Petrogenese Toro Ankole

Earth and Planetary Science Letters 284 (2009) 236248
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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e p s l
Petrogenesis of strongly alkaline primitive volcanic rocks at the propagating tip of the
western branch of the East African Rift
A. Rosenthal a,b,, S.F. Foley a,b, D.G. Pearson c, G.M. Nowell c, S. Tappe a,d
a
Earth System Science Research Centre, Institute of Geosciences, University of Mainz, Becherweg 21, 55099 Mainz, Germany
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
Northern Centre for Isotopic and Elemental Tracing, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
d
De Beers Canada, 65 Overlea Boulevard, Suite 300, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4H 1P1
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 November 2008
Received in revised form 17 April 2009
Accepted 24 April 2009
Available online 12 June 2009
Editor: R.W. Carlson
Keywords:
East African Rift
kamafugite
rift volcanism
alkaline rocks
SrNdHfOs isotopes
mantle metasomatism
a b s t r a c t
Strongly silica-undersaturated potassic lavas (kamafugites) and carbonatitic tuffs are characteristic of the
Toro-Ankole volcanic eld in southwestern Uganda, forming the youngest and most northward volcanics of
the western branch of the East African Rift. Lavas contain exceptionally low SiO2 (31.842.8 wt.%), high CaO
(up to 16.6 wt.%) and K2O (up to 7 wt.%). They exhibit moderately enriched correlated Nd (Nd 0.1 to 4.7)
and Hf (Hf 0.1 to 8.8) isotope signatures, indicating time-integrated enrichment in incompatible
elements in the source, attributed to mixing between two metasomatic assemblages, a phlogopite-rich
MARID-type and a later carbonate-rich assemblage. The restricted range of 87Sr/86Sr (0.7045990.705402) is
due to Sr being dominated by the carbonate-rich assemblage, which also imparts a Nd and Hf signature
similar to convecting upper mantle. Os isotopes (Os up to 290 and variable Os concentrations of 0.056
1.454 ppb) are curved due to mixing between the carbonate-rich metasome and a second end-member that
may be derived from melting peridotite, the MARID assemblage, or a mixture of both. Enrichment of the
peridotitic mantle in carbonate and silicate melts at 46 GPa occurs also in other areas where geochemically
similar ultramac lamprophyres result. The Ugandan kamafugites thus represent the earliest and deepestderived magmas in a rift through thick continental lithosphere beneath the continuous CongoTanzania
craton. The Ugandan rift-related mantle enrichment is older than the earliest known tectonic surface
expression of the rift.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Magma series in continental rifts characteristically include an
abundance of alkaline types. Particularly in low magma volume
rifts such as the western branch of the East African Rift, silicaundersaturated rocks are common (Holmes and Harwood, 1932;
Pouclet, 1980). These rocks are commonly rich in carbon dioxide, as
documented by the occurrence of carbonatites (Barker and Nixon,
1989), and the action of CO2 is thought to be the principal petrological
factor in the production of low silica magma series (Eggler, 1976;
Wyllie and Huang, 1976).
The equatorial section of the East African Rift provides an
opportunity to study the temporal evolution of magmas within a
continental rift: it consists of eastern and western branches that have
contrasting alkaline chemistry characterized by sodic magmas in the
Corresponding author. The Australian National University, Research School of Earth

Sciences, Mills Road, Building 61, 0200 ACT, Canberra, Australia. Tel.: +61 2 6125 2831;
fax: +61 2 6125 4835.
E-mail addresses: anja.rosenthal@anu.edu.au (A. Rosenthal), foley@uni-mainz.de
(S.F. Foley), d.g.pearson@durham.ac.uk (D.G. Pearson), g.m.nowell@durham.ac.uk
(G.M. Nowell), Sebastian.Tappe@ca.debeersgroup.com (S. Tappe).
0012-821X/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.04.036
eastern branch, and more potassic ones restricted to the western

branch. Carbonatites occur in both branches; they are well known
from the famous Oldoinyo Lengai and Napak localities in the eastern
rift, but also occur as lavas and tuffs in the northernmost western rift
in the Toro-Ankole eld (Barker and Nixon, 1989; Holmes and
Harwood, 1932). The oldest known volcanism (~ 45 Ma) occurs in
southwestern Ethiopia, and spread southwards with the propagating
rift (Ebinger et al., 2000). During this development, strongly alkaline
magmas such as melilitites and nephelinites occurred preferentially at
the propagating tip and on the anks of the rift (Williams, 1982): the
positions of the alkaline rocks in the rift axis were later overwhelmed
by more voluminous, less alkaline magmas, whereas alkaline volcanic
centres remained isolated on the anks to either side of the rift axis.
On reaching equatorial regions, the southwardly propagating rift
bifurcated across the Tanzanian craton (Ebinger et al., 1999) (Fig. 1).
Volcanism and rifting in the western rift lack the southward age
progression typical of the East African Rift as a whole, perhaps because
magmatism seeks its way through the weakest points of the basement
complex. Volcanic chemistry varies along the western segment from
mildly alkaline basaltic magmas to exceptionally silica-undersaturated, carbonate-rich, potassic rocks (kamafugites) and carbonatites.
The latter two are youngest and occur at the northwardly propagating
A. Rosenthal et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 284 (2009) 236248
237
Fig. 1. Simplied map of the equatorial part of the East African Rift (left; modied after Tappe et al., 2003) and the distribution of the volcanic elds within the Toro-Ankole province
of the western branch, lying E and SE of the Rwenzori Mountains (right; modied after Holmes, 1950). Dark shading indicates extent of volcanic rocks, light shading indicates lakes.
The shaded region (left) is the continuous CongoTanzanian craton.
tip of the rift, and thus provide the opportunity to study magma
genesis at an early rift stage before the production of more voluminous
magma types. The western branch of the East African Rift developed in
Proterozoic mobile belts (Kokonyangi et al., 2007). A negative Bouguer
gravity anomaly exists beneath the rift; it is steep-sided and, at
~ 200 km width, somewhat broader than the surface expression of
rifting (Ebinger, 1989b; Simiyu and Keller, 1997; Furman and Graham,
1999). Seismic lithospheric velocities of both branches are similar to
those in the craton: negative velocity gradients begin at ~ 70 and
~ 80 km in the eastern and western rift, respectively (Weeraratne et al.,
2003). In this contribution, we present the results for the Rb/Sr, Sm/
Nd, Lu/Hf and Re/Os isotope systems on the kamafugitic volcanics of
southwestern Uganda and use them to constrain the source characteristics of these rocks and their petrogenesis.
1.1. Volcanic elds in the western rift branch and variation of volcanic
chemistry
Mid-Miocene to recent volcanism is restricted to four intrabasinal
accommodation zones in the western rift branch (Ebinger, 1989b;
Fig. 1). These are, from north to south (i) Toro-Ankole, (ii) Virunga,
(iii) South Kivu and (iv) Rungwe. The smaller MwengaKamituga
province is located southwest of the South Kivu eld. Volcanism, uplift
and rifting started at about the same time of 12 Ma in Virunga at 2S
(Ebinger, 1989a; Zeyen et al., 1997), 89 Ma in the Kivu and Rungwe
volcanic elds, at ~ 6 Ma in the MwengaKamituga Province, but at
less than 50 000 years in the Toro-Ankole province (Ebinger, 1989b;
Zeyen et al., 1997; Nyblade and Brazier, 2002). The compositional
range of volcanic eruptives in the western rift branch is broad, ranging
from carbonatitic and ultrapotassic, silica-undersaturated lavas in the
Toro-Ankole eld (Combe and Holmes, 1945; Barker and Nixon, 1989;
Stoppa et al., 2000; Tappe et al., 2003) to alkali basalts and tholeiites in
South Kivu (Bell and Powell, 1969; Furman and Graham, 1999). There
is a systematic decrease in SiO2 and increase in K2O and CO2 from
south to north (Pouclet et al., 1981) (Fig. 1). Interestingly, the
geochemistry of Rungwe volcanics (Furman, 1995) do not keep to
this trend. Volcanics in the Virunga province range from silicaundersaturated to slightly silica-oversaturated with numerous intermediate compositions in terms of SiO2 (Holmes and Harwood, 1937;
Rogers et al., 1992, 1998; Platz et al., 2004; Chakrabarti et al., 2009),
whereas the Rungwe eld features trachyphonolites, alkali basalts,
basanites, nephelinites, and picrites (Furman, 1995). During the Late
Quaternary, volcanism with a broad spectrum of compositions was
active simultaneously in Toro-Ankole, Virunga, South Kivu, and
Rungwe (Furman, 1995; Boven et al., 1998). The volume of volcanics
in the western rift is estimated at ~100 000 km3 (Kampunzu and
Mohr, 1991), considerably less than in the eastern rift branch (220 000
to N900 000 km3; Williams, 1972; Morley, 1999).
1.2. The Toro-Ankole volcanic eld
The Toro-Ankole volcanic eld of southwestern Uganda contains the
archetypal kamafugites, a series of rare silica-undersaturated, calciumrich igneous rocks named as an acronym of the old petrographically
dened names katungite, mafurite and ugandite (Sahama, 1974), which
are considered as potassic olivine melilitite, olivinepyroxene kalsilitite,
olivinekalsilite leucitite to potassic nephelinite in modern classications. They are characterized by the common occurrence of kalsilite,
leucite, phlogopite, nepheline, melilite and perovskite in addition to
olivine and clinopyroxene (Holmes and Harwood, 1932, 1937; Holmes,
238
1937, 1942; Combe and Holmes, 1945; Stoppa et al., 2000; Tappe et al.,
2003). A fourth group, the ankaratrites, not dened as kamafugites, are a
type of potassic nephelinite, but are more sodic than the kamafugites
(Holmes and Harwood, 1932; Tappe et al., 2003). The absence of
plagioclase distinguishes these from lavas occurring in the rest of
the western rift branch. Although the compositions and petrographic
characteristics of the rocks from these famous localities are used as a
benchmark for strongly silica-undersaturated potassic rocks all over the
world, they are little studied with modern analytical methods,
particularly investigations of radiogenic isotope systems. As a result,
their petrogenesis is not well constrained.
Eruptives in Toro-Ankole occur as numerous tuffs, small explosion craters and maars rich in bombs and ejected blocks, and
frequently carry rounded ultramac nodules dominated by pyroxenites and glimmerites (Holmes and Harwood, 1937; Combe and
Holmes, 1945; Lloyd et al., 1987). The dominance of explosive volcanic activity lava ows are rare indicates the volatile-rich
nature of the magmatism (Holmes and Harwood, 1937; Combe and
Holmes, 1945; Lloyd et al., 1987). The oldest known Toro-Ankole
rock is a lava with a K-Ar age of 46 ka (Boven et al., 1998), whereas
volcanics from the youngest region (Fort Portal) range from 6000 to
4000 years (Barker and Nixon, 1989).
2. Results
Samples represent an extended set relative to that documented for
petrography, mineral chemistry and whole-rock geochemistry by
Tappe et al. (2003). The full sample list for the suite analysed here is
given in Supplemental le S1, and samples are displayed in a
simplied map (Supplemental le S2). Selected mineral analyses,
and major and trace element analyses published by Tappe et al. (2003)
can be found in Supplemental le S3. The full listing of major and trace
element data for the suite analysed here are given in Supplemental
les S4 & S5. Analytical methods are given in Supplemental le S6.
2.1. Major elements and compatible trace elements
The Ugandan kamafugites are volatile-rich, potassic to ultrapotassic, silica undersaturated (SiO2 = 31.841.8 wt.%; Fig. 2) volcanic rocks.
They are MgO-rich (6 to 22.5 wt.% MgO) and possess high Mg#. An
Fig. 2. Top: Total alkalisilica classication diagram of Toro-Ankole kamafugites (solid symbols) and ankaratrites (open symbols) showing extreme silica-undersaturation of all rock
types. Katungites most closely resemble the composition of Colorado and Brazilian kamafugites, as well as ultramac lamprophyres (UML). Toro-Ankole rocks have high K2O/Na2O,
so that the high alkali contents are due to K2O-enrichment. Bottom: Average trace element abundances in Ugandan kamafugites normalized to primitive mantle values compared to
Colorado katungite, Brazilian kamafugites, ultramac lamprophyres (UML). Troughs in the pattern at K and P occur in all these rocks, whereas the Ugandan rocks exhibit
characteristically low Cs/Rb ratios. Top and bottom: Data elds: Colorado Plateau katungites (Laughlin et al., 1989); Brazilian kamafugites (Gibson et al., 1995; Carlson et al., 1996;
Sgarbi and Gaspar, 2002; Araujo et al., 2001); UML (Andronikov and Foley, 2001; Foley et al., 2002; Tappe et al., 2004, 2006).
unusual chemical feature of the Ugandan kamafugites is their low

Al2O3 (b8.0 wt.%) coupled with high CaO contents (b16.6 wt.%)
relative to other ultrapotassic rocks (Foley et al., 1987). They contain
high P2O5 up to 1.3 wt.%, but lower than observed in Rungwe volcanics
(P2O5 b 2.2 wt.%) (Furman, 1995). Their K2O/Na2O ratios vary widely
from 1 to 10, and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios range from 1.0 to 2.0, similar to
Rungwe lavas (Furman, 1995). These chemical features are shared by
other kamafugite suites around the world (Laughlin et al., 1989;
Carlson et al., 1996). In terms of major elements (Fig. 2), kamafugites
in general are most similar to ultramac lamprophyres, which are
characteristic of continental rifts that cut through thick, cold lithosphere (Tappe et al., 2006). Ugandan kamafugites are characterised by
primitive Ni and Cr concentrations which correlate positively with
Mg# (Supplemental le S7). The Toro-Ankole katungites contain
signicantly less MgO (915 wt.%) than those from the Colorado
Plateau (1623 wt.% MgO, Carlson and Nowell, 2001). Sc and Cu are
also often present in high abundances (746 and 82206 ppm,
respectively).
Potassic nephelinites from Toro-Ankole exhibit lower Mg# of 42 to
61. Although they are silica-undersaturated (SiO2 = 36.542.8 wt.%),
and possess high CaO contents (b16.1 wt.%), they have higher Al2O3
(b11.0 wt.%) contents compared to the kamafugites and so are distinct
in terms of MgO/CaO and SiO2/Al2O3 (Supplemental le S8). K2O/
Na2O ratios vary from 1.5 to 4.3, showing a less strongly potassic
character; a single leucite ankaratrite (C5805) shows sodic afnity
(K2O/Na2O = 0.42). The more evolved characteristics of the potassic
239
nephelinites are also expressed in lower compatible trace element

contents (Ni 26136 ppm; Cr 5490 ppm).
2.2. Incompatible trace elements
All Ugandan kamafugites show extreme enrichments in incompatible trace elements, with normalized abundances of 2001500 for most
elements to the left of Zr in Fig. 2. Light rare earth elements (LREE) are
enriched in both kamafugites and potassic nephelinites whereas HREE
concentrations are low (210 primitive mantle). Although K levels are
ca. 100 primitive mantle, the trace element patterns have prominent
troughs at K. High eld strength elements (HFSE) are enriched with Nb
118354 ppm. This results in high Nb/U (3666), high HFSE/LILE, and
high HFSE/LREE ratios, similar to OIBs. Zr/Nb ratios (b2) are much lower
than observed for OIBs and MORBs. These features of Ugandan
kamafugites are shared with other kamafugites from the Alto Paranaibo
Province in Brazil (Gibson et al., 1995; Carlson et al., 1996; Araujo et al.,
2001; Sgarbi and Gaspar, 2002) and western North America (Laughlin
et al., 1989), and also with ultramac lamprophyres from the Labrador
Sea region (e.g. Tappe et al., 2006), and Beaver Lake, eastern Antarctica
(Andronikov and Foley, 2001; Foley et al., 2002), although HREE are
generally lower in the kamafugites.
Other features of the Ugandan kamafugite trace element patterns
are prominent Pb and P troughs and also low concentrations of Rb and
Cs (Fig. 2). The Pb depletion results in high Ce/Pb (2257), which is
also common in other kamafugites and ultramac lamprophyres. Rb
Table 1
Whole-rock Rb, Sr, Sm, Nd concentrations [ppm] and Sr and Nd isotope data for Ugandan kamafugites.
Rb
Sr
87
99
2419
0.1157
108
130
146
184
45
80
2499
2475
2539
2024
2166
2110
0.1226
0.1482
0.1619
0.2572
0.0587
0.1076
151
189
163
1814
1571
3034
0.2350
0.3403
0.1517
159
154
2672
1295
0.1679
0.3352
163
2024
0.2273
n. d.
104
n. d.
1767
K-Ankaratrite
C4788
119
C5624
91
Lc-Ankaratrite
C5549
C5595
C5619
C5783
C5805
Sample
Katungite
C3946
C3946_R
C3948
C3949
C4012
C4773
C6065
C5775
Mafurite
C4070
C6066
C4793
C4793_R
C4802
C6107
Ugandite
C4035
C4035_R
C6095
C6098
68
76
101
117
89
Rb/86Srm
Sr/86Srm
Sr/86Srn
Sm
Nd
147
21.48
174.32
0.0748
19.97
22.77
15.04
14.49
27.64
19.87
169.82
183.50
115.70
113.73
227.49
151.36
0.0714
0.0753
0.0789
0.0773
0.0737
0.0797
15.47
14.01
21.43
126.36
113.86
173.99
0.0743
0.0747
0.0747
23.74
15.33
189.43
125.20
0.0761
0.0743
8.30
67.15
0.0750
n. d.
10.78
n. d.
83.81
0.704662
0.704699
21.85
14.26
0.704740
0.704952
0.705228
0.705145
0.705002
11.12
10.46
13.45
20.30
13.92
87
87
0.704761 12
0.704783 10
0.704729 11
0.704852 11
0.705402 16
0.705248 11
0.704733 14
0.705056 12
0.704756
0.704755
0.704724
0.704824
0.705374
0.705220
0.704705
0.705028
0.705225 14
0.705237 13
0.704599 10
0.704623 8
0.704830 11
0.704944 13
0.705197
0.705209
0.704594
0.704595
0.704802
0.704916
n. d.
0.1656
0.704942 12
0.704980 11
0.705236 16
0.705093 17
0.704937
0.704952
0.705208
0.705065
2717
2467
0.1233
0.1041
0.704667 10
0.704727 12
1057
1810
1337
2622
2131
0.1812
0.1179
0.2130
0.1262
0.1179
0.704745 11
0.704957 13
0.705256 16
0.705173 12
0.705030 8
Sm/144Ndm
Nd/144Ndm
Nd/144Ndn
143
143
0.512567 33
0.512539 10
0.512482 19
0.512508 10
0.512394 8
0.512504 8
0.512496 11
0.512575 8
0.512578
0.512545
0.512493
0.512511
0.512397
0.512507
0.512499
0.512578
1.2
1.8
2.8
2.5
4.7
2.6
2.7
1.2
0.512496 8
0.512476 6
0.512527 12
0.512551 10
0.512494 7
0.512495 8
0.512499
0.512479
0.512538
0.512557
0.512497
0.512498
2.7
3.1
2.0
1.6
2.7
2.7
n. d.
0.0780
0.512500 9
0.512498 12
0.512483 8
0.512478 8
0.512511
0.512501
0.512486
0.512481
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.1
173.82
100.19
0.0763
0.0864
0.512512 8
0.512562 10
0.512523
0.512565
2.2
1.4
84.45
77.69
102.61
156.51
109.43
0.0799
0.0817
0.0795
0.0787
0.0772
0.512572 12
0.512623 13
0.512527 8
0.512542 7
0.512550 7
0.512583
0.512634
0.512530
0.512545
0.512553
1.1
0.1
2.1
1.8
1.7
Nd
The average 87Sr/86Sr ratios and external reproducibility for the NBS 987 (Sr) standards during three analytical sessions were on 26.02.2003: Standard average = 0.710245, 2SD = 7,
2SD[ppm] = 9.3, n = 12; on 03.04.2003: Standard average = 0.710269, 2SD = 8, 2SD[ppm] = 12.7, n = 14; and on 13.05.2003: Standard average = 0.710269, 2SD = 5, 2SD[ppm] = 6.7,
n = 12. The average 143Nd/144Nd ratios and external reproducibility for the J&M and Sm-doped J&M (Nd) standards for three analytical sessions were on 25.02.2003: Standard
average = 0.511099, 2SD = 7, 2SD[ppm] = 13.5, n = 13; on 03.03.2003: Standard average = 0.511104, 2SD = 10, 2SD[ppm] = 19.6, n = 14, and on 31.07.2003: Standard
average = 0.511107, 2SD = 7, 2SD[ppm] = 13.5, n = 13. R, repeat run of same solution; m, measured values; n, corrected values; n. d., not determined.
240
and Cs are particularly low relative to other LILE giving low and
variable Rb/Ba ratios. In contrast, Rb/Ba in ultramac lamprophyres,
and other potassic magmas in general, are much closer to primitive
mantle ratios.
Trace element patterns of all East African Rift volcanics are
enriched relative to MORB and OIB, with eastern rift tholeiites,
ferrobasalts, alkali basalts and basanites being less enriched and
showing smoother patterns than western rift volcanics (Furman and
Graham, 1999). Furman and Graham (1999) also noted that the
relative enrichment of LREE relative to HREE intensies with the
extent of silica-undersaturation of the East African volcanics, and that
(LREE/MREE)n ratios such as (La/Sm)n are lower in the eastern
compared to the western rift.
Rare data for carbonatites from Fort Portal (Nixon, 1973) show
that they are slightly more enriched in incompatible elements
than Ugandan kamafugites, but both are most enriched among the
western branch volcanics (Supplemental le S9). Carbonatites
show the highest depletion in potassium in the western rift. However, extreme and similar LILE, HFSE and LREE enrichments and
marked K, Pb and P depletions of all western rift volcanics are striking.
2.3. Sr, Nd and Hf isotopes
Combined SrNdHf isotope results for Ugandan kamafugites are
reported in Tables 1 and 2. The very limited range in 87Sr/86Sr (0.7046
0.7054) contrasts with the relatively broad range in 87Rb/86Sr (0.0587
0.2350). 147Sm/144Nd (0.07430.0864) are much lower than presentday CHUR. Both Sr and Nd isotopes are slightly enriched relative to Bulk
Earth values (Fig. 3). The data form a cluster within the mantle array,
with only a small trend dened by katungites, mafurites and ugandites

(with one katungite outlier). This is similar to other studies on ToroAnkole lavas and xenoliths (Davies and Lloyd, 1989) (Fig. 3), and on
nephelinites and basanites from Rungwe (Fig.10 in Furman and Graham,
1999), but distinct from the much more varied Sr and Nd isotope
compositions found in other potassic volcanic rocks of the African rift
(Fig. 3). For instance, the SrNd characteristics of the kamafugites are
intermediate between those of the isotopically enriched Central and NW
Virunga province (Vollmer and Norry, 1983a; Rogers et al., 1992, 1998)
and the more isotopically depleted volcanics from SW-Virunga,
including Nyiragongo (Vollmer and Norry, 1983a,b; Chakrabarti
et al., 2009), and South Kivu province (Fig. 10 in Furman and Graham,
1999).
The Ugandan kamafugites show similar Nd and Sr isotope
characteristics to western USA kamafugites (Carlson and Nowell,
2001) but are much less variable than Brazilian kamafugites, not
extending to the unradiogenic Nd isotope compositions recorded from
the Alto-Paranaiba Province.
Hf isotope ratios generally show greater variation than Nd in
Ugandan kamafugites, forming an elongate array, mainly below the
terrestrial array (Fig. 4) (Blichert-Toft and Albarede, 1997), a feature
already known from some lamproites, kimberlites, alkaline basalts,
and garnet pyroxenites (e.g. Janney et al., 2002; Nowell et al., 2004;
Pearson and Nowell, 2004; Tappe et al., 2007). Hf values, a measure
of the displacement below the mantle array, vary from 1.9 to 7.5.
The katungites have the most variable HfNdSr isotope characteristics; while most scatter around the mantle NdHf isotope array, one
is signicantly displaced above it and lies just outside the OIB eld
(Fig. 4).
2.4. Re and Os isotopes
Table 2
Whole-rock Lu and Hf concentrations [ppm] and Hf isotope data for Ugandan
kamafugites.
Sample
Lu
Hf
176
176
176
Hf
Hf
Katungite
C3946
C3948
C3949
C4012
C4773
C6065
C5775
Lu/177Hfm
Hf/177Hfm
Hf/177Hfn
0.164
0.150
0.173
0.151
0.121
0.196
0.170
7.36
6.23
8.39
7.08
6.90
12.11
8.92
0.0031
0.0033
0.0029
0.0030
0.0024
0.0022
0.0026
0.282582 29
0.282864 46
0.282607 7
0.282508 3
0.282628 3
0.282598 5
0.282664 3
0.282596
0.282875
0.282621
0.282522
0.282642
0.282612
0.282678
6.2
+3.6
5.3
8.8
4.6
5.7
3.3
7.0
4.2
5.2
5.8
4.4
5.3
5.0
Mafurite
C4070
C6066
C4793
C4802
C6107
0.141
0.160
0.140
0.194
0.146
5.47
5.67
9.72
12.09
7.53
0.0036
0.0039
0.0020
0.0022
0.0027
0.282566 3
0.282520 3
0.282651 11
0.282602 3
0.282614 4
0.282580
0.282534
0.282662
0.282616
0.282628
6.8
8.4
3.9
5.5
5.1
6.4
7.5
4.5
5.1
4.7
Ugandite
C4035
0.080
C6095
n. d.
C6098
0.110
4.12
n. d.
6.53
0.0027
n. d.
0.0023
0.282603 5
0.282560 3
0.282556 3
0.282617
0.282574
0.282570
5.5
7.0
7.1
5.1
6.3
6.3
K-Ankaratrite
C4788
0.194
C5624
0.200
11.42
11.15
0.0024
0.0025
0.282613 6
0.282672 7
0.282624
0.282686
5.2
3.0
5.4
4.3
Lc-Ankaratrite
C5549
0.110
C5595
0.110
C5619
0.160
C5783
0.270
C5805
0.160
5.83
5.82
6.72
11.13
6.85
0.0026
0.0026
0.0033
0.0034
0.0032
0.282757 16
0.282758 18
0.282635 4
0.282620 7
0.282663 4
0.282768
0.282769
0.282649
0.282634
0.282677
0.1
0.1
4.4
4.9
3.4
1.9
3.2
4.7
5.7
4.4
Results for Re and Os concentrations and isotopes are given in

Table 3. Ugandan kamafugites exhibit strongly elevated Os concentrations (0.0561.454 ppb), but relatively low Re concentrations
(0.07030.303 ppb) similar to other alkaline and MgO-rich melts.
They are depleted in Re relative to primitive mantle, with only two
samples showing Re concentrations close to fertile mantle compositions. Os and Re concentrations display positive and inverse trends,
respectively, with MgO and Ni contents (Supplemental le S10). The
variable but consistently high suprachondritic Os isotopic compositions (up to Os = 290) shown by Ugandan kamafugites range to
considerably more radiogenic values than those of uncontaminated
OIBs, and are similar to values reported for other alkaline magmas
(Lambert et al., 1995; Carlson et al., 1996) (Fig. 5). Os isotope ratios are
strongly anti-correlated with their Os contents, as seen in other
alkaline rock suites including Brazilian kamafugites (Carlson et al.,
1996, 2007) and potassic rocks from the Colorado Plateau (Carlson
and Nowell, 2001) (Fig. 5). However, unlike the Colorado Plateau
katungites, the Toro-Ankole rocks have relatively constant Os isotope
compositions over a large range of MgO (6 to 23 wt.%, Fig. 5).
3. Discussion
The average 176Hf/177Hf ratios and external reproducibility for the JMC 475 (Hf)
standards for three individual analytical sessions were on 28.02.2003: Standard
average = 0.282149, 2SD = 6, 2SD[ppm] = 20.5, n = 8; on 28.04.2003: Standard
average = 0.282146, 2SD = 3, 2SD[ppm] = 12.3, n = 9; and on 01.08.2003: Standard
average = 0.282146, 2SD = 2, 2SD [ppm] = 8.0, n = 8. R, repeat run of same solution; m,
measured values; n, corrected values.
3.1. Crystal fractionation and crustal contamination of kamafugites

Magmatic fractionation and crustal contamination are of minimal
importance in the genesis of the Toro-Ankole volcanics. MgO contents
of kamafugites range from 6 to 22.5 wt.%, and together with high Ni
and Cr concentrations (average 415 and 715 ppm) indicate that crystal
fractionation is limited to olivine and spinel, and played a subordinate
role in their origin. Several ugandite and mafurite samples with
N16 wt.% MgO and up to 1066 ppm Ni and 1566 ppm Cr may have
accumulated olivine and spinel phenocrysts (Supplemental le S7).
Similar to Kivu lavas (Furman and Graham, 1999), Ugandan
kamafugites are not related by fractional crystallization from a
241
Fig. 3. Sr isotopes vs. Nd isotopes. Sr isotopes do not show the time-integrated effect of enrichment in a source containing phlogopite. However, meltmelt mixing trends reveal the
dominance of carbonate-rich melts (ranging between 80 and 98%) over potassic alkaline silicate melts, so that the Sr budget provided by the carbonate-rich metasome control Sr
isotopic signatures, swamping the effect of high Rb/Sr provided by the phlogopite (see further explanations within text: chapter 3.3.). Interestingly, Ugandan alkaline rocks plot
considerably below the array formed by other western rift volcanics. Data elds: Toro-Ankole (other studies) including lavas and xenoliths (Davies and Lloyd, 1989); Bufumbira/
Virunga (Vollmer and Norry, 1983a; Rogers et al., 1998); Virunga (Vollmer and Norry, 1983a; Rogers et al., 1992; Chakrabarti et al., 2009); Kivu province (Furman and Graham, 1999);
Colorado Plateau katungites (Carlson and Nowell, 2001); Brazilian kamafugites (Gibson et al., 1995; Carlson et al., 1996, 2007; Araujo et al., 2001); UML (Andronikov and Foley, 2001;
Tappe et al., 2006); Carbonatities (Bell and Blenkinsop, 1987a,b).
common melt (Tappe et al., 2003). Only ankaratrites are related by

crystal fractionation to olivine-rich ugandites by olivine fractionation
(Tappe et al., 2003).
The high contents of incompatible elements of the Ugandan

kamafugites make the effects of crustal contamination less easy to see
than in less enriched magma types. On plots of radiogenic isotopes vs.
Fig. 4. Nd isotopes vs. Hf isotopes. The correlation between Nd and Hf isotope ratios is interpreted to indicate that 5080% melt is derived from a younger carbonate-rich veinassemblage and swamps the signature of an older potassic alkaline silicate metasomatic (MARID type) melt in the source. Data elds: Colorado Plateau katungites (Carlson and
Nowell, 2001); Lamproites (Davies et al., 2006; Chakrabarti et al., 2007; Tappe et al., 2007); UML (Tappe et al., 2007); Group I kimberlites (Nowell et al., 2004; Gaffney et al., 2007);
Group II kimberlites (Nowell et al., 2004); Transitional kimberlites (Nowell et al., 2004); Picrites (Doucet et al., 2005); MORB (Nowell et al., 1998 and references therein); OIB (Nowell
et al., 1998 and references therein; Salters and White, 1998).
242
Table 3
Whole-rock Re and Os concentrations [ppb] and Os isotope data for Ugandan
kamafugites.
Os
187
187
0.142
0.253
0.201
0.159
0.120
0.302
0.507
0.270
0.896
0.056
2.2806
2.4228
3.6150
0.8590
10.7242
Mafurite
C4070
0.073
C4793
0.303
1.248
0.195
Ugandite
C4035
0.110
C6098
0.198
Lc-Ankaratrite
C5595
0.119
Sample
Re
Re/188Os
Os/188Os
1SE
187
Os /188Os
0.19763
0.17402
0.20193
0.17085
0.49736
0.00011
0.00005
0.00009
0.00004
0.00016
0.19763
0.17402
0.20193
0.17085
0.49735
55
36
58
34
290
0.2842
7.5565
0.14755
0.23225
0.00003
0.00006
0.14755
0.23225
16
82
1.018
1.454
0.5243
0.6595
0.15569
0.16158
0.00006
0.00012
0.15569
0.16158
22
27
0.217
2.6703
0.21269
0.00010
0.21269
67
Os
Toro-Ankole
Katungite
C3946
C3948
C3949
C4773
C6065
fractionation indicators (Supplemental le S11), kamafugites do not

show any of the distinct trends expected for crustal interaction,
despite their large range in Mg#. For instance Sr isotopes are invariant
while Mg# ranges from 50 to 80. The latter might either indicate some
crystal fractionation taking place without signicant crustal assimilation, or simply reect varying degree of partial melting.
Incompatible element patterns are not greatly affected by
fractionation of olivine and spinel due to the low trace element
concentrations in these minerals. Although low Rb and Cs coexisting
with high Ba have been explained as due to leucite or phlogopite
crystallization in other alkaline rocks (Foley and Jenner, 2004; Platz
et al., 2004), neither phlogopite nor leucite is an important phenocryst
phase in the Ugandan kamafugites. Pb isotopes of hydrous alkali
pyroxenite xenoliths from Katwe-Kikorongo (Supplemental le S2)
produced an age of 1 850 160 Ma (Davies and Lloyd, 1989),
suggesting that hydrous ultramac nodules are also not related to
fractional crystallisation from the rift magmas.
The negative Pb anomaly is also an indication of the lack of
signicant crustal assimilation. In contrast, Mediterranean kamafugites that have been shown to contain a signicant input of crustal
material show positive Pb anomalies in their incompatible element
patterns (Prelevic et al., 2005). The lower Cs/Rb than in ultramac
lamprophyres is anomalous here, and cannot be explained at present.
It is not due to fractionation of phlogopite as this mineral is not
common in kamafugites, and olivine fractionation, should be seen
rst, but is not.
Almost all of the Toro-Ankole volcanic rocks considered here have
Os contents of circa 200 ppt or greater and hence would require tens of
percent crust addition to affect their Os isotope composition (Fig. 5),
clearly incompatible with the highly Si-undersaturated nature of
these rocks (Fig. 2). The lack of co-variation between Os isotopes and
other radiogenic isotopes or trace elements also indicates that crustal
assimilation does not signicantly affect the isotopic variation. One
katungite has a much lower Os concentration (56 ppt) and very
radiogenic Os (Os = 290), potentially indicating crustal addition.
However, this rock has the lowest 87Sr/86Sr of the katungites, the
lowest SiO2 concentration of all kamafugites and unremarkable Nd
and Hf isotope compositions, giving no indication that crustal
contamination is responsible for its Os isotope composition.
3.2. The nature and mineralogy of the enriched component
It is now generally recognized that strongly SiO2-undersaturated
and K2O-rich magma types such as kamafugites cannot be produced
by partial melting of peridotite in the presence of any mixture of
volatile components (Edgar and Vukadinovic, 1992; Foley, 1992a), but

that they require mixed source assemblages consisting of pyroxenite
or glimmerite veins in peridotites (Foley, 1992b; O'Brien et al., 1995;
Luhr, 1997). The kamafugites cannot be reproduced by melting of
phlogopite-bearing peridotite as phlogopite would melt out at low
degrees of partial melting, and other trace elements and isotope
features would not be explained.
For constraints on the mineralogy of the veins making up the
enriched component, we must look to the major and trace element
chemistry of the rocks. The high K2O, CaO, P2O5, TiO2 and CO2, but low
SiO2 contents are not due to fractionation or crustal assimilation, and
must be characteristic of the source. Partial melting of peridotite in
CO2-rich conditions can cause low SiO2 contents in melts (Brey, 1978),
but not the extreme values typical for Ugandan kamafugites (Fig. 2).
Modal carbonate in one of the vein components appears to be
necessary, both from an isotopic viewpoint and from phase equilibria
considerations. This is also the case for ultramac lamprophyres in
other rifts (Foley et al., 2002; Tappe et al., 2006). The CaO enrichment
may be derived from clinopyroxene, carbonate and apatite, whereas
the high K2O requires phlogopite in the source. Garnet is not expected
to contribute to kamafugitic melts which are extremely Al-poor.
Melting is considered to take place mainly within the phlogopite- and
clinopyroxene-rich vein assemblage. The incompatible elements
mostly show strong enrichment, but troughs in the patterns at K, Rb,
Cs indicate that some phlogopite remains in the residue after melting.
A major role for K-richterite can be precluded in the genesis of the
silica-decient kamafugites as it forms a silica-rich melt during partial
melting (Foley et al., 1999), and would result in lower K2O/Na2O.
Residual apatite is required to provide the trough at P and the high
abundances of many of the trace elements. The lower P2O5 in ToroAnkole volcanics relative to Rungwe may be due to higher uorine in
the source apatites at Toro-Ankole, as this is known to cause lower
P2O5 in coexisting melts (Foley et al., 1999). The smooth trace element
patterns indicate the presence of several trace element-rich phases
including oxide minerals, because spiky trace element patterns would
result from melting of silicate vein phases alone (Foley et al., 1995).
3.3. Isotopic constraints on mineral assemblages in the source rocks
Radiogenic isotope systems can provide evidence for the presence
of multiple components (Carlson et al., 1996, 2007; Rosenthal et al.,
2008; Tappe et al., 2008) and their relative timing, whereas major and
trace element concentrations help to constrain the mineral assemblages that make up the end-members.
Although the isotope and element concentration variations of the
Toro-Ankole volcanic rocks are small compared to many of the elds
identied for strongly alkaline rocks, the variations they do show are
local, implying either strong small scale variations in the distribution
of the enriched components, and thus veining on a scale of tens of
metres or less, or varying degrees of partial melting and hence
changing phase proportions of a relatively homogeneous source. The
extremes of Sr, Nd and Hf isotopes may come from neighbouring
occurrences, whereas the geographically offset Katunga volcano has
two lavas which take up central positions in the isotope spectrum
except for one outlier in Hf.
The isotope and trace element results provide information not only
on the mineralogy of the enriched component, but also on its timing.
Sub-rift isotopic evolution attributed to phlogopite in phlogopite +
carbonate-bearing veins leads to an increase in 87Sr/86Sr much
greater than the range seen in the Ugandan kamafugites in just 50 Ma
(Foley et al., 2002). However, if carbonate dominates the Sr budget in
the carbonate-rich metasome due to the relatively low Sr content of
mica, and melts from this metasome dominate the Sr budget of the
subsequent melting and mixing regime (Fig. 6), then having
phlogopite present in both vein assemblages or peridotite wall rock
is tolerable and can explain the similar K/Rb ratios of kamafugites and
243
Fig. 5. Os isotopes plotted against Os and MgO concentrations of Ugandan kamafugites fall on well-dened curved arrays indicating mixing between metasomatised peridotite with
45 wt.% MgO and 3 ppb Os and an enriched end-member with 511 wt.% MgO, and 0.1 ppb Os. This end-member cannot be a new addition from the convecting mantle, but must
have time-integrated elevated Re/Os (and hence high Os), and ts the characteristics of a carbonate-rich vein component. Mixing calculations (grey curves) reveal 6095% melt
must come from such carbonate-rich veins to explain the Os isotopic signatures of the kamafugites. The plot of Os vs. Os [ppb] highlights that absurdly high amounts (30% to 99%) of
crustal assimilation would be required to account for the supra-radiogenic Os systematic given in the volcanics. A Proterozoic gneiss with Os = 508 and Os = 0.033 ppb served for
calculations, bearing in mind that the volcanics erupted through the ~ 2 Ga Bugunda-Toro system. Data elds: Colorado Plateau katungites (Carlson and Nowell, 2001); Brazilian
kamafugites (Carlson et al., 1996, 2007; Araujo et al., 2001); carbonatites (Pearson et al., 1995b; Widom et al., 1999; Escrig et al., 2005); Lamproites (Lambert et al., 1995); MORBs
(Gannoun et al., 2007); OIBs (Widom et al., 1999 and references therein); basalts (Walker et al., 1999); picrites (Horan et al., 1995; Bennett et al., 1996; Brandon et al., 1999; Walker et
al., 1999; Woodland et al., 2002); komatiites (Walker et al., 1999; Gangopadhyay and Walker, 2003; Puchtel et al., 2005); peridotites (Pearson et al., 2004 and references therein).
ultramac lamprophyres. Metasomatic addition of Sr was recognized

previously in peridotites at Pello Hill, Tanzania (Dawson and Smith,
1988), and Lashaine, Tanzania (Ridley and Dawson, 1975).
The combination of isotope results presented in Figs. 46 provide
strong evidence for melts derived from multiple components in the
source region, and the apparent mixing relationships help to constrain
element concentrations in these components. Fig. 3 shows a weak
trend in 143Nd/144Nd vs. 87Sr/86Sr whereas a stronger correlation is
seen between 143Nd/144Nd ( 0.1 to 4.7 units) and 176Hf/177Hf
(Fig. 4). The ankaratrites and mafurites dene a relatively linear trend
in Fig. 4 indicating the likelihood of two components dominating their
NdHf isotope compositions. The relatively linear trend over a limited
range in Nd and Hf isotopic compositions does not constrain the endmembers involved very well so that it is necessary to make some
assumptions about likely contributors to the melting environment.
The scatter on the NdSr isotope diagram may indicate either that
more than two components with similar NdHf isotope systematics
were involved, or that two components were involved but at least one
had heterogeneous Sr isotope ratios. Trends in NdOs and HfOs
isotope diagrams are opposite to SrOs (Fig. 6), and indicate simple
mixing trends like NdHf isotope compositions (Fig. 4).
Recently, the likely roles of metasomes in controlling the elemental
and isotopic characteristics of ultramac lamprophyres have been
highlighted (Andronikov and Foley, 2001; Foley et al., 2002; Carlson
244
Fig. 6. Os isotopes vs. Sr isotopes. Mixing between melts of carbonatite with either (1) MARID metasomes or (2) phlogopiteclinopyroxenite. The shaded regions illustrate that the
data points for Ugandan lavas can be explained if the Sr isotopic compositions of both carbonatitic and metasomatic vein assemblages show a small range due to inhomogenity of
mineral modes (carbonate, phlogopite, amphibole, clinopyroxene and apatite) (see further explanations within text, chapters 3.2. & 3.3.). As for SrNd and NdHf isotopic signatures,
carbonatitic melts (4090%) largely control the SrOs isotopic systematics of the older alkaline silicate metasomatic melt, smearing out evidence for the latter in the source. In
contrast, mixing of melts coming from phlogopiteclinopyroxenite assemblages and carbonatite-rich veins point to balancing contributions from both melts (1090% for both).
et al., 2007; Tappe et al., 2007, 2008). In particular, the potential roles
played by melt contributions from MARID-type and carbonatebearing veins were emphasized and the possible extension of these
models to kamafugites were suggested. We further explore these
possibilities here.
The majority of the kamafugite NdHf isotope data can be modelled
by interaction between two melts. One of these melts could have
originated from a relatively young (100 Ma or younger) vein system
dominated by phlogopite and carbonate (Foley et al., 2002; Tappe et al.,
2008). Lloyd et al. (1987) proposed the inltration of carbonatite-rich
uids/melts accompanied by immiscible siliceous hydrous uids/
melts within the Toro-Ankole lithosphere. Others suggested carbonatite or combined carbonatitesiliceous metasomatism along the
western rift and within the Tanzanian craton (e.g. Dawson and
Smith, 1988; Rudnick and McDonough, 1993; Furman, 1995; Rudnick
et al., 1999). The presence of carbonate keeps the Rb/Sr ratio relatively
low so that the Sr, Nd and Hf isotope composition of this end-member
resembles relatively recent convecting mantle even after 100 Myr. Sr
Nd isotopic signatures of nephelinites and alkali basalts from Rungwe
(Furman and Graham, 1999; and Fig. 10 therein) might be inuenced
by similar processes. The second melt could be derived from much
more ancient metasomes within cratonic lithosphere and has been
attributed to MARID (micaamphibolerutileilmenitediopside)type veins because such assemblages can produce olivine lamproitelike melts (Tappe et al., 2008). No MARID xenoliths are known from
this region, so we draw analogy from the Os compositions of South
African MARID xenoliths (Pearson et al., 1995a) and from enriched Nd
isotope compositions in mica-rich metasomes (Carlson and Irving,
1994). Mixing of melts derived from such veins is consistent with the
NdSr, NdHf and OsSr (Figs. 3, 4 and 6) isotope relations of the
kamafugites as long as one of the end-members has variable Sr isotope
ratios. It is likely that the Sr isotope ratios of both end-members would
vary considerably, depending on the ratios of carbonate to phlogopite
(+/ apatite) in the carbonate-rich veins and on the age and
abundance of phlogopite in the MARID veins. This may be why Nd
Sr isotope systematics in kamafugites (Fig. 3) and other rocks
with similar mixed sources such as aillikites (Tappe et al., 2008) are
relatively scattered.
The strongly hyperbolic trend of Os concentration or MgO against
187
Os/188Os (Fig. 5) is indicative of mixing between two components,
with relatively unradiogenic Os and high Os concentrations and
radiogenic Os but lower Os concentration. The high Os end-member is
probably peridotitic mantle or MARID, or a mixture of the two.
Analysis of MARID veins (Pearson et al., 1995a) show that they have Os
isotope ratios and concentrations that vary from those characteristic
of cratonic peridotites to more radiogenic values but do not reach the
radiogenic values of the lowest 187Os/188Os recorded by the Ugandan
kamafugites.
With these constraints, the radiogenic Os in the Ugandan
kamafugites could be provided by the carbonate-rich vein component.
This would supply less MgO-rich melt with low Os concentrations but
with a radiogenic Os isotopic composition, generating the hyperbolic
trends in Fig. 5. The radiogenic 187Os/188Os of the most MgO-rich rocks
relative to mantle values shows that the trends are not caused by
simple mixing with Os-rich peridotite contaminating the melt. Rather,
they are clear evidence that one of the end-members is a Ni-rich melt
such as olivine lamproite. If all radiogenic Os in the carbonate vein was
derived from metasomatic sulde then this would need approximately 100 Myr to evolve its radiogenic Os if suldes with the most
elevated Re/Os are used (Luguet et al., 2008). Some degree of isotopic
heterogeneity in the mixing end-members can explain the observed
relationships such as Sr/Os (Fig. 6). One katungite sample has very
much more radiogenic Os than the other kamafugites. While this
sample in theory could be dominated by the carbonate-rich vein
contribution, most of its major element characteristics are similar to
other kamafugites (Fig. 2), suggesting that this sample may have
incorporated more radiogenic metasomatic sulde.
The model put forward here is a development of that developed to
explain the origin of other kamafugites and ultramac lamprophyres
(Carlson et al., 1996, 2007; Andronikov and Foley, 2001; Carlson and
Nowell, 2001; Foley et al., 2002). We emphasise the mixing between
two melts, both derived from vein-like metasomes (Tappe et al., 2008)
where the lithophile isotopes are dominated by the metasomatic

assemblages, whereas Os may be inuenced by both metasomatic
components and wall-rock peridotite during the melting process
(Rosenthal et al., 2008). The most MgO-rich katungites from the
Colorado Plateau (Carlson and Nowell, 2001) appear to have
entrained 1530% mantle peridotite, signicantly lowering their
187
Os/188Os ratios. However, the similarity in Os isotope composition of the two MgO-rich Ugandan ugandites (Os = 22 & 27) over a
wide range in MgO (16 and 22.5 wt.%), together with the fact that
the most radiogenic sample has the higher Os content (Fig. 5),
indicates that disaggregation of mantle peridotite during magma
transport cannot be the dominant inuence on the Os isotope
composition of the Ugandan rocks. It is possible that the most MgOrich mafurite, that has the least radiogenic Os isotope composition
of the whole suite (Os = 16), could have been inuenced by this
process. In view of these different inuences, it is not surprising that
Os isotopes do not dene clear easily quantiable relationships with
lithophile isotopes.
3.4. The melting regime of Ugandan kamafugites
The melting temperatures of veined sub-lithospheric mantle will be
suppressed relative to peridotite (Foley et al., 1999), and may be the
cause of the negative Bouguer gravity mantle anomaly beneath the rift
system, rather than enhanced temperatures caused by a mantle plume.
Melting was restricted mainly to the phlogopite stability eld (90 to
200 km depth), as Ugandan kamafugites are too low in Na to be
explained by melting of calcic amphiboles (Green, 1973; Foley,
1991; Niida and Green, 1999). The Ca- and CO2-rich character of
the kamafugites also demands oxidized melting conditions. Calcite is
expected to be stable in this system, and not dolomite or magnesite as in
peridotitic systems (Falloon and Green, 1989).
Melts produced by re-melting of such a source probably depend on
pressure: initial melts at 3045 kbar would be carbonatitic and silicapoor due to the early breakdown of carbonate until the dehydration
solidus of phlogopite is reached. Towards higher pressures, the
distinction between carbonatite and silicate melts may become lost,
and initial melts are both carbonate- and potassium-rich (Foley et al.,
in press).
The range of Ugandan kamafugitic compositions are derived from a
continuum of primary melts that depends on the source mineralogy,
and on the depth of partial melting. Using the composition of the most
refractory ugandite (C4035; Supplemental le S4), a source mineralogy of 29 wt.% phlogopite, 36 wt.% clinopyroxene, 34 wt.% carbonate,
1 wt.% apatite and minor oxides may be the most realistic source
assemblage.
3.5. Geographical variation of source characteristics in the western rift
branch
The occurrence of kamafugites together with carbonatites in the
Toro-Ankole volcanic eld is a local characteristic of the northern
end of the western branch of the East African Rift. Constraints on the
variation of mantle source characteristics along the western rift can
be gained from primitive and uncontaminated mac volcanics with
no or subordinate fractionation. Western rift volcanics from other
elds satisfying these requirements are i.e. K-basanites (Rogers
et al., 1992) and olivine melilitites in Virunga (Denaeyer et al., 1965),
Kivu's alkali basalts and tholeiites (Furman and Graham, 1999) and
Rungwe's picrites (Furman, 1995). Nyiragongo volcanics (Virunga)
are controversial (Platz et al., 2004; Chakrabarti et al., 2009).
These show that SiO2 Na2O, Al2O3, and Na2O/K2O ratios increase,
whereas CaO, K2O, and TiO2 decrease from north to south (Supplemental le S12). Rungwe's picrites deviate fom the trend and are
lower in SiO2 Na2O, Al2O3 and higher in MgO than Virunga and Kivu
samples, but not as low and high as observed in Toro-Ankole
245
kamafugites. Relative to the eastern branch of the East African Rift,

the volcanics of all these elds exhibit elevated K2O/Na2O ratios
(Pouclet, 1980).
The carbonate- and phlogopite-rich vein assemblages are probably
more abundant towards the north of the western rift, as expressed by
the low SiO2 and high CaO, CO2 and K2O contents of the volcanics. The
overall similarity in salient features between kamafugites and
carbonate-rich ultramac lamprophyres that also occur in continental
rifts (Fig. 2; Foley et al., 2002; Tappe et al., 2006) prompts a comparison in conditions of origin of the magmas. K-rich agents which
impregnate the sub-rift mantle probably originate by low-degree
melting of peridotite, which is consistent with pressures greater than
30 kbar, where phlogopite is the only stable hydrous phase (Wyllie,
1978; Wendlandt and Eggler, 1980; Konzett and Ulmer, 1999).
Depending on the character of the mantle peridotite, on the oxygen
fugacity and depth at which melting occurs, sub-rift mantle will be
variably enriched (Foley, 1992b; Green and Falloon, 2005). This
scenario is similar to the invocation of 1% partial melts of a MORBlike mantle source in the genesis Virunga's primitive K-basanites
(Rogers et al., 1992).
Re-melting of phlogopite-bearing assemblages results in potassic
melts, whereas melting of amphibole-bearing assemblages results in
melts with Na2O/K2ON1 (Green, 1973; Foley et al., 1999). The potassic
chemistry characteristic of the western rift may be due to melting in
the presence of both amphibole and phlogopite at depth b90 km, or in
the presence of phlogopite only at depths greater than 100 km in ToroAnkole. In contrast, in the eastern rift melting occurs in the amphibole
zone in the absence of phlogopite at b90 km. The increase in K2O but
decrease in Na2O in western rift volcanics from south to north may be
also due to decreasing involvement of amphibole in their source. The
presence of phlogopite along with amphibole is needed to explain the
strongly potassic and sodic Virunga volcanics (Rogers et al., 1992).
Phlogopite and clinopyroxene alone can not contribute to the strongly
sodic character of Virunga's volcanics as suggested by Chakrabarti
et al. (2009), as Na2O is too low in abundance in the presence of both
(Konzett and Ulmer, 1999). Bearing in mind that amphibole in the
presence of phlogopite can only take up b1.7 wt.% K2O (Mengel and
Green, 1989), and in a phlogopite-free system even less (b0.7 wt.%
K2O) (Green, 1973). Alkali basalts, tholeiites, basanites and picrites at
Kivu and Rungwe can be produced by melting in the presence of
amphibole, as Furman and Graham (1999) also suggested for Rungwe
picrites. An amphibole-free source for Kivu tholeiites and Rungwe
picrites is not reasonable as clinopyroxene cannot yield the alkalies.
Rungwe picrites were estimated by Furman (1995) to be derived from
depths between 70 and 105 km.
If above constraints are correct, then primary magmas from the
north of the western rift arise from deepest levels, whereas the
melting depths of origin towards the south become gradually
shallower. This ts with conclusions drawn by Furman and Graham
(1999) and also low-velocity anomaly being shallowest south of the
Kivu province (Ebinger, 1989b; Simiyu and Keller, 1997).
3.6. Global implications for carbonate-rich rift magmatism
The invocation of similar origins for the metasomatism of the
mantle lithosphere in western Uganda and for diamond-bearing
ultramac lamprophyres in the LabradorQubec region (Tappe et al.,
2008) implies the existence of thick cratonic lithosphere beneath
Toro-Ankole, supported by the discovery of a trace of diamonds in a
xenolith from Toro-Ankole and of a few alluvial diamonds east of the
Bunyaruguru eld (Nixon, 1973). Hence, the sparsity of diamonds in
both kamafugites and ultramac lamprophyres, may be an indication
of oxidizing melting conditions rather than a depth of origin above the
stability limit for diamonds (Foley, 2008). The more recent carbonaterich metasomatic event can be explained by partial melting of
carbonate- and H2O-bearing peridotite at pressures of 4060 kbar,
246
where melts are rich in K2O and carbonate, and have MgO contents
appropriate for the mixing models illustrated in Fig. 5 (Foley et al., in
press). The existence of a continuous thick cratonic lithosphere
extending between the Congo and Tanzania cratons in Uganda
rather than separate cratons explains the apparent northward
plunging base of the lithosphere and of the sources of western rift
magmatism (Foley, 2007; Fig. 7).
The array of magma types seen in the western branch is reminiscent
of those seen at a single locality at Aillik Bay, where ultramac
lamprophyres were emplaced at 600550 Ma during the early stages of
rifting, followed by nephelinites at about 140 Ma (Tappe et al., 2007).
This was explained by three phases of melting; (1) early impregnation
of the cratonic mantle with MARID-type assemblages that later melted
to give rise to lamproites, (2) enrichment of the early sub-rift mantle
with carbonatitic melts prior to ultramac lamprophyres at 600
550 Ma, and (3) melting of amphibole-bearing peridotite at much
higher levels after the rift had thinned the mantle lithosphere (Tappe
et al., 2007). The relative timing of the enrichments beneath the ToroAnkole eld may be similar; rst a potassic alkaline silicate
metasomatism and later a carbonate-rich metasomatism to produce
the array seen in Nd, Sr and Hf isotopes (Figs. 3 and 4).
The mantle enrichment beneath the Toro-Ankole eld thus typies
events during the rst, deepest stage of incipient melting of the
propagating rift, which could progress to shallower, higher-degree
melting at a later stage. The Toro-Ankole volcanics are Pleistocene to
recent, but sample a mantle source region characteristic of the initial
stages of deep continental rifting.
If this scenario is correct, then modication of the sub-western rift
mantle by incipient melting must have begun long before the rst
volcanism is known to have occurred at the surface (12 Ma). Great
longevity of continental rift-related processes is not unusual, as indicated

by the N500 Ma history of the Labrador Sea rift, but the timescale
implied here and required by the Hf and Nd isotopes considerably
predates the rst tectonic indications of formation of the western rift.
4. Summary and conclusions
The youngest and most northerly volcanics of the western branch
of the East African Rift are strongly silica-undersaturated potassic, and
calcium-rich kamafugites and carbonatites. They represent the initial
stage continental rifting, and are reminiscent of ultramac lamprophyres formed in similar regions of erosion of subcratonic lithosphere
from below. The strongly potassic character of kamafugites may be
explained by melting phlogopite-bearing veins at N100 km depth.
Towards the south, melting occurs at shallower levels, involving
amphibole and phlogopite to produce olivine melilitites and basanites
(Virunga), and amphibole alone further south to produce tholeiites in
the Kivu eld.
SrNdHfOs isotope signatures indicate mixing between two
melts; both derived from ultramac vein systems, one a phlogopiterich MARID-type, and the other a younger carbonate-rich, phlogopitebearing metasome. Sr isotopic signatures are dominated by the
carbonate-rich metasome, causing bulk-Earth-like 87Sr/86Sr isotopic
ratios and convecting mantle-like Nd and Hf signatures. The
correlation of the latter two indicate time-integrated enrichment in
incompatible elements in the source caused by the MARID-like
metasome. Relatively unradiogenic Os and high Os contents are also
attributed to MARID-like metasome, even though contributions from
wall-rock peridotite during melting cannot be excluded. This
petrogenetic model implies a similar metasomatic enrichment history
Fig. 7. Cartoon showing the variation in the depth of melting along the western branch of the East African rift. The three volcanic elds are located at the western edge of the
Tanzanian craton (map), and produce different melt types as a result of the depth of melting (insets). The northward increase in K2O, CaO and CO2 and decrease in SiO2 (Pouclet et al.,
1981) are due to melting at depths greater than 100 km where phlogopite is stable and CO2 is derived from earlier near-solidus melts of peridotite at 120150 km (Foley et al., in
press). The southward trend towards alkaline basalts in the Kivu eld (Furman and Graham, 1999) is caused by melting predominantly of peridotite at lower pressures. The insets
indicate a probable plunging of the base of lithosphere to deeper levels towards the north, where the Congo and Tanzanian cratons may be continuous (see further explanations
within text, chapter 3.5.).
beneath thick sub-rift cratonic lithospheric mantle in the western

Uganda and LabradorQubec regions, and emphasizes parallels in
the petrogenesis of rift-related kamafugites and ultramac
lamprophyres.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of AR's diploma (M.Sc.) thesis, and was supported
by the DFG RIFT-LINK Research Unit, NERC and the Geocycles
Programme at the University of Mainz (Geocycles Publ. No. 502).
We thank Greg Yaxley and Luc Andr for constructive discussions, and
Klemens Link, Erasmus Barifaijo, John Tiberindwa and Richard
Armstrong for assistance and discussions on eld relationships. We
gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Chris Ottley with obtaining
trace element data and Steve Laurie of the Cambridge University's
Sedgewick Museum with obtaining Arthur Holmes's samples from the
Harker collection. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for
constructive comments, and Rick Carlson for valuable assistance and
patience during thorough editorial handling. AR warmly thanks
Robert Schott, her family and friends for advice and general support.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.04.036.
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Petrogenese Toro Ankole

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters 284 (2009) 236248

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

Corresponding author. The Australian National University, Research School of Earth

eastern branch, and more potassic ones restricted to the western

unusual chemical feature of the Ugandan kamafugites is their low

nephelinites are also expressed in lower compatible trace element

with only a small trend dened by katungites, mafurites and ugandites

Results for Re and Os concentrations and isotopes are given in

3.1. Crystal fractionation and crustal contamination of kamafugites

common melt (Tappe et al., 2003). Only ankaratrites are related by

The high contents of incompatible elements of the Ugandan

fractionation indicators (Supplemental le S11), kamafugites do not

volatile components (Edgar and Vukadinovic, 1992; Foley, 1992a), but

ultramac lamprophyres. Metasomatic addition of Sr was recognized

where the lithophile isotopes are dominated by the metasomatic

kamafugites. Relative to the eastern branch of the East African Rift,

longevity of continental rift-related processes is not unusual, as indicated

beneath thick sub-rift cratonic lithospheric mantle in the western

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