Unit V

Ch. 8: Physics of semiconductors

A Semiconductor is a solid which behaves as an insulator at absolute zero
whose resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 -m. They have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance in which the current conduction is
carried out by electrons and holes.
There are two types of semiconductors.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in which charge carriers are created only by increasing
temperature is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Expression for density of electrons in the conduction band
The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band at an
equilibrium temperature is called density (concentration) of electrons.
Let dn be the number of electrons in the conduction band in the energy
interval dE between E and E+dE in the conduction band at any
temperature T.
dn= Z(E) F(E) dE
WhereZ(E) dE is the density of energy states in the energy interval dE and
F(E) is the probability of occupation of an electron in the energy state E.
If Ec is the bottom of the conduction band, then the density of electrons in
n

the conduction band is

Z ( E ) F ( E )dE

Ec

4
( 2m ) 3 / 2 E 1/ 2 dE can be written as
3
h

Now, Z ( E ) dE

Z ( E )dE

4
( 2me *) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE , where m* is the effective mass of electron.
3
h

Since Ec is the bottom of the conduction band

Z ( E )dE

And

4
(2me *)3 / 2 ( E Ec )1 / 2 dE
3
h

F (E)

1
E EF
E E
E E F =exp-- (
) =exp ( F
)
1 exp(
)
kT
kT
kT
4

( 2me *) 3 / 2 ( E E c )1 / 2 exp(

Ec

EF E
)dE
kT

4
E E
( 2me *)3 / 2 ( E Ec )1/ 2 exp( F
)dE
3
h
kT
Ec

4
E
E
( 2me *)3 / 2 exp( F ) ( E Ec )1/ 2 exp(
)dE
3
h
kT Ec
kT

Let E-Ec= x =>E=Ec+x and dE=dx

E x
EF
4
3/ 2
n 3 ( 2me *) exp(
) x 1 / 2 exp ( c
)dE
h
kT 0
kT

4
E Ec
x
( 2me *) 3 / 2 exp( F
) x1/ 2 exp ( )dE
3
h
kT
kT
0

By gamma function

1/ 2
x
3/ 2
x exp ( )dE ( kT )
kT
2
1/ 2

1/ 2
4
E F Ec
3/ 2
3/ 2
n 3 ( 2me *) exp(
)( kT )
h
kT
2

n 2(

2me * kT 3 / 2
E Ec
) exp( F
)
2
h
kT

Expression for density of holes in the valence band

The number of holes per unit volume in the valence band at an equilibrium
temperature is called density (concentration) of holes.
Let dp be the number of holes in the conduction band in the energy
interval dE between E and E+dE in the valence band at any temperature
T.
dp = Z(E)[1- F(E)] dE
Where Z(E) dE is the density of energy states in the energy interval
dE in the valence band and [1-F(E)] is the probability of presence of a hole
(absence of an electron) in the energy state E.
If Ev is the energy corresponding to the top of the valence band,
then the density of holes in the valence band is
p

Ev

Z ( E )[1 F ( E )]dE

Now, Z ( E )dE

4
( 2m ) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE can be written as
h3

Z ( E )dE

4
( 2mh *)3 / 2 E 1/ 2 dE , where m* is the effective mass of
h3

hole.
Since Ev is the top of the valence band

Z ( E )dE

[1 F ( E )] 1

And

4
( 2mh *)3 / 2 ( Ev E )1/ 2 dE
3
h

Ev

1
E EF
E E F = exp(
)
1 exp(
)
kT
kT

( 2mh *)3 / 2 ( Ev E )1 / 2 exp(

E EF
)dE
kT

v
4
E EF
3/ 2
(
2
m
*)
( E v E )1 / 2 exp(
)dE
h
3

h
kT

4
EF v
E
p 3 (2mh *) 3 / 2 exp(
) ( E v E )1 / 2 exp( )dE
h
kT
kT

Let Ev-E= x =>E=Ev-x and dE=-dx

E x
4
E
( 2mh *) 3 / 2 exp( F ) x 1 / 2 exp( v
)dE
3
h
kT 0
kT

E EF
4
x
( 2mh *) 3 / 2 exp( v
) x 1 / 2 exp(
)dE
3
h
kT
kT
0

By gamma function

x 1 / 2 exp (

x
1/ 2
)dE ( kT ) 3 / 2
kT
2

1/2
4
Ev E F
3/2
3/2
(2
m
*)
exp(
)(
kT
)
h
h3
kT
2

p 2(

E EF
2 mh * kT 3/2
) exp( v
)
2
h
kT

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni)

The number of charge carriers per unit volume in an intrinsic
semiconductor is known as intrinsic carrier concentration. It is numerically
equal to the square root of the product of densities of the electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor n=p=ni => ni2=n. p
i.e.,

2 me * kT 3/2
E Ec
2 mh * kT 3/2
E EF
) exp( F
).2(
) exp( v
)
2
2
h
kT
h
kT
3
E Ec
2 kT
=> ni 2 4
( me * mh *) 3/2 exp( v
)
2
kT
h
ni 2 2(

3/2

E Ec
2 kT
( me * mh *)3/4 exp( v
)
2
2kT
h
3/2
E
2 kT
( me * mh *)3/4 exp( g ) , where E g Ec Ev band gap
2
h
2kT

=> ni 2

ni 2

Fermi Level in an intrinsic semiconductor

For an intrinsic semiconductor density of electrons in CB (n) =
density of holes in VB (p)

2 me * kT 3/2
E Ec
2 mh * kT 3/2
E EF
) exp( F
) = 2(
) exp( v
) [1]
2
2
h
kT
h
kT
3/2
3/2
Eg
mh *
2 kT
3/4
ni 2
( me * mh *) exp(
)=
[2]
2
2kT
h
me *
m *
2 E F ( Ev Ec ) 3

log h
kT
kT
2
me *

i.e., 2(

=>
=>
=>

EF

m *
( Ev Ec ) 3kT

log h [3]
2
4
me *

When me*= mh*,

EF

Ev Ec
2

It is clear from [3] that if the temperature is increased above O K, the

Fermi level moves towards the bottom of the conduction band.

Extrinsic Semiconductors

A semiconductor, in which charge carriers are created not only by

increasing temperature but also by adding impurities to it, is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor.
Carrier concentration of n-type semiconductor
N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor
with pentavalent impurity atoms like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc. In
this type of semiconductor electrons are the majority charge carriers.
Expression for carrier concentration:
The energy level diagram of a N-type semiconductor is shown in fig.
Density of electrons in the conduction band is given as

n 2(

2 m*e kT
h

)3/2 exp(

E F EC
) [1]
kT

Let Nd be the donor concentration and Ed be the donor energy level.

At very low temperatures all donor levels are filled with electrons. With
increase in temperature the ionisation of donor impurity atoms takes place
and density of electrons in the conduction band increases.
Number of ionised impurities = Nd[1-F(Ed)] N d exp(

Ed E F
)
kT

At low temperatures, The no. of ionised donor impurities= no. of electrons in

the conduction band [2]

2(

2 m*e kT
h

) 3/2 exp(

E EF
E F EC
) [3]
) = N d exp( d
kT
kT

Taking logarithm and rearranging, we get

(

2 me * kT 3/2
E F EC
E EF
) -( d
) = log N d log 2(
)
kT
kT
h2

2 E F ( Ed EC ) kT log

EF

Nd
2 me * kT 3/2
2(
)
h2

( Ed EC ) kT
Nd

log
2 me * kT 3/2 [4]
2
2
2(
)
h2

EF

( Ed EC )
2

At 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level E d and the
bottom of the conduction band Ec as shown in fig. Now, substituting E F
from equation [4] in equation [1] ,

1
Nd
log
EF EC
E d Ec
3/2
exp(
) = exp{(
)+2
}[5]
2 me * kT
2
kT
2kT

2
h

1/2

d
E EC
log
)+
= exp{( d
2 me * kT 3/2 1/2 }
2kT
[2(
) ]
2

N d 1/2
Ed EC
)
=[ exp(
2 me * kT 3/2 1/2 ]
[2(
) ]
2kT
h2

n 2

2 me * kT

h2

3/2

N d 1/2
E EC
2 me * kT 3/2 1/2 exp d
[6]
[2(
) ]
2kT
2
h

2 me * kT

h2

n (2 N d )1/2

3/4

Ed E

C
exp
[7]
2kT

Fig 1

Thus it is evident from equation [7], at low temperatures; the density of

electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the square root of
donor concentration in an N-type semiconductor.
Carrier concentration of p-type semiconductor
P-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
trivalent impurity atoms like aluminum, gallium, indium etc. In this type of
semiconductor holes are the majority charge carriers.
Expression for carrier concentration:
The energy level diagram of a P-type semiconductor is shown in fig.
Density of holes in the valence band is given as

p 2(

2 mh*kT 3/2
E EF
) exp( v
) [1]
2
h
kT

Let Na be the acceptor concentration and Ea be the acceptor energy

level. At very low temperatures all acceptor levels are empty. With
increase in temperature the ionisation of acceptor impurity atoms takes
place i.e., the electrons move from valence band to and occupy the vacant
sites in the acceptor level by leaving holes in the valence band.
Number of ionised impurities = Na F(Ea) N a exp(

EF Ea
)
kT

At low temperatures, the no. of ionized acceptor impurities= no. of holes in the
valence band [2]
2(

2 m*h kT
h

) 3/2 exp(

E F Ea [3]
Ev E F =
)
) N a exp(
kT
kT

Taking logarithm and rearranging, we get

Na
Ev Ea 2 E F log
2 mh * kT 3/2
)
2(
)
kT
h2

EF

( Ev Ea ) kT
Na

log
2 mh * kT 3/2 [4]
2
2
2(
)
h2

Fig 2

EF

( Ev Ea )
2

At 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor

level Ea and the top of the valence band E v as shown in fig. Now,
substituting EF from equation [4] in equation [1],

N a1/2
Ev E F
Ev Ea
log
exp(
) = exp{(
)+
2 mh * kT 3/2 1/2 }
[2(
) ]
kT
2kT
h2
1/2

Na
E v Ea
=[ exp(
) 2 mh * kT 3/2 1/2 ]
[2(
) ]
kT
2
h

p 2

2 mh * kT

h2

3/2

N a1/2
E Ea
2 mh * kT 3/2 1/2 exp v
[6]
[2(
)
]
2
kT

h2
3/4

2 mh * kT
Ev E a
p (2 N a )
exp

h2
2kT

1/2

[7]

Thus it is evident from equation [7], at low temperatures; the

density of holes in the valence band is proportional to the square root of
acceptor concentration in a P-type semiconductor.
Direct and Indirect Band gap semiconductors
S.NoDirect Band gap semiconductors
Indirect Band gap semiconductors
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

The
semiconductors
in
which
the
The
semiconductors
in
which
the
maximum of
maximum
the valence band coincides with the
of the valence band does not coincide
minimum
with the minimum of the conduction band
of the conduction band for the same value
for
of
the same value of the propagation
the propagation constant K is known asconstant
a
K is known as a indirect band gap
direct
semiconductor.
band gap semiconductor .
In these semiconductors the electron-hole
In these semiconductors the electronrecombination takes place directly from hole recombination does not take place
conduction band to valence band.
directly from conduction band to valence
band but via a trap centre in the forbidden
band.
Life time of the charge carriers is less due
Life time of the charge carriers is more
to
due to
direct recombinations.
indirect recombinations.
Current amplification is less
Current amplification is more
Light is produced due to recombinations.Heat is produced due to recombinations.
They are used for making LEDs, Laser
They are used in the manufacture of
diodes, ICs
diodes, transistors, amplifiers etc.
etc.

8.

All compound semiconductors such as

GaAs, GaP, InSb are best examples for
these type of semiconductors.

The
elemental
semiconductors
like
Germanium and Silicon are best examples
for these
type of semiconductors.

Equation of continuity
The fundamental relation governing the rate of change of charge as a
function of both distance and time in a semiconductor is known as
equation of continuity which interprets the physical law of conservation of
charge in a material.

Fig 3
Let us consider the infinitesimal volume element of area A and length dx as
shown in fig 3. Let p be the average hole concentration within this volume. If p
is the mean life time of the holes, then holes lost/ sec/unit volume due to
recombination is (p/ p).
Now rate of change of charge within the volume= e A dx (p/ p) [1]
If g is the thermal rate of generation of electron-hole pairs, then the rate of
increase of charge within the volume= e A dx g [2]
If J(x) is the current density of the current entering and J(x+dx) is the current
density of the leaving current, then the rate of loss of charge due to the flow of
charge carriers = dJ. A [3]
Due to the above three effects, the hole density changes with time.

dp
[4]
dt

Change in net charge/ sec within the volume= e Adx

From the law of conservation of charge, charge can neither be

created nor destroyed.
Change= Gain-Loss

p
dp
dp

eAdxg

eAdx
dJ . A , where J peE h eD p [5]

dt
dx
p

e Adx

Under thermal equilibrium, the hole density attains a constant value po, when
there is no external field dJ =0 and (dp/dt)=0, then the equation becomes

po
[6]
p

Equation[6] indicates that the rate of generation of holes is equal to the rate
of loss due to recombination under thermal equilibrium conditions.
From [4], [5] and [6]

 d 2 p
dp po p
d ( pE )

Dp
h
. This is called equation of continuity of
2
dt
p
dx
dx
charge.
Hall Effect
When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the
conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field.
This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the generated voltage is
called Hall voltage.

Hall Effect in a p-type semiconductor

Let us consider a p-type material for which the current is passed along xdirection from left to right and the magnetic field applied along z-direction
as shown in fig. Since the direction of current is from left to right, the holes
will also move in the same direction as shown in fig. Now due to the
magnetic field, the holes move in the downward direction with velocity v
and get accumulated at face 1 as shown in the fig. a potential difference is
established between the opposite faces in positive y-direction.

Force due to the potential difference =eEH[1]

Force due to the magnetic field= Bev[2]
At equilibrium eEH= Bev[3]
EH= Bv[4]
We know that, current density Jx= n e v [5]

v
EH

BJ x
ne

Jx
e [6]
n
[7]

EH RH J x B [8]
RH

1
ne

[9]

Equation [9] represents hall coefficient and the positive sign indicates that
the hall field is developed in the positive y direction.
If the breadth of the sample is b and the voltage developed is VH, then
Hall voltage

VH EH b

VH RH J x Bb

From eqn[8],

If b is the width of the sample then;

Current density J x I x

bt

Area of the sample= b.t

=> V R I x Bb =>
H
H

bt

VH RH

Ix
B
t

The sign for VH will be opposite for n and p type semiconductors.

Significance of Hall Effect
1. It is used to determine whether the given semiconductor material is
p-type or n-type. i.e., if RH is negative then the material is n-type
and if RH is positive then the material is p-type.
2. It is used to find carrier concentration of the given material n
3. It is used to find the mobility of the charge carriers.
4. It is used to calculate the magnetic flux density B applied.

1
eRH