Ferrites

A ferrite is a chemical compound of ceramic materials with iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) as

its main component.[1] Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of
Technology invented ferrite in 1930.[2]

Composition and properties

Ferrites are usually non-conductive ferrimagnetic ceramic compounds derived from iron oxides
such as hematite (Fe2O3) or magnetite (Fe3O4) as well as oxides of other metals. Ferrites are, like
most other ceramics, hard and brittle.
Many ferrites are spinels with the formula AB2O4, where A and B represent various metal
cations, usually including iron Fe. Spinel ferrites usually adopt a crystal motif consisting of cubic
close-packed (fcc) oxides (O2) with A cations occupying one eighth of the tetrahedral holes and
B cations occupying half of the octahedral holes. If one eighth of the tetrahedral holes are
occupied by B cation, then one fourth of the octahedral sites are occupied by A cation and the
other one fourth by B cation and it's called the inverse spinel structure. It's also possible to have
mixed structure spinel ferrites with formula [M2+1-Fe3+][M2+Fe3+2-]O4 where is the degree of
in
The magnetic material known as "ZnFe" has the formula ZnFe2O4, with Fe3+ occupying the
octahedral sites and Zn2+ occupy the tetrahedral sites, it's an example of normal structure spinel
ferrite.
Some ferrites have hexagonal crystal structure, like Barium and Strontium ferrites BaFe12O19
(BaO:6Fe2O3) and SrFe12O19 (SrO:6Fe2O3).
In terms of their magnetic properties, the different ferrites are often classified as "soft" or "hard",
which refers to their low or high magnetic coercivity:

Soft ferrites

Various ferrite cores used to make small transformers and inductors

Ferrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain nickel, zinc, and/or
manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called soft ferrites. The low
coercivity means the material's magnetization can easily reverse direction without dissipating
much energy (hysteresis losses), while the material's high resistivity prevents eddy currents in the
core, another source of energy loss. Because of their comparatively low losses at high

frequencies, they are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in
applications such as switched-mode power supplies.
The most common soft ferrites are: [4]

Manganese-zinc ferrite (MnZn, with the formula MnaZn(1-a)Fe2O4). MnZn have higher
permeability and saturation induction than NiZn.

Nickel-zinc ferrite (NiZn, with the formula NiaZn(1-a)Fe2O4). NiZn ferrites exhibit higher
resistivity than MnZn, and are therefore more suitable for frequencies above 1 MHz.

Hard ferrites
In contrast, permanent ferrite magnets are made of hard ferrites, which have a high coercivity
and high remanence after magnetization. Iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate are used
in manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets.[5][6] The high coercivity means the materials are very
resistant to becoming demagnetized, an essential characteristic for a permanent magnet. They
also conduct magnetic flux well and have a high magnetic permeability. This enables these socalled ceramic magnets to store stronger magnetic fields than iron itself. They are cheap, and are
widely used in household products such as refrigerator magnets. The maximum magnetic field B
is about 0.35 tesla and the magnetic field strength H is about 30 to 160 kiloampere turns per
meter (400 to 2000 oersteds).[7] The density of ferrite magnets is about 5g/cm3.
The most common hard ferrites are:

Strontium ferrite, SrFe12O19 (SrO6Fe2O3), used in micro-wave devices, recording

media, magneto-optic media, telecommunication and electronic industry.[4]

Barium ferrite, BaFe12O19 (BaO6Fe2O3), a common material for permanent magnet

applications. Barium ferrites are robust ceramics that are generally stable to moisture and
corrosion-resistant. They are used in e.g. subwoofer magnets and as a medium for
magnetic recording, e.g. on magnetic stripe cards.

Cobalt ferrite, CoFe2O4 (CoOFe2O3), used in some media for magnetic recording.

Production
Ferrites are produced by heating a mixture of finely-powdered precursors pressed into a mold.
During the heating process, calcination of carbonates occurs:
MCO3 MO + CO2
The oxides of barium and strontium are typically supplied as their carbonates, BaCO3 or SrCO3.
The resulting mixture of oxides undergoes sintering. Sintering is a high temperature process
similar to the firing of ceramic ware.

Afterwards, the cooled product is milled to particles smaller than 2 m, small enough that each
particle consists of a single magnetic domain. Next the powder is pressed into a shape, dried, and
re-sintered. The shaping may be performed in an external magnetic field, in order to achieve a
preferred orientation of the particles (anisotropy).
Small and geometrically easy shapes may be produced with dry pressing. However, in such a
process small particles may agglomerate and lead to poorer magnetic properties compared to the
wet pressing process. Direct calcination and sintering without re-milling is possible as well but
leads to poor magnetic properties.
Electromagnets are pre-sintered as well (pre-reaction), milled and pressed. However, the
sintering takes place in a specific atmosphere, for instance one with an oxygen shortage. The
chemical composition and especially the structure vary strongly between the precursor and the
sintered product.
To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking
together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets
are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also
available in fine medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to
the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing
furnace loading.
7.12 Applications of ferrites

The various applications are described below:

1. Ferrites are used in thermal sensing switches used in refrigerators, air
conditioners, electronic ovens, etc.
2. The magnetostrictive property of ferrites is utilized in producing ultrasonic
waves from a ferrite rod by the application of an alternating magnetic field.
3. The insulating property of ferrites finds their use in electric motors; they are
also used as flat rings for loud speakers, wind screen wiper motors and
correction magnets for TV.
4. Some ferrites possess high rectangular hysteresis loop, so they are useful in
the construction of computer memory system for rapid storage and retrieval
of digital information.
5. Mixed ferrites possess high resistivity and good magnetic properties, so they
can be used to prepare cores used in inductors and transformers.

Uses

Ferrite cores are used in electronic inductors, transformers, and electromagnets where the high
electrical resistance of the ferrite leads to very low eddy current losses. They are commonly seen
as a lump in a computer cable, called a ferrite bead, which helps to prevent high frequency
electrical noise (radio frequency interference) from exiting or entering the equipment.
Early computer memories stored data in the residual magnetic fields of hard ferrite cores, which
were assembled into arrays of core memory. Ferrite powders are used in the coatings of magnetic
recording tapes. One such type of material is iron (III) oxide.
Ferrite particles are also used as a component of radar-absorbing materials or coatings used in
stealth aircraft and in the absorption tiles lining the rooms used for electromagnetic compatibility
measurements.
Most common radio magnets, including those used in loudspeakers, are ferrite magnets. Ferrite
magnets have largely displaced Alnico magnets in these applications.
It is a common magnetic material for electromagnetic instrument pickups.
Ferrite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic properties.
Gyrator
A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element proposed in 1948 by
Bernard D. H. Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element after the resistor, capacitor, inductor
and ideal transformer.[1] Unlike the four conventional elements, the gyrator is non-reciprocal.
Gyrators permit network realizations of two-(or-more)-port devices which cannot be realized
with just the conventional four elements. In particular, gyrators make possible network
realizations of isolators and circulators.[2] Gyrators do not however change the range of one-port
devices that can be realized. Although the gyrator was conceived as a fifth linear element, its
adoption makes both the ideal transformer and either the capacitor or inductor redundant. Thus
the number of necessary linear elements is in fact reduced to three. Circuits that function as
gyrators can be built with transistors and op amps using feedback.

Tellegen's proposed symbol for his gyrator

Tellegen invented a circuit symbol for the gyrator and suggested a number of ways in which a
practical gyrator might be built.

An important property of a gyrator is that it inverts the current-voltage characteristic of an

electrical component or network. In the case of linear elements, the impedance is also inverted.
In other words, a gyrator can make a capacitive circuit behave inductively, a series LC circuit
behave like a parallel LC circuit, and so on. It is primarily used in active filter design and
miniaturization.
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in one
direction only. It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of conditions on
its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load.

Contents

1 Non-reciprocity

2 Types
o 2.1 Resonance absorption
o 2.2 Field displacement
o 2.3 Using a circulator

3 See also

4 References

5 External links

Non-reciprocity
An isolator is a non-reciprocal device, with a non-symmetric scattering matrix. An ideal isolator
transmits all the power entering port 1 to port 2, while absorbing all the power entering port 2, so
that to within a phase-factor its S-matrix is

To achieve non-reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily incorporate a non-reciprocal material. At

microwave frequencies this material is invariably a ferrite which is biased by a static magnetic
field. The ferrite is positioned within the isolator such that the microwave signal presents it with
a rotating magnetic field, with the rotation axis aligned with the direction of the static bias field.
The behaviour of the ferrite depends on the sense of rotation with respect to the bias field, and
hence is different for microwave signals travelling in opposite directions. Depending on the exact

operating conditions, the signal travelling in one direction may either be phase-shifted, displaced
from the ferrite or absorbed.

Types

An X band isolator consisting of a waveguide circulator with an external matched load on one
port

Two isolators each consisting of a coax circulator and a matched load

Resonance absorption
In this type the ferrite absorbs energy from the microwave signal travelling in one direction. A
suitable rotating magnetic field is found in the TE10 mode of rectangular waveguide. The rotating
field exists away from the centre-line of the broad wall, over the full height of the guide.
However, to allow heat from the absorbed power to be conducted away, the ferrite does not
usually extend from one broad-wall to the other, but is limited to a shallow strip on each face.
For a given bias field, resonance absorption occurs over a fairly narrow frequency band, but
since in practice the bias field is not perfectly uniform throughout the ferrite, the isolator
functions over a somewhat wider band.

Field displacement
This type is superficially very similar to a resonance absorption isolator, but the magnetic
biassing differs, and the energy from the backward travelling signal is absorbed in a resistive
film or card on one face of the ferrite block rather than within the ferrite itself. The bias field is
weaker than that necessary to cause resonance at the operating frequency, but is instead designed

to give the ferrite zero permeability for one sense of rotation of the microwave signal field. The
bias polarity is such that this special condition arises for the forward signal, while the backward
signal sees the ferrite as an ordinary permeable material. Consequently the electromagnetic field
of the forward signal tends to be excluded from the ferrite while the field of the backward wave
is concentrated within it. This results in a null of the electric field of the forward signal on the
surface of the ferrite where the resistive film is placed. Conversely for the backward signal, the
electric field is strong over this surface and so its energy is dissipated in driving current through
the film. In rectangular waveguide the ferrite block will typically occupy the full height from one
broad-wall to the other, with the resistive film on the side facing the centre-line of the guide.

Using a circulator
A circulator is a non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which power entering any port is
transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). So to within a phase-factor, the scattering matrix
for a three-port circulator is

A two-port isolator is obtained simply by terminating one of the three ports with a matched load,
which absorbs all the power entering it. The biassed ferrite is part of the circulator and causes a
differential phase-shift for signals travelling in different directions. The bias field is lower than
that needed for resonance absorption, and so this type of isolator does not require such a heavy
permanent magnet. Because the power is absorbed in an external load, cooling is less of a
problem than with a resonance absorption isolator.

Circulator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Circulators)
For other uses, see Circulator (disambiguation).

ANSI and IEC standard schematic symbol for a circulator (with each waveguide or
transmission line port drawn as a single line, rather than as a pair of conductors)

A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which a microwave or

radio frequency signal entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). A port
in this context is a point where an external waveguide or transmission line (such as a microstrip
line or a coaxial cable), connects to the device. For a three-port circulator, a signal applied to port
1 only comes out of port 2; a signal applied to port 2 only comes out of port 3; a signal applied to
port 3 only comes out of port 1, so to within a phase-factor, the scattering matrix for an ideal
three-port circulator is

Contents

1 Types

2 Applications

Types

2.1 Isolator

2.2 Duplexer

2.3 Reflection amplifier

3 References

A waveguide circulator used as an isolator by placing a matched load on port 3. The

label on the permanent magnet indicates the direction of circulation

Circulators fall into two main classes: 4-port waveguide circulators based on Faraday rotation of
waves propagating in a magnetised material,[1][2] and 3-port "Y-junction" circulators based on
cancellation of waves propagating over two different paths near a magnetised material.
Waveguide circulators may be of either type, while more compact devices based on striplines are
of the 3-port type. Sometimes two or more Y-junctions are combined in a single component to
give four or more ports, but these differ in behaviour from a true 4-port circulator. Radio
frequency circulators are composed of magnetised ferrite materials. A permanent magnet
produces the magnetic flux through the waveguide. Ferrimagnetic garnet crystal is used in
optical circulators.
Circulators exist for many frequency bands, ranging from VHF up to optical frequencies, the
latter being used in optical fiber networks. At frequencies much below VHF, ferrite circulators
become impractically large. It is however possible to simulate circulator behaviour all the way
down to d.c. using op-amp circuits.[3] Unlike ferrite circulators, these active circulators are not
lossless passive devices but require a supply of power to run. Also the power handling capability
and linearity and signal to noise ratio of transistor-based circulators is not as high as those made
from ferrites. It seems that transistors are the only (space efficient) solution for low frequencies.
Applications
Isolator

When one port of a three-port circulator is terminated in a matched load, it can be used as an
isolator, since a signal can travel in only one direction between the remaining ports.[4] An isolator
is used to shield equipment on its input side from the effects of conditions on its output side; for
example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load.

Duplexer

In radar, circulators are used as a type of duplexer, to route signals from the transmitter to the
antenna and from the antenna to the receiver, without allowing signals to pass directly from
transmitter to receiver. The alternative type of duplexer is a transmit-receive switch (TR switch)
that alternates between connecting the antenna to the transmitter and to the receiver. The use of
chirped pulses and a high dynamic range may lead to temporal overlap of the sent and received
pulses, however, requiring a circulator for this function.
Reflection amplifier

Microwave diode reflection amplifier using a circulator

A reflection amplifier is a type of microwave amplifier circuit utilizing negative resistance diodes
such as tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes. Negative resistance diodes can amplify signals, and often
perform better at microwave frequencies than two-port devices. However since the diode is a
one-port (two terminal) device, a nonreciprocal component is needed to separate the outgoing
amplified signal from the incoming input signal. By using a 3-port circulator with the signal
input connected to one port, the biased diode connected to a second, and the output load
connected to the third, the output and input can be uncoupled.

In a typical computer system found in a home or office, you normally see these "bumps" on the
mouse, keyboard and monitor cables. You can also find them on power supply wires when a
device (like a printer or scanner) uses an external transformer.
These "bumps" are called ferrite beads or sometimes ferrite chokes. Their goal in life is to
reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference) and RFI (radio-frequency interference). You can see
these beads in the following photo:
A ferrite bead is simply a hollow bead or cylinder made of ferrite, which is a semi-magnetic
substance made from iron oxide (rust) alloyed with other metals. It slips over the cable when the
cable is made, or it can be snapped around the cable in two pieces after the cable is made. The
bead is encased in plastic -- if you cut the plastic, all that you would find inside is a black metal
cylinder.
Computers are fairly noisy devices. The motherboard inside the computer's case has an oscillator
that is running at anywhere from 300 MHz to 1,000 MHz. The keyboard has its own processor
and oscillator as well. The video card has its own oscillators to drive the monitor. All of these
oscillators have the potential to broadcast radio signals at their given frequencies. Most of this
interference can be eliminated by the cases around the motherboard and keyboard.

Another source of noise is the cables connecting the devices. These cables act as nice, long
antennae for the signals they carry. They broadcast the signals quite efficiently. The signals they
broadcast can interfere with radios and TVs. The cables can also receive signals and transmit
them into the case, where they cause problems. A ferrite bead has the property of eliminating the
broadcast signals. Essentially, it "chokes" the RFI transmission at that point on the cable -- this
is why you find the beads at the ends of the cables. Instead of traveling down the cable and
transmitting, the RFI signals turn into heat in the bead.