Memorandum

Subject

Self-Identification and Non-Discrimination Rights for Minorities

Project

Rohingya Engagement

From

Rachel LaFortune and Doreen Chen, Destination Justice

To

Dr. Maung Zarni

Date

1 July 2016

Question Presented
Istherightofminoritiestoselfidentifyonthebasisoftheirnational,ethnic,religiousandlinguistic
characteristicsrelatedtotheobligationofStatestoensurenondiscriminationagainstindividualsand
groups?

Brief Answer
Yes.Whileminorityrightstonondiscriminationdonottrulyoverlapwiththerighttoselfdetermination,
thenatureofminorityidentityrequirestheactiveprotectionandfacilitationofminoritygroupidentity,and
internationalhumanrightslawimposespositiveobligationsonStatespartiesaccordingly.

Discussion
1.

The Right to Non-Discrimination

Therighttonondiscriminationonthebasisofrace,colour,sex,language,religion,politicalorother
opinion,nationalorsocialorigin,property,birthorotherstatusisenshrinedinArticles1and2ofthe
UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights
(UDHR),inadditiontoArticles2(1)and26ofthe
International
CovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights
(ICCPR),andArticle2(2)ofthe
InternationalCovenanton

Economic,SocialandCulturalRights
(ICESCR)forallpersonswithinaStatepartysterritoryand
subjecttoitsjurisdiction.

TheHumanRightsCommittee(HRC)hasstatedthatthetermdiscriminationasusedintheCovenant
shouldbeunderstoodtoimplyanydistinction,exclusion,restrictionorpreferencewhichisbasedonany
groundsuchasrace,colour,sex,language,religion,politicalorotheropinion,nationalorsocialorigin,
property,birthorotherstatus,andwhichhasthepurposeoreffectofnullifyingorimpairingthe
recognition,enjoymentorexercisebyallpersons,onanequalfooting,ofallrightsandfreedoms.1
However,asnotedbytheCommittee,theenjoymentofrightsandfreedomsonanequalfooting[...]
doesnotmeanidenticaltreatmentineveryinstance.2 Whendealingwithallegedviolationsofarticle26

1
2

HumanRightsCommittee,
GeneralComment18,Nondiscrimination
(37thsession,1989),para7.
H
umanRightsCommittee,
GeneralComment18,Nondiscrimination
(37thsession,1989),para8.
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incommunicationssubmittedundertheOptionalProtocol,theCommitteehasconfirmedthattherightto
equalitybeforethelawandequalprotectionofthelawwithoutanydiscrimination,doesnotmakeall
differencesoftreatmentdiscriminatory.Adifferentiationbasedonreasonableandobjectivecriteriadoes
notamounttoprohibiteddiscriminationwithinthemeaningofarticle26.3 Differentiationsarelawful
providedtheypursuealegitimateaim(likeaffirmativeaction),andarereasonableinthelightofthis
aim. 4
Additionally,itshouldbenotedthattherighttonondiscriminationbasedongenderhasadded
protectionsthathavenotbeennotedinthismemo.Agenderedperspectivecouldprovideanadditional
avenuetoaddresshumanrightsabusesthathaveaparticularimpactonwomeninparticular.

2.

The Right to Self-Determination of Peoples

Therighttoselfdeterminationofpeoples,afundamentalprincipleofinternationallaw,isenshrinedin
article1oftheICESCRandarticle1oftheICCPR.TheICCPRprovidesfortherightsofpeoplesto
selfdeterminationinadditiontotherightofethnic,religiousorlinguisticminoritiestoenjoytheirown
culture,toprofessandpractisetheirownreligionortousetheirownlanguage.5
CCPRGeneralCommentNo.12:Article1
imposesobligationsonStatespartiestofacilitaterealization
ofandrespectfortherighttoselfdetermination,notonlyinrelationtotheirownpeoplesbutalso

visvisallpeopleswhichhavenotbeenabletoexerciseorhavebeendeprivedofthepossibilityof
exercisingtheirrighttoselfdetermination.6Inthisway,theobligationcanbesaidtoextendtopeoples
outsidethejurisdictionofaStateparty.
RecentdecisionsoncasesbroughtagainstCanada,Colombia,Italy,NewZealand,NamibiaandFrance
haveconsolidatedtheCommitteespositionthatnoclaimforselfdeterminationmaybebroughtunder
theOptionalProtocol.7 Butithasbeennotedthatarticle1mayberelevantintheinterpretationofother
rightsprotectedbytheCovenant,inparticulararticles25,26and27.8

3.

Minority rights apply to non-citizens, with the exception of political rights.

Stateshaveanobligationtotoprotecttherightsofallthosesubjecttoorundertheirjurisdictions,
althoughexpressexceptionsarenotedwithregardtopoliticalrights.9Barringthisexception,underthe

CommunicationNo.172/1984,S.W.M.Broeksv.theNetherlands
(Viewsadoptedon9April1987),inUNdoc.
GAOR,A/42/40,p.150,para.13
4

See,e.g.IACourtHR,ProposedAmendmentstotheNaturalizationProvisionsoftheConstitutionofCosta
Rica,AdvisoryOpinionOC4/84ofJanuary19,1984,SeriesA,No.4,pp.104106,paras.5557andEur.Court
HR,CaserelatingtocertainaspectsofthelawsontheuseoflanguagesineducationinBelgium(Merits),
judgmentof23July1968,SeriesA,No.6,p.33,para.9.
5

CERD,
GeneralRecommendationNo.21:Righttoselfdetermination
,para2.
6

CCPR,
GeneralCommentNo.12:Article1:RighttoSelfdetermination
(1984),para6.
7

Vid.MarshalletalvCanada,CommunicationNo.205/1986,Viewsadoptedon4November2006E.P.etalv
Colombia,CommunicationNo.318/1988,Viewsadoptedon25July1990A.B.etalvItaly,CommunicationNo.
413/1990,Viewsadoptedon5November1991R.L.etalvCanada,CommunicationNo.358/1989,Views
adoptedon2November1991.
8

DiergaardtetalvNamibia,CommunicationNo.760/1997,Viewsadoptedon25July2000andGillotetalv
France,CommunicationNo.932/2000,Viewsadoptedon15July2002ApiranaMahuikaetalvNewZealand,
CommunicationNo.547/1993,Viewsadoptedon20October2000.
9

CERD,
GeneralrecommendationXXXondiscriminationagainstnoncitizens
(2005),para3.
3

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Convention,differentialtreatmentbasedoncitizenshiporimmigrationstatuswillconstitute
discriminationifthecriteriaforsuchdifferentiation,judgedinthelightoftheobjectivesandpurposesof
theConvention,arenotappliedpursuanttoalegitimateaim,andarenotproportionaltothe
achievementofthisaim. 10
Itisworthnotingthatthedeprivationofcitizenshipbecauseofnational,ethnic,religiousorlinguistic
characteristicsiscontrarytointernationallaw.Article9ofthe1961ConventionontheReductionof
StatelessnessstatesthataContractingStatemaynotdepriveanypersonorgroupofpersonsoftheir
nationalityonracial,ethnic,religiousorpoliticalgrounds.Inthisway,discriminationagainstapersonon
oneoftheaforementionedgroundsresultinginthearbitrarydeprivationofnationalitymaycontributeto
meetingsomeoftherequirementsinthedeterminationofrefugeestatus.11SeetheConventiononthe
ReductionofStatelessnessfornormspertainingtostatelessness.

4.

Protection for the Existence of Minorities Includes and Requires Respect and Protection
for their Religions, Cultural, and Linguistic Characters

TheonlyobligatorynormregardingthepreservationofminoritiesisArticle27oftheICCPR,which
holds:InthoseStatesinwhichethnic,religiousorlinguisticminoritiesexist,personsbelongingtosuch
minoritiesshallnotbedeniedtheright,incommunitywiththeothermembersoftheirgroup,toenjoy
theirownculture,toprofessandpractisetheirownreligion,ortousetheirownlanguage.
AccordingtotheHumanRightsCommittee,therightsenjoyedunderArticle27oftheCovenantarenot
tobeconfusedwiththerightofselfdeterminationenshrinedinArticle1oftheCovenant.12Nevertheless,
theindividualrightsprotectedunderarticle27depend[...]ontheabilityoftheminoritygrouptomaintain
itsculture,languageorreligion.Accordingly,positivemeasuresbyStatesmayalsobenecessaryto
protecttheidentityofaminorityandtherightsofitsmemberstoenjoyanddeveloptheircultureand
languageandtopractisetheirreligion,incommunitywiththeothermembersofthegroup.13Itshouldbe
notedthattherightsenshrinedinarticle27areconferredtoindividuals(i.e.personsbelongingto
minoritygroups)andthustheyarecognizableundertheOptionalProtocoltotheICCPR.14
TheHRChasinterpretedthescopeofarticle27generously.AccordingtotheirGeneralComment23,
article27establishesandrecognizesaright,whichisconferredonindividualsbelongingtominority
groupsandwhichisdistinctfrom,andadditionalto,alltheotherrightswhich,asindividualsincommon
witheveryoneelse,theyarealreadyentitledtoenjoyundertheCovenant. 15Further,economicactivity
asanessentialelementofthecultureofanethnicgroupcanfallwithinthescopeofculturalrights
protectedbyarticle27. 16

TheHRCalsostatedthatthetermsusedinarticle27indicatethatpersonswho
shareacommonreligion,cultureorlanguagearetobenefitfromthisprotectionandneednotbecitizens

CERD,
GeneralrecommendationXXXondiscriminationagainstnoncitizens
(2005),para4.
S
eeUN,
MinorityRights:InternationalStandardsandGuidanceforImplementation
(2010),p5.
12
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),para2.
13
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),para6.2.
14
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),para3.1.
15
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),para1.
16
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),para7amongotherssee,LubiconLakeBandvCanada,
10
11

CommunicationNo.167/1984,Viewsadoptedon26March1990,para.32.2KitokvSweden,Communication
No.197/1985,Viewsadoptedon27July1988,para.9.2andLnsmanetalvFinland,CommunicationNo.
511/1992,Viewsadoptedon26October1994,para.9.2.

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orpermanentresidentsoftheStateparty.17ThusAStatepartymaynot,therefore,restricttherights
underarticle27toitscitizensalone.18
Morerecently,the
2001DurbanDeclaration
affirmsthattheethnic,cultural,linguisticandreligious

identityofminorities,wheretheyexist,mustbeprotectedandthatpersonsbelongingtosuchminorities
shouldbetreatedequallyandenjoytheirhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomswithoutdiscrimination
ofanykind.19
TheCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsGeneralCommentNo.21
highlightsthe

applicabilityofArticle15.1(a)oftheICESCRontherightofeveryonetotakepartinculturallifefor
minoritygroups.ItholdsthatStatespartiesareobligedtorecognize,respectandprotectminority
culturesasanessentialcomponentoftheidentityoftheStatesthemselves.20
ItisalsoworthnotingthatArticle30ofthe
ConventionontheRightsoftheChild
providesthatinthose

Statesinwhichethnic,religiousorlinguisticminorities[...]exist,achildbelongingtosuchaminority[...]
shallnotbedeniedtheright,incommunitywithothermembersofhisorhergroup,toenjoyhisorher
ownculture,toprofessandpractisehisorherownreligion,ortousehisorherownlanguage.

5.

Racial Discrimination and the rights of minorities to self-identify

Article1ofthe
InternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination
defines
discriminationasanydistinction,exclusion,restrictionorpreferencebasedonrace,colour,descent,or
nationalorethnicoriginwhichhasthepurposeoreffectofnullifyingorimpairingtherecognition,
enjoymentorexercise,onanequalfooting,ofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsinthepolitical,
economic,social,culturaloranyotherfieldofpubliclife.

Article1(2)excludesactionsbyStateparties
thatdifferentiatebetweencitizensandnoncitizensfromthisdefinition.Article1(3)qualifiesthis

exception,holdingthat,concerningnationality,citizenshipornaturalization,Statespartiesmaynot
discriminateagainstanyparticularnationality.21 TheCommitteenotesthatarticle1(2)shouldnotberead
todetractinanywayfromtherightsandfreedomsrecognizedandenunciatedinotherinstruments,
especiallytheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,theInternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social
andCulturalRightsandtheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.22 Inits
General

RecommendationNo.32
(2009),theCommitteeontheEliminationofRacialDiscriminationspecified
thatthelistofhumanrightstowhichtheprincipleappliesundertheConventionisnotclosedand

extendstoanyfieldofhumanrightsregulatedbythepublicauthoritiesintheStateparty[]toaddress
racialdiscriminationbyanypersons,groupororganization.

International Jurisprudence
Non-Discrimination

BelgianLinguisticcase
,EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,1968
Setsoutschemefordeterminingwhendiscriminationhasoccurred:1)thefactsdisclosea
differentialtreatment2)thedistinctiondoesnothaveanaim,thatis,ithasnoobjectiveand

HRC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),paras5.1and5.2.
H
RC,
GeneralComment23:Article27
(1994),paras5.1
19
2
001DurbanDeclaration
,Para66.
20
C
ESCR,
Generalcommentno.21,Rightofeveryonetotakepartinculturallife
(2009),para32.
21
C
ERD,
GeneralRecommendationXXXonDiscriminationAgainstNonCitizens
(2002),para1.
22
S
ee
GeneralRecommendationXXXonDiscriminationAgainstNonCitizens
(2002),para2.
17
18

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reasonablejustificationhavingregardtotheaimandeffectsofthemeasureunder
considerationand3)thereisnoreasonableproportionalitybetweenthemeansemployedand
theaimsoughttoberealised.
WaldmanvCanada
,HumanRightsCommittee,1999
ViolationofArticle26:TheHumanRightsCommitteefoundthatifaStatepartychoosesto
providepublicfundingtoreligiousschools,itshouldmakethisfundingavailablewithout
discrimination.
AmnestyInternationalvZambia
,HumanRightsCommittee,1999
ThestandingoftheNGOtobringthecasewasnotquestioned.
ThlimmenosvGreece
,EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,2000
Thecommissionheldthattherighttofreedomfromdiscriminationnotonlyencompassedthe
obligationtotreatpersonsthesameinanalogoussituations,buttotreatdifferentlypersons
whose
situationsweredifferent.TheCommissionconsideredthattherewasnoobjectiveand
reasonablejustificationforthefailuretotreatdifferentlypersonsconvictedforrefusingtoserve
inthearmedforcesonreligiousgroundsfrompersonsconvictedofotherseriouscrimes.
DahlabvSwitzerland
(decision),EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,2001
Theinterferencewiththeteachersfreedomtomanifestherreligionbywearingherheadscarf
(Art.9(2)ECHR)washeldtobejustifiableandproportionateasameasuretoprotectthe
freedomsofothers,namelytheschoolchildren.
JuridicalConditionandRightsofUndocumentedMigrants
.AdvisoryOpinion,InterAmericanCourtof
HumanRights,2003
Heldthatnondiscriminationandequalityarejuscogensandassuchstateshavepositive
obligationstorespecttherightsofundocumentedmigrantworkers,andStatesmaynot
subordinateorconditionobservanceoftheprincipleofequalitybeforethelawand
nondiscriminationtoachievingtheirpublicpolicygoals,whateverthesemaybe,including
thoseofamigratorycharacter.
LeylaSahinvTurkey
,EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,2005
Regardingthewearingofaheadscarf,thecourtdeterminesthat'freedomtomanifestone's
religioncouldberestrictedonpublicordergroundstodefendtheprincipleofsecularism'.
CaseofD.H.andothersv.TheCzechRepublic
,EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,2007
Romaapplicantsallegedthattheirrightshadbeenviolatedbyadefactsegregationistschool
policy.TheapplicantslodgedanapplicationwiththeECHRon18April2000,alleginga
violationofArticle14(nondiscriminationprovision)inconjunctionwithArticle2ofProtocolNo.
1.(therighttoeducation).TheCourtfoundnoviolationofArticle14inconjunctionwithArticle2
ofProtocolNo.1.Itbaseditsdecisiononthethreefollowinggrounds.First,itfoundthatthe
rulesgoverningchildrensplacementinspecialschoolsdidnotexplicitlyrefertothepupils
ethnicoriginandwaspursuingthelegitimateaimofadaptingtheeducationalsystemtothe
needsandaptitudesordisabilitiesofthechildren.

Self-Determination

LubiconLakeBandvCanada
(Ominayakcase),HumanRightsCommittee,1990
Whileallpeopleshavetherightofselfdeterminationandtherightfreelytodeterminetheir
politicalstatus,pursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopmentanddisposeoftheir
naturalwealthandresources,asstipulatedinarticle1oftheCovenant,thequestionwhether
theLubiconLakeBandconstitutesapeopleisnotanissuefortheCommitteetoaddress
undertheOptionalProtocoltotheCovenant.TheOptionalProtocolprovidesaprocedure
underwhichindividualscanclaimthattheirindividualrightshavebeenviolated.Theserights
aresetoutinpartIIIoftheCovenant,articles6to27,inclusive.
E.PvColombia
,HumanRightsCommittee,1990
Theyinvokearticles1,2,25,26and27oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPolitical
Rightsandclaimthat,asmembersofanoverwhelminglyEnglishspeakingProtestant
population,theyaresubjectedtoviolationsoftheirrightsbyColombia,whichhassovereignty
overtheislands.
theCommitteereiteratesthattheauthorscannotclaimundertheOptionalProtocoltobe
victimsofaviolationoftherightofselfdeterminationenshrinedinarticle1oftheCovenant.a/
TheOptionalProtocolprovidesaprocedureunderwhichindividualscanclaimthattheir
individualrightshavebeenviolated.TheserightsaresetoutinpartIIIoftheCovenant,articles
6to27,inclusive.TheCommitteefurthernotesthatnoindividual,orgroupofindividuals,canin
theabstract,bywayofactiopopularis,challengealaworpracticedeemedtobecontraryto
theCovenant.Anindividual,oragroupofindividuals,canonlyclaimtobeavictiminthesense
ofarticle1oftheOptionalProtocolifheorshe,orthey,areactuallyaffected.
A.BetalvItaly
,HumanRightsCommittee,1990
theCommitteerecallsitsconstantjurisprudencethatpursuanttoarticle1oftheOptional
Protocolitcanreceiveandconsidercommunicationsonlyiftheyemanatefromindividualswho
claimthattheirindividualrightshavebeenviolatedbyaStatepartytotheOptionalProtocol.
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Whileallpeopleshavetherightofselfdeterminationandtherightfreelytodeterminetheir
politicalstatus,pursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment,andmay,fortheirown
ends,freelydisposeoftheirnaturalwealthandresources,theCommitteehasalreadydecided
thatnoclaimforselfdeterminationmaybebroughtundertheOptionalProtocol.1/Thus,the
CommitteeisnotrequiredtodecidewhethertheethnoGermanpopulationlivinginSouthTirol
constitutepeopleswithinthemeaningofarticle1oftheInternationalCovenantonCiviland
PoliticalRights.
Mahuikaetal.

(1993):
HRCfoundnoviolationoftheCovenantforNewZealandlegislationthatinterferedw/Maori
fishingpractices,largelyduetothefactofprelegislativeconsultationwithMaori
representatives.
DiergaardtetalvNamibia
,HumanRightsCommittee,2000
ApplicantspresentedthecommunicationontheirownbehalfandonbehalfoftheRehoboth
BasterCommunity,claimingtobevictimsofaviolationbyNamibiaofarticles1,14,17,25(a)&
(c),26and27oftheCovenant.TheCommitteefoundaviolationofarticle26becausethe
authorsshowedthattheStatepartyhasinstructedcivilservantsnottoreplytotheauthors'
writtenororalcommunicationswiththeauthoritiesintheAfrikaanslanguage,evenwhenthey
areperfectlycapableofdoingso.ButtheCommitteeheldthatthetheauthorscouldnotrelyon
article27tosupporttheirclaimforexclusiveuseofthepastorallandsinquestion.This
conclusionwasbasedontheCommittee'sassessmentoftherelationshipbetweentheauthors'
wayoflifeandthelandscoveredbytheirclaims.AlthoughthelinkoftheRehobothcommunity
tothelandsinquestiondatesbacksome125years,itisnottheresultofarelationshipthat
wouldhavegivenrisetoadistinctiveculture.Furthermore,althoughtheRehobothcommunity
bearsdistinctivepropertiesastothehistoricalformsofselfgovernment,theauthorsfailedto
demonstratehowthesefactorswouldbebasedontheirwayofraisingcattle.
relandNkkljruiv.Finland
,HumanRightsCommittee,2001
SubmittedbyethnicallySamireindeerbreederswhoheldthatadecisiontoauthoriseloggingin
anareawithintheirtraditionalherdinglandsviolatedtheirrightsunderarticle27ofthe
Covenant.TheCommitteehadtodecidewhethertheloggingwasofsuchproportionsasto
denytheauthorstherighttoenjoytheircultureasguaranteedbyarticle27.TheCommittee
notedparagraph7ofitsGeneralCommentonarticle27,accordingtowhichminoritiesor
indigenousgroupshavearighttotheprotectionoftraditionalactivitiessuchashunting,fishing
orreindeerhusbandry,andthatmeasuresmustbetakentoensuretheeffectiveparticipation
ofmembersofminoritycommunitiesindecisionswhichaffectthemTheCommitteeconcluded
thattheherdsmenhadnotbeendeniedtheenjoymentoftheirculture,theherdsmenhadbeen
consultedindrawinguptheloggingplans,andthedomesticcourtshadconsideredwhetherthe
loggingwouldviolatetheirarticle27rights.ButtheCommitteeheldthatiftheloggingwereto
beapprovedonalargerscaleoriftheeffectsweregreaterthanforeseen,itcouldbe
consideredaviolationofarticle17rights.
Gillotetal.
(2000):
HRCfoundnoviolationoftheCovenantindeterminingaresidencybasedcutoffforvotingin
NewCaledonia'sindependencereferendum.

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