasis leaves the
desired signal untouched, but reduces the noise power considerably.
The PDE method of reduction is not limited just to FM broadcast, It is also
used in audiotape recording and phonograph (analog) recording. We could also use
PDE in AM broadcasting to improve the SNR, but in practice, this is not done for
some reasons. That is output noise amplitude is constant with frequency, and does

not vary as in FM. Hence de-emphasis does yield such a dramatic improvement in
AM as it does in FM.
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig: Pre-emphasis Circuit

Fig: De-emphasis Circuit

Model Waveforms:

Tabular Forms:
S.No Frequency(Hz) V0 (V)

Gain(Av=V0/Vs)

Gain in dB
20 log Av

Procedure:
1. Connections are to be made as per the circuit diagram.
2. A sinusoidal signal of 20mv should be applied as input signal to the preemphasis circuit.
3. By increasing the frequency from 500 Hz-20 KHz the change in the output
voltage should be noted and the gain is calculated.
4. The previous steps are to be repeated for the de-emphasis circuit.
5. The graph between the gain and frequency has to be drawn.

Precautions:
1. The connections on the bread board should be made properly.
2. The readings are to be noted without parallax error.

Result :-

VIVA Questions:

SOFTWARE

Exp. No.:

Date:
Amplitude modulation and demodulation

Aim: To verify amplitude modulation and demodulation using MATLAB.

Requirement:

MATLAB 7.0.1
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
ac=input(enter amplitude of carrier);%1
am=input(enter amplitude of message);%2
fc=input(enter freq of carrier);%8000
fm=input(enter freq of message);%800
k=input(enter modulation index);%0.3
fs=80000;
t=0:0.00001:0.01;
m=am*sin(2*pi*fm*t);
c=ac*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
s=ac*[1+k*m].*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
figure
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,c);
title(carrier signal);
xlabel(time period);
ylabel(amplitude);
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,m);

title(message signal);
xlabel(time period);
ylabel(amplitude);

subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,s);
title(modulated signal);
xlabel(time period);
ylabel(amplitude);

y=0.5*(ac*ac)*k*m;
%[num,den]=butter(10,fc*2/fs);%lowpass filter
%%y1=ammod(s,Fc,Fs);%Modulate
%s1=ammod(s,fc,fs,0,0,num,den);
%%[num,den]=butter(10,fc*2/fs);
%% y=amdemod(s,fc,fs,0,0,num,den);
Subplot(4,1,4);
Plot(t,y);
title(demodulated signal);
xlabel(time period);
ylabel(amplitude);

Result:

Exp. No.:

Date:
DSB_SC modulation and demodulation

Aim: To verify dsb_sc modulation and demodulation using MAT LAB

Requirement:
MATLAB 7.0.1
Program:
ac=input(enter amplitude of carrier);%1
am=input(enter amplitude of message);%2
fc=input(enter freq of carrier);%800
t=0:0.0001:0.1;
fs=80000;

m=am*sin(2*pi*fm*t);
c=ac*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
v=[am*cos(2*pi*fm*t)]+(am*ac)*[cos(2*pi*(wc-wm)*t)+ cos(2*pi*(wc+wm)*t)];
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,m);
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,c);
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,v);
x=filtfilt(b,a,x);
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,x);

Result:

Exp. No.:
Date:
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
Aim: To verify frequency modulation and demodulation using MATLAB
Requirement:
MATLAB 7.0.1
Program:
Fs=500;%Sampling rate of signal
Fc=50;%Carrier frequency
T=[0:Fs]/Fs;% Sampling times
%t=0:0.0001:0.1;
S1=sin(2*pi*10*t)

S2 = sin(2*pi*15*t)%+2*sin(2*pi*9000*t);%channel2
X = [s1,s2];%Two-channel signal
Dev = 15;%frequency deviation in modulated signal
y=finmod(s1,Fc,Fs,dev);
z= findemod(y,Fc,Fs,dev);
figure
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,s1);
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,s2);
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,y);
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,z);

Result:

Exp. No.:

Date:
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Aim: To verify Pulse Width Modulation using MATLAB

Requirement:
MATLAB 7.0.1
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=0:0.001:1;
s=sawtooth(2*pi*10*t+pi);
m=0.75*sin(2*pi*1*t);

n=length(s);
for i=1:n
if(m(i)>=s(i))
pwm(i)=1;
else if(m(i)<=s(i))
pwm(i)=0;
end
end
plot(t,pwm,-k,t,m,--r,t,s,--b);
title(PWM wave);
axis([0 1 -1.5 1.5]);

Result:

Exp. No.:

Date:
PHASE LOCKED LOOP

Aim: To verify the functioning of a Phase Locked Loop.

Requirement:
MATLAB 7.0.1
Program:
close all;
clear all;
reg1=0;
reg2=0;
reg3=0;
eta=sqrt(2)/2;
theta=2*pi*1/100;
kp=[(4*eta*theta)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
ki=[(4*theta^2)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
d_phi_1=1/20;
n_data=100;
for nn=1:n_data

phi1=reg1+d_phi_1;
phi1_reg(nn)=phi1;
s1=exp(j*2*pi*reg1);
s2=exp(j*2*pi*reg2);
s1_reg(nn)=s1;
s2_reg(nn)=s2;
t=s1*conj(s2);
phi_error=atan(imag(t)/real(t))/(2*pi);
phi_error_reg(nn)=phi_error;
sum1=kp*phi_error+phi_error*ki+reg3;
reg1_reg(nn)=reg1;
reg2_reg(nn)=reg2;
reg1=phi1;
reg2=reg2+sum1;
reg3=reg3+phi_error*ki;
phi2_reg(nn)=reg2;
end
figure(1)
plot(phi1_reg);
hold on
plot(phi2_reg,r);
hold off;
grid on;
title(phase plot);
xlabel(samples);
ylabel(phase);
figure(2)
plot(phi_error_reg);
title(phase error of phase detector);
grid on;
xlabel(samples(n));
ylabel(phase error(degrees));
figure(3)
plot(real(s1_reg));
hold on;
plot(real(s2_reg));
hold off;
grid on;
title(input signal & output signal of VCO);

xlabel(samples);
ylabel(amplitude);
axis([0 n_data -1.1 1.1]);

Result:

SAMPLING THEOREM
AIM: To verify the sampling theorem
Requirement:
MATLAB R2012b
clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=-10:0.01:10;
T=10;
fm=1/T;
x=cos(2*pi*fm*t);

figure
subplot(4,2,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('time in seconds');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('continuous signal');

fs1=1.1*fm;%fs<2fm
fs2=2*fm;%fs=2fm
fs3=10*fm;%fs>2fm

n1=-4:1:4;
xn1=cos(2*pi*n1*fm/fs1);

subplot(4,2,3);
stem(n1,xn1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('sampled signal with fs=1.1fm');

subplot(4,2,4);
plot(n1,xn1);
title('recovered signal with fs=1.1fm');

n2=-5:1:5;
xn2=cos(2*pi*n2*fm/fs2);

subplot(4,2,5);
stem(n2,xn2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('sampled signal with fs=2fm');

subplot(4,2,6);
plot(n2,xn2);
title('recovered signal with fs=2fm');

n3=-20:1:20;
xn3=cos(2*pi*n3*fm/fs3);

subplot(4,2,7);
stem(n3,xn3);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('sampled signal with fs=20fm');

subplot(4,2,8);
plot(n3,xn3);
title('recovered signal with fs=20fm');