Brief Report of GENCO Thermal Power Station 3 Muzaffargarrh (Internship Report MNSUET Multan)

Contents
Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants ........................................................... 1-16

1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1-16

1.1. Objectives ......................................................................................................... 1-16
2.
Sources of Energy Fuels ................................................................................. 1-16

1.2. Types of Fuels .................................................................................................. 1-17
1.3. Fossil fuels ........................................................................................................ 1-17
1.4. Coal ................................................................................................................... 1-17
1.5. Hydroelectric .................................................................................................... 1-18
1.6. Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants ............................................................... 1-18
1.7. Micro-Scale ...................................................................................................... 1-18
1.8. Small-Scale ....................................................................................................... 1-18
1.9. Run-of-the-River .............................................................................................. 1-19
1.10. Problems with Hydroelectric Power ............................................................... 1-19
1.11. Advantages and Disadvantages ...................................................................... 1-19
1.12. Solar ................................................................................................................ 1-20
1.13. Problems with Solar Power ............................................................................ 1-20
1.15. Wind ............................................................................................................... 1-21
1.16. Problems ......................................................................................................... 1-21
1.18. Geothermal ..................................................................................................... 1-22
1.20. Ocean Energy ................................................................................................. 1-23
1.21. Tidal Energy ................................................................................................... 1-23
1.22. Wave Energy .................................................................................................. 1-23
1.23. Nuclear Energy ............................................................................................... 1-23
1.24. Nuclear Fission ............................................................................................... 1-24
1.25. Nuclear Fusion ................................................................................................ 1-24
1.26. Classification of Power Plants ........................................................................ 1-24
1.27. By Fuel ........................................................................................................... 1-25
1.28. By Prime Mover ............................................................................................. 1-25
1.29. Steam Turbine Power Station ......................................................................... 1-25
1.30. Gas Turbine Power Station ............................................................................. 1-26
1.31. Pollution.......................................................................................................... 1-27

1.32. Global Warming ............................................................................................. 1-27
1.33. The Advent of Fossil Fuels............................................................................. 1-27
1.34. How Do Fossil Fuels and Biomass Pollute? .................................................. 1-27
1.35. Other Polluting Byproducts of Fossil Fuel and Biomass Burning ................. 1-28
1.36. The Spectrum of Pollution.............................................................................. 1-28
Chapter 2 GENCO Thermal Power Station 3 ........................................................... 2-29
2.1. Thermal Power Station ..................................................................................... 2-29
2.2. Thermal Power Station Muzaffargarh .............................................................. 2-29
2.3. Phase - 1 (Units 1, 2 & 3) ................................................................................. 2-30
2.4. Main Building ................................................................................................... 2-30
2.5. Combined Auxiliary Building .......................................................................... 2-30
2.6. Fuel & Oil Facilities ......................................................................................... 2-31
2.7. Hydraulic Structures ......................................................................................... 2-31
2.8. Startup Boiler .................................................................................................... 2-31
2.9. Electrical Section .............................................................................................. 2-31
2.10. Phase-II (Units 5 & 6) .................................................................................... 2-31
2.11. Overview ........................................................................................................ 2-31
2.12. Boiler .............................................................................................................. 2-32
2.13. Water Tube Type ............................................................................................ 2-32
2.14. Parameter of Boiler......................................................................................... 2-32
2.15. Main Parts of Boiler ....................................................................................... 2-35
2.16. Forced Draft Fan ............................................................................................. 2-35
2.17. Induced Draft Fan (IDF) ................................................................................. 2-36
2.18. Gas Recirculation Fan (GRCF) ...................................................................... 2-37
2.19. Cooling Towers: ............................................................................................. 2-37
2.20. Cooling Water Pump ...................................................................................... 2-38
2.21. Condensate Water Pump ................................................................................ 2-38
2.22. Air Preheater ................................................................................................... 2-39
2.23. Economizers ................................................................................................... 2-39
2.24. Boiler Protection ............................................................................................. 2-40
2.25. Thermal Power Cycle ..................................................................................... 2-41
Chapter 3 Steam Turbines ............................................................................................ 3-42
3.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 3-42

3.1. Rating & Design Data ...................................................................................... 3-42
3.2. Description of Steam Cycle .............................................................................. 3-43

3.3. Process Diagram of Turbine Steam Cycle ....................................................... 3-44
3.4. Classification of Steam Turbines...................................................................... 3-46
3.5. Type of Steam Flow ......................................................................................... 3-47
3.6. Axial Flow ........................................................................................................ 3-47
3.7. Reverse Flow .................................................................................................... 3-47
3.8. Way of Energy Conversion & Types of Blading ............................................. 3-48
3.9. Impulse Blades ................................................................................................. 3-48
3.10. Reaction Blades .............................................................................................. 3-48
3.11. Impulse Stage ................................................................................................. 3-48
3.12. Reaction Stage ................................................................................................ 3-49
3.13. Way of Compounding .................................................................................... 3-50
3.14. Compounding of Impulse Turbine ................................................................. 3-50
3.15. Pressure Compounding Impulse Turbine ....................................................... 3-50
3.16. Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine ........................................................ 3-51
3.17. Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine ......................................... 3-51
3.18. Curtis Stage..................................................................................................... 3-52
3.19. Cylinder arrangement ..................................................................................... 3-52
3.20. Single cylinder construction or Single Flow Turbine. ................................... 3-53
3.21. Tandem construction or Compound Flow Turbine ........................................ 3-53
3.22. Cylinder Arrangement Tandem construction ................................................. 3-53
3.23. Tandem Cross-Compounding Turbine ........................................................... 3-54
3.24. Number of Stages ........................................................................................... 3-54
3.25. Exhaust Conditions ......................................................................................... 3-55
3.26. Condensing ..................................................................................................... 3-55
3.27. Extraction........................................................................................................ 3-55
3.28. Back-Pressure ................................................................................................. 3-55
3.29. Detailed view of the steam extraction ............................................................ 3-56
3.30. Turbine Losses ................................................................................................ 3-57
3.31. Rankine Cycle ................................................................................................ 3-57
3.32. Steam Turbine Components and Relative Equipments................................. 3-58
3.33. Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) ................................................... 3-65
3.34. TSI Benefits .................................................................................................... 3-66
3.35. Principles of Governing .................................................................................. 3-67
3.36. Steam Turbine Speed Control ........................................................................ 3-67
3.37. D-EHC (Digital Electro-Hydraulic Control System) ..................................... 3-68

3.38. Main Steam Stop Valve .................................................................................. 3-68
3.39. Control Valves (Cv) ....................................................................................... 3-69
3.40. Intercept Valves .............................................................................................. 3-69
3.41. Combined Reheat Valves (CRV) ................................................................... 3-70
3.42. Turbine Turning Gear ..................................................................................... 3-70
3.43. Water induction .............................................................................................. 3-71
3.44. Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm ...................................................................... 3-73
3.45. Turbine Lube Oil System ............................................................................... 3-73
3.46. Turbine Gland Sealing .................................................................................... 3-74
3.47. Condenser ....................................................................................................... 3-74
3.48. Specification of Condenser............................................................................. 3-74
3.49. Gland Steam Condenser ................................................................................. 3-74
3.50. Vacuum System .............................................................................................. 3-75
3.51. Vacuum Breaker ............................................................................................. 3-75
3.52. Components of a Turbine Lubricating Oil System ........................................ 3-75
3.53. Turbine Protections ........................................................................................ 3-75
3.54. Steam Turbine Troubleshooting ..................................................................... 3-76
Chapter 4 Furnace Oil Decanting ................................................................................ 4-80
4.
Decanting Section .............................................................................................. 4-80

4.1. Oil Testing Lab: ................................................................................................ 4-80
4.2. Fuel Flow Cycle ............................................................................................... 4-81
4.3. Storage of Fuel ................................................................................................. 4-81
4.4. Specifications of Furnace Oil Storage Tanks ................................................... 4-82
4.5. Recirculation Pump .......................................................................................... 4-82
4.6. Purpose of RC Pumps ....................................................................................... 4-82
4.7. First Lift Pump ................................................................................................. 4-83
4.8. Second Lift Pump ............................................................................................. 4-83
Chapter 5 Boiler Section ............................................................................................... 5-85

5.
What is Boiler?................................................................................................... 5-85

5.1. Components of Boiler Drum ............................................................................ 5-85
5.2. Boiler Systems .................................................................................................. 5-85
5.3. Boiler Specification .......................................................................................... 5-86
5.4. Mini Boiler ....................................................................................................... 5-86
5.5. Mini Boiler Specification ................................................................................. 5-86
5.6. Construction of Boiler ...................................................................................... 5-87

5.7. Super Heaters .................................................................................................... 5-88
5.8. Steam Reheaters ............................................................................................... 5-89
5.9. Furnace ............................................................................................................. 5-90
5.10. Why Furnace is Important? ............................................................................ 5-92
5.11. Types of Furnace ............................................................................................ 5-92
5.12. Furnace Draft .................................................................................................. 5-92
5.13. Natural Draft ................................................................................................... 5-92
5.14. Mechanical Draft ............................................................................................ 5-92
5.15. What could we do when the Unit is to be running at minimum load? ........... 5-93
5.16. Gas Recirculation Fan (G.R.C Fan) ............................................................... 5-93
5.17. Advantages of G.R.C Fan ............................................................................... 5-93
5.18. Boiler Soot Blower System ............................................................................ 5-93
5.19. Super Heater Soot Blower System ................................................................. 5-93
5.20. R.A.H Soot Blower System ............................................................................ 5-93
5.21. Economizer Shot Blasting .............................................................................. 5-93
5.22. Flue Gas Cycle ............................................................................................... 5-94
5.23. Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS) ............................................ 5-95
5.24. Burners............................................................................................................ 5-95
5.25. Components of Burner ................................................................................... 5-96
5.26. Combustion Air .............................................................................................. 5-96
5.27. Combustion Air Cycle Description ................................................................ 5-97
5.28. What is R.A.H and which purpose it is used? ................................................ 5-97
5.29. Economizer ..................................................................................................... 5-98
Chapter 6 Cooling Tower Section ................................................................................ 6-99
6.
What is Cooling Tower? .................................................................................... 6-99

6.1. Classification of Cooling Tower ...................................................................... 6-99
6.2. Cooling Tower Section of GENCO-III ............................................................ 6-99
6.3. Condensate Water Cycle ................................................................................ 6-100
Chapter 7 Electrical Section ....................................................................................... 7-102

7.
Generator .......................................................................................................... 7-102

7.1. Working Principle .......................................................................................... 7-102
7.2. Synchronous Generator .................................................................................. 7-103
7.3. Some problems with slip rings and brushes. .................................................. 7-104
7.4. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator ...................................... 7-104
7.5. Excitation of Generator .................................................................................. 7-105

7.6. Separately Excited Generator ......................................................................... 7-105
7.7. Self-Excited Generator ................................................................................... 7-105
7.8. Synchronous Generator in TPS ...................................................................... 7-105
7.9. Exciter generator ............................................................................................ 7-105
7.10. Cooling System of Turbo Generator ............................................................ 7-106
7.11. Stator cooling ................................................................................................ 7-106
7.12. Rotor Cooling ............................................................................................... 7-106
7.13. Protections of Generator ............................................................................... 7-107
7.14. Longitudinal differential current protection ................................................. 7-107
7.15. Lateral differential current protection .......................................................... 7-107
7.16. Earth fault protection of stator winding ....................................................... 7-107
7.17. Differential protection of the unit ................................................................. 7-107
7.18. Negative sequence current protection .......................................................... 7-107
7.19. Over current protection against overloading of generator............................ 7-107
7.20. External symmetrical short circuit protection .............................................. 7-107
7.21. Protection against asynchronous mode, when excitation loss ...................... 7-107
7.22. Protection of generator rotor against overloading ........................................ 7-108
7.23. Earth fault protection in one point of excitation circuit ............................... 7-108
7.24. Protection against voltage increase at generator at idle operation ............... 7-108
7.25. Zero sequence current protection ................................................................. 7-108
7.26. Differential protection of the exciter ............................................................ 7-108
7.27. Over current protection of exciter against external short circuit .................. 7-108
7.28. Switch Yard .................................................................................................. 7-108
7.29. Circuit Breaker ............................................................................................. 7-109
7.30. The Necessary Capabilities of Breaker: ....................................................... 7-109
Chapter 8 Water Treatment Section ......................................................................... 8-111
8.1. Hydrogen Plant ............................................................................................... 8-111
8.2. DC Power Supply ........................................................................................... 8-112
8.3. Electrolyzer ..................................................................................................... 8-112
8.4. Separating Column ......................................................................................... 8-112
8.5. Gas Scrubber................................................................................................... 8-112
8.6. Dryer ............................................................................................................... 8-112
8.7. Receiver Tanks ............................................................................................... 8-112
8.8. Demineralization plant ................................................................................... 8-112
8.9. Mechanical Clarifier filters............................................................................. 8-113

8.10. Cation filter ................................................................................................... 8-113
8.11. Decarbonized exhaust ................................................................................... 8-113
8.12. Anion filter ................................................................................................... 8-113
8.13. Cation 2nd filter ............................................................................................ 8-113
8.14. Storage tanks................................................................................................. 8-113
8.15. Water treatment ............................................................................................ 8-114
8.16. Installed Capacity in Pakistan (GW & Percentage) ..................................... 8-114
8.17. Cost of Electricity ......................................................................................... 8-115
8.18. Generation Data ............................................................................................ 8-115
Chapter 9 QadBros Engineering Services ................................................................. 9-118
9.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 9-118

9.1. QADRI BROTHERS (PVT) LTD. (Unit-1) .................................................. 9-118
9.2. QADRI BROTHERS (PVT) LTD. (Unit-2) .................................................. 9-119
9.3. QADCAST (PVT) LTD. ................................................................................ 9-119
9.4. QADRI FOUNDRY (PVT) LTD. .................................................................. 9-119
9.5. QADBROS ENGINEERING (PVT) LTD. .................................................... 9-119
9.6. QADRI ENGINEERING (PVT) LTD ........................................................... 9-119
9.7. QADRI FORGE (subsidiary of QADRI BROTHER ..................................... 9-119
9.8. QADRI SONS (PVT) LTD ............................................................................ 9-120
9.9. KASHIF TRADEHOUSE (PVT) LTD .......................................................... 9-120
9.10. Departments .................................................................................................. 9-120
9.11. Facilities........................................................................................................ 9-120
9.12. Products ........................................................................................................ 9-120
9.13. Quality Certification ..................................................................................... 9-121
9.14. Scope ............................................................................................................ 9-121
Chapter 10 Production, Planning & Control ......................................................... 10-122

10.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 10-122
10.1. Production, Planning & Control Sections .................................................. 10-122

10.2. Project Planning .......................................................................................... 10-122
10.3. Core Planning ............................................................................................. 10-123
10.4. Material Handling ....................................................................................... 10-123
10.5. Material Management Group ..................................................................... 10-123
10.6. General Stores ............................................................................................ 10-124
10.7. Production Technology Department........................................................... 10-124
10.8. Dispatch Cell .............................................................................................. 10-124

10.9. Work Procedure of PPC ............................................................................. 10-125
Chapter 11 Fabrication Shop .................................................................................. 11-126
11.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 11-126
11.1. Fabrication Techniques .............................................................................. 11-126

11.2. Planning and Control (CTC) ...................................................................... 11-127
11.3. Marking and Layout Section ...................................................................... 11-127
11.4. Marking Section ......................................................................................... 11-128
11.5. Marking Tools ............................................................................................ 11-128
11.6. Surface plate or marking out table.............................................................. 11-128
11.7. Angle Plates ................................................................................................ 11-128
11.8. Scriber ......................................................................................................... 11-128
11.9. Height Gauge or Scribing Block ................................................................ 11-128
11.10. Surface Gauge .......................................................................................... 11-128
11.11. Marking Blue ............................................................................................ 11-128
11.12. Protractor .................................................................................................. 11-128
11.13. Tri-Square ................................................................................................. 11-128
11.14. Punches ..................................................................................................... 11-128
11.15. Dividers or Measuring Compass .............................................................. 11-129
11.16. Cutting Section or Flame Cutting ............................................................. 11-129
11.17. What is flame cutting................................................................................ 11-129
11.18. Process ...................................................................................................... 11-129
11.19. Flame Cutting Equipments ...................................................................... 11-129
11.20. Joining Operations .................................................................................... 11-130
11.21. Soldering ................................................................................................... 11-130
11.22. Brazing...................................................................................................... 11-130
11.23. Welding .................................................................................................... 11-130
11.24. Classification of Welding ......................................................................... 11-130
11.25. SMAW ...................................................................................................... 11-130
11.26. Purpose of Flux on Welding Electrode .................................................... 11-131
11.27. GTAW ...................................................................................................... 11-131
11.28. Polarity of Current in GTAW ................................................................... 11-132
11.29. GMAW ..................................................................................................... 11-132
11.30. SAW ......................................................................................................... 11-132
11.31. Recommendations .................................................................................... 11-132
Chapter 12 Machine Shop ....................................................................................... 12-133

12.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 12-133
12.1. Five Ms ...................................................................................................... 12-133

12.2. Division of Shop ......................................................................................... 12-133
12.3. Sequence of Operation ............................................................................... 12-133
12.4. Explanation ................................................................................................. 12-134
12.5. Raw Materials Used in Machine Shop ....................................................... 12-134
12.6. Products Seen in Machine Shop ................................................................. 12-134
12.7. Tools used in Machine Shop ...................................................................... 12-135
12.8. Machines/Equipment installed in Machine Shop ....................................... 12-135
12.9. Machining Operations ................................................................................ 12-136
12.10. Machining ................................................................................................. 12-136
12.11. Turning and Related Operations ............................................................... 12-136
12.12. Turning ..................................................................................................... 12-136
12.13. Facing ....................................................................................................... 12-136
12.14. Chamfering ............................................................................................... 12-136
12.15. Threading .................................................................................................. 12-136
12.16. Lathe Machines ........................................................................................ 12-136
12.17. Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe................................................. 12-137
12.18. Boring Machine ........................................................................................ 12-137
12.19. Vertical Boring Mill ................................................................................. 12-137
12.20. Drilling...................................................................................................... 12-137
12.21. Milling Machine and Operation ............................................................... 12-137
12.22. Basic Types of Milling Operations .......................................................... 12-138
12.23. Peripheral milling or plain milling: .......................................................... 12-138
12.24. Face milling .............................................................................................. 12-138
12.25. Shaper Machine ........................................................................................ 12-138
12.26. Planar Machine ......................................................................................... 12-138
12.27. Pedestal Grinding Machine ...................................................................... 12-138
12.28. Production Planning Section .................................................................... 12-138
12.29. Working .................................................................................................... 12-139
12.30. Routes ....................................................................................................... 12-139
12.31. Route 1 ...................................................................................................... 12-139
12.32. Route 2 ...................................................................................................... 12-139
12.33. Route 3 ...................................................................................................... 12-139

Chapter 13 Heat Treatment Shop ........................................................................... 13-141
13.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 13-141
13.1. Selective Surface Hardening / Case Hardening ......................................... 13-141

13.2. Flame hardening ......................................................................................... 13-141
13.3. Recommendations ...................................................................................... 13-141
Chapter 14 Non-Destructive Testing ...................................................................... 14-142
14.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 14-142
14.1. NDT Techniques ........................................................................................ 14-142

14.2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) ............................................................................. 14-142
14.3. Probe types ................................................................................................. 14-143
14.4. Advantages ................................................................................................. 14-143
14.5. Limitations .................................................................................................. 14-143
14.6. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) ............................................................... 14-143
14.7. Dye Penetrating Test (DPT) ....................................................................... 14-143
14.8. Principle ...................................................................................................... 14-143
14.9. Inspection steps .......................................................................................... 14-144
14.10. Universal Crack Depth Meter X-RT-705 ................................................. 14-144
Chapter 15 Material Testing ................................................................................... 15-145
15.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 15-145
15.1. Test Performed in MTL .............................................................................. 15-145

15.2. Quick analysis ............................................................................................ 15-146
15.3. Metallography............................................................................................. 15-146
15.4. Process Diagram of Metallographic Testing .............................................. 15-147
15.5. Chemical Analysis ...................................................................................... 15-147
15.6. which Materials can be tested??? ............................................................... 15-147
15.7. Mechanical Testing .................................................................................... 15-148
15.8. Impact Testing Machine ............................................................................. 15-148
15.9. Hardness Tester .......................................................................................... 15-148
Chapter 16 Assembly Shop ...................................................................................... 16-149
16.
Introduction .................................................................................................... 16-149
16.1. Temporary Fastening .................................................................................. 16-149

16.2. Permanent Fastening .................................................................................. 16-149
16.3. Assembly .................................................................................................... 16-149

16.4. Why we prefer mechanical assembly? ....................................................... 16-149
16.5. Threaded fasteners ...................................................................................... 16-150
16.6. Screw, Bolts and Nuts ................................................................................ 16-150
16.7. Washer ........................................................................................................ 16-150
16.8. Assembly Shop ........................................................................................... 16-150
16.9. Tools and Methods for threaded fasteners ................................................. 16-151
16.10. Rivets ........................................................................................................ 16-151
16.11. Types of Fittings ....................................................................................... 16-151
16.12. Fits ............................................................................................................ 16-151
16.13. Clearance fit .............................................................................................. 16-151
16.14. Interference fit .......................................................................................... 16-151
16.15. Transition fit ............................................................................................. 16-152
16.16. Assembly Systems .................................................................................... 16-152
16.17. Hole Basis System .................................................................................... 16-152
16.18. Shaft Basis System ................................................................................... 16-152
Chapter 17 Quality Control Department ............................................................... 17-153
17.
Quality Control Procedures............................................................................ 17-153
17.1. Hold point (H) ............................................................................................ 17-154

17.2. Witness Point (W) ...................................................................................... 17-154
17.3. Spot Witness (SW) ..................................................................................... 17-154
17.4. Review (R) .................................................................................................. 17-154
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 hydroelectric power .................................................................................................... 1-19
Figure 1-2 Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant ................................................................................ 1-26
Figure 1-3 Gas Turbine Combined Cycle .................................................................................... 1-27
Figure 2-1 Flow Diagram of Energy Conversion ........................................................................ 2-32
Figure 2-2 Gate Type Furnace ..................................................................................................... 2-34
Figure 2-3 Regenerative Air PreHeater ....................................................................................... 2-39
Figure 2-4 Thermal Cycle ............................................................................................................ 2-41
Figure 3-1 Steam Cycle ............................................................................................................... 3-43
Figure 3-2 Turbine Steam Cycle .................................................................................................. 3-44
Figure 3-3 Steam Turbine Cross-Section View ........................................................................... 3-45
Figure 3-4 Steam flow ................................................................................................................. 3-46
Figure 3-5 Type of Steam Flow ................................................................................................... 3-47
Figure 3-6. Reverse Flow ............................................................................................................. 3-47
Figure 3-7 Impulse Blades ........................................................................................................... 3-48
Figure 3-8 Reaction Blades ......................................................................................................... 3-48
Figure 3-9 Impulse Stage ............................................................................................................ 3-49
Figure 3-10 Reaction Stage ......................................................................................................... 3-49
Figure 3-11 Impulse & Reaction Turbine .................................................................................... 3-50
Figure 3-12 Pressure Compounding Impulse Turbine ................................................................ 3-51
Figure 3-13 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine .................................................................. 3-51
Figure 3-14 Pressure-velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine .................................................... 3-52
Figure 3-15 Curtis stage ............................................................................................................... 3-52
Figure 3-16 Single cylinder turbines............................................................................................ 3-53
Figure 3-17 Three Cylinder Turbine ............................................................................................ 3-54
Figure 3-18 cross compound turbines .......................................................................................... 3-54
Figure 3-19 Exhaust Conditions .................................................................................................. 3-55
Figure 3-20 TS Diagram for Rankine Cycle ................................................................................ 3-58
Figure 3-21 Steam Turbine Components ..................................................................................... 3-59
Figure 3-22 The casings of turbine .............................................................................................. 3-60
Figure 3-23 The casings of turbine .............................................................................................. 3-61
Figure 3-24 Steam Turbine Blades .............................................................................................. 3-61
Figure 3-25 Stationary Blade or Diaphragm ................................................................................ 3-62
Figure 3-26 Various root fixing shapes ....................................................................................... 3-63
Figure 3-27 labyrinth seal ............................................................................................................ 3-64
Figure 3-28 Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation ...................................................................... 3-65

Figure 3-29 main stop valve ........................................................................................................ 3-69
Figure 3-30 The control valves .................................................................................................... 3-69
Figure 3-31 combined reheat valves ............................................................................................ 3-70
Figure 3-32 motor driven turning gear......................................................................................... 3-71
Figure 3-33 atmospheric relief diaphragm ................................................................................... 3-73
Figure 4-1. Fuel Flow Cycle ........................................................................................................ 4-81
Figure 4-2 RC (Recirculation) pump ........................................................................................... 4-82
Figure 4-3 furnace oil from the main heaters............................................................................... 4-84
Figure 5-1 Boiler Drum ............................................................................................................... 5-88
Figure 5-2 Attemperator. ............................................................................................................. 5-89
Figure 5-3 steam reheaters ........................................................................................................... 5-90
Figure 5-4 Furnace ....................................................................................................................... 5-90
Figure 5-5 Furnace Gate Type ..................................................................................................... 5-91
Figure 5-6 Flue gases ................................................................................................................... 5-94
Figure 5-7 Flue gases ................................................................................................................... 5-95
Figure 5-8 Burner ......................................................................................................................... 5-96
Figure 5-9 regenerative air heater ................................................................................................ 5-97
Figure 5-10 regenerative air heater .............................................................................................. 5-98
Figure 5-11 Economizer .............................................................................................................. 5-98
Figure 6-1 Cooling classification ................................................................................................. 6-99
Figure 6-2 taleeri canal .............................................................................................................. 6-100
Figure 6-3 C.W water cycle ....................................................................................................... 6-101
Figure 7-1 synchronous generator ............................................................................................. 7-103
Figure 8-1 Hydrogen plant ......................................................................................................... 8-111
Figure 8-2 Demineralized plant ................................................................................................. 8-113
Figure 10-1 Material requirement planning ............................................................................. 10-124
Figure 10-2 PPC ....................................................................................................................... 10-125
Figure 11-1 Metal fabrication .................................................................................................. 11-126
Figure 11-2 Central Technical Cell.......................................................................................... 11-127
Figure 11-3 Shielded metal arc welding .................................................................................. 11-131
Figure 15-1 Metallographic Testing ........................................................................................ 15-147
List of Tables
Table 2-1 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-30
Table 2-2 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-33
Table 2-3 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-36
Table 2-4 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-37
Table 2-5 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-37
Table 2-6 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-38
Table 2-7 ...................................................................................................................................... 2-38
Table 3-1 ...................................................................................................................................... 3-57
Table 3-2 ...................................................................................................................................... 3-74
Table 3-3 ...................................................................................................................................... 3-78
Table 3-4 ...................................................................................................................................... 3-79
Table 4-1 ...................................................................................................................................... 4-82
Table 4-2 ...................................................................................................................................... 4-83
Table 4-3 ...................................................................................................................................... 4-84
Table 5-1 ...................................................................................................................................... 5-86
Table 5-2 ...................................................................................................................................... 5-87
Table 5-3 ...................................................................................................................................... 5-96
List of Graphs
Graphs 8-1 .................................................................................................................................. 8-114
Graphs 8-2 .................................................................................................................................. 8-115
Graphs 8-3 .................................................................................................................................. 8-115
Graphs 17-1 .............................................................................................................................. 17-154
Graphs 17-2 .............................................................................................................................. 17-155
Graphs 17-3 .............................................................................................................................. 17-155
Graphs 17-4 .............................................................................................................................. 17-156
Graphs 17-5 .............................................................................................................................. 17-156
Graphs 17-6 .............................................................................................................................. 17-157
Graphs 17-7 .............................................................................................................................. 17-157
Chapter
1
1. Introduction
Whenever, we are going to study about the power plants, we must know about the sources
of energy. In this unit, we will be discussing the concepts of various power plants, their advantages
and disadvantages. Fuels used in the power plants. The important fuels used in the power plants
like, coal, diesel, steam, uranium, etc. are also clearly described here. A complex of structures,
machinery, and associated equipment for generating electric energy from another source of energy,
such as nuclear reactions or a hydroelectric dam. Also called generating station, power station. A
power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000
Watts. These are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the
cities or the load centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with
several operating constraints like the waste disposal etc. For this reason, a power generating station
has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact that the power is transmitted
efficiently over the entire distance. And thats why, the transformer switch yard to regulate
transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.
1.1. Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand the concept of power plant.
understand the types of power plants.
know the types of fuels, and describes the main components of power plants.
2. Sources of Energy Fuels

There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us can be stored,
converted, and amplified for our use. To help understand the key energy sources that will play an
important role in the worlds future, it is required to familiarize with some of the history, theory,
economics, and problems of the various types of energy. The energy sources have been split into
three categories: fossil fuels, renewable sources, and nuclear sources. The fossil fuels here are coal,
Page 1-16 of 157
Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants

petroleum, and natural gas. The renewable energy sources are solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass,
and geothermal power. The nuclear-powered sources are fission and fusion.
1.2. Types of Fuels

1.3. Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels have been a widely used source of energy ever since the Industrial Revolution just
before the dawn of the 20th century. Fossil fuels are relatively easy to use to generate energy
because they only require a simple direct combustion. However, a problem with fossil fuels is their
environmental impact. Not only does their excavation from the ground significantly alter the
environment, but their combustion leads to a great deal of air pollution.
The theory behind fossil fuels is actually quite simple. Burning coal, natural gas, and petroleum
releases energy stored in the fuel as heat. The energy contained by the fuels is derived from the
energy of the sun. The heat that is recovered upon combustion of the fuel can be used by us in
several ways. Industrial processes that require extremely high temperatures may burn a great deal
of very pure coal known as coke and use the energy released to directly heat a system. Some
people make use of clean burning natural gas to heat their homes. Combustion of fossil fuels can
also be used to generate electricity; the fuel is burned to heat water, and the steam from the boiling
water spins turbines that power a generator, thereby manufacturing electricity.
1.4. Coal
About 300 million years ago, enormous ferns and other prehistoric plants were common on the
swamp-like earth. When those plants died and fell to the ground, they were covered with water and
they slowly decomposed. As decomposition took place in the absence of oxygen, much of the
hydrogen content of the matter was eroded away, leaving a material rich in carbon. The material
was compressed over the years by sand and dirt, leaving the form of carbon known as coal.
The nature of coal is such that the higher the carbon content, the more cleanly and brilliantly the
coal burns. Thus peat, which is the state of the decomposing plants before being compressed, is
a weak, impure substance. The other states of coal from lowest carbon content to highest are lignite,
bituminous coal, and anthracite coal. If the coal is heated and compressed even more, the result is
graphite, almost completely pure carbon. Nearly all the different forms of coal are used in some
way or another. For instance, peat has been used for burning in furnaces, whereas bituminous coal
is used extensively for the generation of electricity. Coke, a very pure form of coal with high heat
content is used primarily in the steel industry, where high temperatures are required.
Page 1-17 of 157
1.5. Hydroelectric
Man has utilized the power of water for years. Much of the growth of early colonial industry can
be attributed to hydropower. Because fuel such as coal and wood were not readily available to
inland cities, settlers were forced to turn to other alternatives. Falling water was ideal for powering
saw mills and grist mills. As coal became a better-developed source of fuel, however, the
importance of hydropower decreased.
Theory Hydroelectric systems make use of the energy in running water to create electricity. In coal
and natural gas systems, a fossil fuel is burned to heat water. The steam pressure from the boiling
water turns propellers called turbines. These turbines spin coils of wire between magnets to produce
electricity. Hydro powered systems also make use of turbines to generate electrical power; however,
they do so by using the energy in moving water to spin the turbines. Water has kinetic energy when
it flows from higher elevations to lower elevations. In larger scale hydroelectric plants, large
volumes of water are contained by dams near the generator and turbines. The forebay is a storage
area for water that must be deep enough that the penstock is completely submerged. The water is
allowed to flow into the electricity-generating system through a passage called the penstock. The
controlled high-pressure water spins the turbines, allowing the generator to produce an electric
current. The powerhouse contains and protects the equipment for generating electricity. The highpressure water exits the system through a draft tube. The fish ladder attempts to minimize the
environmental impact of hydroelectric systems by providing a path for migrating fish to take.
1.6. Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

1.7. Micro-Scale
As their name implies, micro-hydroelectric plants are the smallest type of hydroelectric energy
systems. They generate between one kilowatt and one megawatt of power. The main application
for these hydro systems is in small, isolated villages in developing countries. They are ideal for
powering smaller services such as the operation of processing machines.
1.8. Small-Scale
Small hydropower systems can supply up to 20 megawatts of energy. These systems are relatively
inexpensive and reliable. They have the potential to provide electricity to rural areas in developing
countries throughout the world. Small systems are especially important to countries that may not
be able to afford the costs of importing fossil fuels such as petroleum from other countries.
Chapter 1-18 of 157
1.9. Run-of-the-River
In some areas of the world, the flow rate and elevation drops of the water are consistent enough that
hydroelectric plants can be built directly in the river. The water passes through the plant without
greatly changing the flow rate of the river. In many instances a dam is not required, and therefore
the hydroelectric plant causes minimal environmental impact on its surroundings. However, one
problem with run-of-the-river plants is the obstruction of fish and other aquatic animals. This and
other problems are discussed in the next section.
Figure 1-1 hydroelectric power
1.10. Problems with Hydroelectric Power

Although hydroelectric power is admittedly one of the cleanest and most environmentally-friendly
sources of energy, it too has the capability to alter or damage its surroundings. Among the main
problems that have been demonstrated by hydroelectric power is significant change in water quality.
Because of the nature of hydroelectric systems, the water often takes on a higher temperature, loses
oxygen content, experiences siltation, and gains in phosphorus and nitrogen content. Another major
problem is the obstruction of the river for aquatic life. Salmon, which migrate upstream to spawn
every year, are especially impacted by hydroelectric dams. Fortunately, this problem has been dealt
with by the production of fish ladders. These structures provide a pathway for fish to navigate past
the hydroelectric dam construction.
1.11. Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Inexhaustible fuel source
Minimal environmental impact
Viable source--relatively useful levels of energy production
Can be used throughout the world
Disadvantages
Smaller models depend on availability of fast flowing streams or rivers.
Run-of-the-River plants can impact the mobility of fish and other river life.
Chapter 1-19 of 157

Note: Building a fish ladder can lessen this negative aspect of hydroelectric power.
1.12. Solar
The name solar power is actually a little misleading. In fact, most of the energy known to man is
derived in some way from the sun. When we burn wood or other fuels, it releases the stored energy
of the sun. In fact, there would be no life on earth without the sun, which provides energy needed
for the growth of plants, and indirectly, the existence of all animal life. The solar energy scientists
are interested in energy obtained through the use of solar panels. Although the field of research
dealing with this type of solar power is relatively new, one should bear in mind that man has known
about the energy of the sun for thousands of years.
Theory There are two ways in which solar power can be converted to energy. The first, known as
solar thermal applications, involve using the energy of the sun to directly heat air or a liquid. The
second, known as photoelectric applications, involve the use of photovoltaic cells to convert solar
energy directly to electricity. There are two types of solar thermal collectors. The first, known as
flat plate collectors, contain absorber plates that use solar radiation to heat a carrier fluid, either a
liquid like oil or water, or air. Because these collectors can heat carrier fluids to around 80 C, they
are suited for residential applications. The second type of solar collectors is known as concentrating
collectors. These panels are intended for larger-scale applications such as air conditioning, where
more heating potentials required. The rays of the sun from a relatively wide area are focused into a
small area by means of reflective mirrors, and thus the heat energy is concentrated. This method
has the potential to heat liquids to a much higher temperature than flat plate collectors can alone.
The heat from the concentrating collectors can be used to boil water. The steam can then be used to
power turbines attached to generators and produce electricity, as in wind and hydroelectric power
systems. Photovoltaic cells depend on semiconductors such as silicon to directly convert solar
energy to electricity. Because these types of cells are low-maintenance, they are best suited for
remote applications. Solar power has an exciting future ahead of it. Because solar power utilizes
the sun's light, a ubiquitous resource (a resource that is everywhere), solar panels can be attached
to moving objects, such as automobiles, and can even be used to power those objects. Solar powered
cars are being experimented with more and more frequently now.
1.13. Problems with Solar Power

Solar power is actually one of the cleanest methods of energy production known. Because solar
panels simply convert the energy of the sun into energy that mankind can use, there are no harmful
byproducts or threats to the environment. One major concern is the cost of solar power. Solar panels
(accumulators) are not cheap; and because they are constructed from fragile materials
(semiconductors, glass, etc.), they must constantly be maintained and often replaced. Further, since
Chapter 1-20 of 157

each photovoltaic panel has only about 40% efficiency, single solar panels are not sufficient power
producers. However, this problem has been offset by the gathering together of many large panels
acting in accord to produce energy. Although this setup takes up much more space, it does generate
much more power.

Advantages
Inexhaustible fuel source.
No pollution.
Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.
Versatile is used for powering items as diverse as solar cars and satellites.
Disadvantages
Very diffuse source means low energy production large numbers of solar panels (and thus
large land areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity.
Only areas of the world with lots of sunlight are suitable for solar power generation.
1.15. Wind
Mankind has made use of wind power since ancient times. Wind has powered boats and other sea
craft for years. Further, the use of windmills to provide power for the accomplishment of
agricultural tasks has contributed to the growth of civilization. This important renewable energy
source is starting to be looked at again as a possible source of clean, cheap energy for years to come.
1.16. Problems
One of the main problems with wind power is the space that is used up by the so-called wind farms.
In some cases, the space taken up can seriously alter the environment. The good news is that
although wind farms require a great deal of square mileage, there is quite a bit of space between the
actual wind machines. This space can be used for agricultural purposes. Another problem with wind
power is that relatively speaking, it does not generate very much energy for the price. Perhaps this
setback is made up for in friendliness to the environment.

Advantages
Inexhaustible fuel source.
No pollution.
Disadvantages
Very diffuse source means low energy production large numbers of
Chapter 1-21 of 157
wind generators (and thus large land areas) are required to produce
useful amounts of heat or electricity.
Only areas of the world with lots of wind are suitable for wind power
generation.
Relatively expensive to maintain.
1.18. Geothermal
The center of the earth can reach 12000 degrees Fahrenheit. Just imagine if we could tap that heat
for our own use. Well, geothermal systems do just that. Convection (heat) currents travel quite near
the surface in some parts of the world.
Theory The earths crust is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The heat is carried by
magma or water beneath the earth's surface. Some of the heat reaches the surface and manifests
itself in geysers and hot springs throughout the world. Geothermal power can be used to directly
heat buildings. Further, the pressurized steam from superheated water beneath the earths surface
can be used to power turbines and thus generate electricity.
Although geothermal power seems ideal in that it is naturally occurring and does not require
structures to trap or collect the energy (as in solar panels or windmills), it does have limitations.
The greatest drawback is that naturally occurring geothermal vents are not widely available.
Artificial vents have been successfully drilled in the ground to reach the hot rocks below and then
injected with water for the production of steam. However, oftentimes the source of heat is far too
deep for this method to work well. Nor can geothermal power realistically generate enough
electricity for the entire country or any large industrialized nation. A good-sized hot spring can
power at most a moderate sized city of around 50,000 people. And there just isnt enough viable
hot springs to power all the cities in any large country.

Advantages
Theoretically inexhaustible energy source.
No pollution.
Does not require structures such as solar panels or windmills to collect the energy can be
directly used to heat or produce electricity (thus very cheap).
Disadvantages
Not available in many locations.
Not much power per vent.
Chapter 1-22 of 157
1.20. Ocean Energy

1.21. Tidal Energy
Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the rotation of the earth. Near
shore, water levels can vary up to 40 feet. Only a few locations have good inlets and a large enough
tidal range- about 10 feet- to produce energy economically. The simplest generation system for tidal
plants involves a dam, known as a barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates on the barrage allow the
tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to empty through the turbine system on the outgoing
tide, also known as the ebb tide. There are two-way systems that generate electricity on both the
incoming and outgoing tides. Tidal fences can also harness the energy of tides. A tidal fence has
vertical axis turbines mounted in a fence. All the water that passes is forced through the turbines.
They can be used in areas such as channels between two landmasses. Tidal fences have less impact
on the environment than tidal barrages although they can disrupt the movement of large marine
animals. They are cheaper to install than tidal barrages too. Tidal turbines are a new technology that
can be used in many tidal areas. They are basically wind turbines that can be located anywhere there
is strong tidal flow. Because water is about 800 times denser than air, tidal turbines will have to be
much sturdier than wind turbines. They will be heavier and more expensive to build but will be able
to capture more energy.
1.22. Wave Energy

Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. There is tremendous energy
in the ocean waves. The total power of waves breaking around the worlds coastlines is estimated
at 2-3 million megawatts. The west coasts of the US and Europe and the coasts of Japan and New
Zealand are good sites for harnessing wave energy. One way to harness wave energy is to bend or
focus the waves into a narrow channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be
channeled into a catch basin or used directly to spin turbines. There are no big commercial wave
energy plants, but there are a few small ones. Small, on-shore sites have the best potential for the
immediate future; they could produce enough energy to power local communities. Japan, which
imports almost all of its fuel, has an active wave-energy program.
1.23. Nuclear Energy

In a universe, energy and matter have a common origin. None the energy nor the matter can be
created or destroyed; instead they just change their state. As well, they are convertible to each other.
Albert Einstein was the first man who explained this relation by the well known
formula:
=
Chapter 1-23 of 157

This equation defines:
() equals to () times ( ). By looking in
close, we may find the enormous energy exist in a small piece of material. The name of atom comes
from Greek language, referring to smallest part of nature. Nowadays we have a better knowledge
on atom structure, and we know a nucleus, surrounded by electrons, form the atoms. This structure
is somehow similar to our solar system.
1.24. Nuclear Fission

Any try for splitting a part a nucleus will cause a tremendous energy be released. This energy would
be released in both forms of heat and light. In a harnessed, controlled way of doing this, a useful
energy for producing electricity is possible. Doing this at once would result to a big explosion, as
seen in an automatic bomb.
In a nuclear power plant, uranium is the element used as fuel. Uranium is found in many parts of
the world but in a low quantity. It is loaded in to the reactor in a tiny pallet form inside long rods.
Fission meaning splitting a part is what happens in a reactor. Here uranium atoms are split in a
paced controlled chain of reactions. Inside a reactor the intensity of crashes is harnessed by
inserting-taking of control roads. In an atomic bomb a different process occurs, by using almost
pure pieces of elements-uranium 235 or plutonium, in a precise mass and shape, burning them
together in a great force. As we see there is no requisite like this in a reactor. Byproducts of such
reactions are radioactive materials. If released, they would be gravely harmful. Knowing this, strong
structures must keep the materials in the case of any accident. The released heat energy would be
used for boiling water in the core of reactor. So instead of burning fuel, we may use the heat of
reactor core. By sending the hot water around the nuclear to the heat exchanger section, water filled
pipes produce steam needed for steam turbine.
1.25. Nuclear Fusion

In another form of nuclear reaction, joining of smaller nuclei makes a larger nucleus. Such a process
in sun changes the hydrogen atoms to helium. The result heat and light we receive in earth. In a
more detailed explanation, two different types of atoms, deuterium and tritium, combine to make a
helium plus and extra particle called neutron. There has been a fierce competition among scientists,
but to their frustration, they have yet trouble in controlling reaction in a closed space. The advantage
of fusion is its abundance of supply (hydrogen) as well as its less radioactive material than fission.
1.26. Classification of Power Plants

Power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover installed.
Chapter 1-24 of 157
1.27. By Fuel
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine, which transforms
thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy
Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactors heat to operate a steam turbine generator.
Fossil fuel powered plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of Natural
gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine.
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.
Renewable energy plants may be fueled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste,
landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energydensity, fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power
generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
1.28. By Prime Mover
Steam turbine plants use the pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a
turbine.
Gas turbine plants use the heat from gases to directly operate the turbine.
Natural-gas fueled turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply peak energy
during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and
steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This
greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and newest base load power plants are
combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.
Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated
communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants.
Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to
provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fueled by diesel oil,
heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.
Micro turbines, stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low cost
solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment
plants and waste gas from oil production.
1.29. Steam Turbine Power Station

The conversion from coal to electricity takes place in three stages:
Chapter 1-25 of 157

Stage 1 The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the boiler furnace
to produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air combine to produce Carbon Dioxide
(2) and heat.
Figure 1-2 Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant

Stage 2 The second stage is the thermodynamic process:
a) The heat from combustion of the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In modern
power plant, boilers produce steam at a high pressure and temperature.
b) The steam is then piped to a turbine.
c) The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets of blades in the turbine.
d) The impulse and the thrust created rotate the turbine.
e) The steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.
Stage 3 In the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to produce electricity
based of Faradays Principle on electromagnetic induction.
1.30. Gas Turbine Power Station

The schematic arrangement of a gas turbine power plant is shown The main components of plants
are:
1. Compressor
2. Regenerator
3. Combustion Chamber
4. Gas Turbine
5. Alternator
6. Starting motor
Chapter 1-26 of 157
Figure 1-3 Gas Turbine Combined Cycle
1.31. Pollution
1.32. Global Warming
Scientists believe that global warming is caused by the Greenhouse effect. The
greenhouse effect describes the accumulation of carbon dioxide in our earths atmosphere. A layer
of gas forms that traps heat inside the atmosphere, thereby acting as the glass ceiling of a
greenhouse. Because heat is trapped by the carbon dioxide, it is believed that the earth is slowly
warming. A potential danger of global warming is the melting of the so-called polar ice caps at the
north and south poles. This occurrence would cause the ocean level to rise and perhaps flood many
coastal cities.
1.33. The Advent of Fossil Fuels

Before humans were around on the earth, there was a relatively even
recycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Plants require carbon dioxide to live, and they emit oxygen
in return. Animals, on the other hand, need oxygen, but exhale carbon dioxide. But as humans began
to burn fossil fuels to create energy (especially beginning just before the 20th century during the
Industrial Revolution), more and more carbon dioxide was emitted into the air until the balance was
slowly destroyed.
1.34. How Do Fossil Fuels and Biomass Pollute?

All fossil fuels and biomasses consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When these fuels are burned,
or combusted, carbon atoms unite with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide:
Chapter 1-27 of 157
1.35. Other Polluting Byproducts of Fossil Fuel and Biomass Burning

Carbon dioxide is not the only byproduct of direct combustion of fuel. Small particulates that can
become imbedded in the human respiratory system are also emitted. Particulates can cause coughing
and damage to the lungs. Further, they can lead to cancer and lung disease. Carbon monoxide is
produced when less oxygen is available in the immediate area. Carbon monoxide is more directly
harmful to humans because it is odorless, colorless, and reduces the bodys ability to transport
oxygen. This leads to fatigue, nausea, and headaches.
1.36. The Spectrum of Pollution

Materials on the low end of the energy scale such as wood and charcoal create the most pollution.
Sources on the high end of the energy scale, such as natural gas burn very cleanly resulting in less
air pollution.
Chapter 1-28 of 157
Chapter
2
2. Northern Power Generation Company Limited (GENCO-III)
NPGCL Muzaffargarh is located in the middle of the country between the River Indus and River
Chenab, 2.5 Km to North-West of Muzaffargarh Town in District Muzaffargarh. The nearest
Airport facility is at Multan at a distance of 45 Km North-East of Muzaffargarh.
2.1.
Thermal Power Station
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated,
turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator or does some
other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a
condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest
variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to
use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical
energy.
2.2. Thermal Power Station Muzaffargarh

This Power Station is a vital and major thermal power generating installation connected with
National grid system in Pakistan. This Power Station was constructed in different Phases having
total capacity of 1370 MW. Sand Dunes of area known as Rakh Khanpur, at a distance of 6 km.
from Muzaffargarh City, is located Thermal Power Complex. A few years back nobody perceived
that such a desert would yield green trees, more than 1,500 families would be residing here and a
Power Station will turn into a huge Power Complex. Now, with the day and night efforts of foreign
as well as Pakistani engineers, technicians and workers, the complex has grown to the realities with
three sky-high chimneys, being highest concrete structure in Pakistan and visible from the bridge
of River Chenab, which is flowing to the east of the site at distance of 8 KM. In September, 1987
contract of supply and erection of a 3x210 MW capacity Thermal Power Station was signed with
M/s. TECHNOPROMEXPORT of ex-USSR, Moscow, and 1,134 acres of government land was
acquired.
It consists of:
Page 2-29 of 157
Chapter 2 GENCO Thermal Power Station 3

Unit No.
Installed
Capacity
Rated
Capacity
Make
Commissioning
Date
ST-1
210 MW
200 MW
USSR
Sep. 1993
ST-2
210 MW
200 MW
USSR
Mar. 1994
ST-3
210 MW
200 MW
USSR
Feb. 1995
ST-4
320 MW
300 MW
China
Dec. 1996
ST-5
200 MW
200 MW
China
Dec. 1995
ST-6
200 MW
200 MW
China
Dec. 1995
Fuel Type
P. Gas, F.
Oil
P. Gas, F.
Oil
P. Gas, F.
Oil
P. Gas, F.
Oil
P. Gas, F.
Oil
P. Gas, F.
Oil
Table 2-1
Initially, about 230 acres land for the Power Station and 164 acres for residential colony
was leveled and subsequently construction was started. Later on contracts with Chinese firm, M/s.
CMEC, were signed for three units in two stages - Two Units each of 210 MW and one unit of 320
MW. In this way a power complex emerged which is going to be the biggest of all Thermal Stations
in Pakistan with the possibility of construction of two more units. Presently, the total generation
capability of three phases is envisaged as 1,370 MW.
2.3. Phase - 1 (Units 1, 2 & 3)

This phase consists of three steam units each capable of generating 210 MW electricity. The
supplier started delivery of equipment to site in January, 1989, and after pre-assembly of equipment
at Site, erection started in July, 1990. Unit No. 1 was commissioned in September, 1993 and Unit
No. 2 in March, 1994.
2.4. Main Building

It contains the turbine hall having a span of 45 meters and deaerator bay, 12 meters wide. The steam
turbines which drive generators are of three stages condensing type arranged transversely to the
axis of turbine hall. The operational platform is at elevation 12.6 meters and a maintenance bay at
ground floor near Unit No. 1. The power plant is designed on the block principle: boiler-turbinegenerator-unit transformer. The fuel gas exhaust section of two units is connected with a 200-meterhigh stack, outer section of which is a 195-meter high concrete shell.
2.5. Combined Auxiliary Building

The building is connected with the main building and it houses water treatment plant to produce
100 t/h demineralized water for the replenishment of station losses, hydrogen plant to provide
hydrogen for cooling of generators rotors, maintenance shops, laboratories and central control
room.
Chapter 2-30 of 157
2.6. Fuel & Oil Facilities

Fuel oil facilities are constructed for decanting, oil storage, preparation and supply of fuel to boiler
nozzles. It also includes HSD storage as well as oil facilities for reception, storage, purification and
centralized delivery of turbine oil and insulating oil to power plant.
2.7. Hydraulic Structures

The cooling water used in condensers is re-circulated in closed cycle with inducted draft cooling
towers. The water is being cooled for each unit in two cooling towers each consisting of eight fans.
Two cooling towers carry 27,500 Cu m/h circulating water for condensers of one unit.
2.8. Startup Boiler

One startup boiler using diesel oil as fuel with steam output of 50 t/h is provided to meet steam
requirement for initial start of unit as well as a backup of power plant auxiliaries. A separate stack
of 30-meter high has been constructed for it.
2.9. Electrical Section

The electricity generated at 15.75 KV is brought out from Unit transformer at 220 KV and fed to
the National Grid via a switchyard. Power Plant auxiliaries are fed at 6.6 KV.
2.10. Phase-II (Units 5 & 6)

It consists of two units of 210 MW each having equipment similar to Phase-I. Turbines are placed
longitudinally in main building. Outdoor boilers exhaust of two units is connected to one stack.
2.11. Overview
There are many different types of power plants including thermal power plants and hydel power
plants. Thermal power plants use fuel such as Gas, HSD, Furnace Oil or nuclear fuel to produce
heat energy that is converted to electrical energy through a series of intermediate processes. Hydel
power plants convert the potential energy of water to electrical power as it flows from higher to
lower elevations.
The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine cycle plant, named after the man who
invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in which a fluid, generally
water/steam, is used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy. The Rankine cycle in its simplest
form consists of a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a boiler feed pump. Early plants had thermal
efficiencies of approximately 25% to 30%. Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in the fuel burned
in these plants was converted to electrical energy. The rest was lost in various ways.
The Rankine cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made more efficient by
the addition of components like Economizer, Feed water heaters, Super heaters and Reheaters. The
Chapter 2-31 of 157

efficiency of the Rankine cycle has also been improved by increasing the pressure and temperature
of the cycle. The laws of thermodynamics and considerations such as material limitations have
prevented any significant improvement since then. Power plants commonly use heat rate to measure
efficiency.
Fuel Energy
Boiler
Heat Energy
Turbine
Mechanical
Energy
Generator
Electrical
Energy
Figure 2-1 Flow Diagram of Energy Conversion
2.12. Boiler
The boiler is the main part of any thermal power plant. It converts the fuel energy into steam energy.
The fuel may be furnace oil, diesel oil, natural gas or coal. The boilers may be fired from the
multiple fuels. The type of boiler used in the TPS phase-II is water tube type.
2.13. Water Tube Type

In watertube boilers, boiler water passes through the tubes while the exhaust gases remain in the
shell side, passing over the tube surfaces. Since tubes can typically withstand higher internal
pressure than the large chamber shell in a firetube, watertube boilers are used where high steam
pressures (as high as 3,000 psi) are required. Watertube boilers are also capable of high efficiencies
and can generate saturated or superheated steam. The ability of watertube boilers to generate
superheated steam makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry, highpressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation.
2.14. Parameter of Boiler

Sr. No.
Parameter of Boiler
Units
680 /
Rated evaporating amount
Reheat steam amount
575.8 /
Main steam pressure
140 /2
Temperature
Outlet pressure of Reheat system
541
23.8 /2
Chapter 2-32 of 157

541
Outlet Temperature of Reheat System
Inlet pressure of Reheat System
Inlet Temperature of Reheat System
310
Feed water Temperature
251
10
Boiler Efficiency (burn oil)
90.26%
11
Boiler Efficiency (burn gas)
85%
12
Exit gas Temperature (burn oil)
153
13
Exit gas Temperature (burn gas)
136
14
Consumption of crude oil
15
Consumption of natural gas
25.8 /2
48.2 /
59650 2 /
Table 2-2
Chapter 2-33 of 157
Figure 2-2 Gate Type Furnace
Chapter 2-34 of 157
2.15. Main Parts of Boiler

The boilers consist of the following main parts.
1. Forced Draft Fan (FDF)
2. Air Preheater (RAH)
3. Burners
4. Furnace
5. Up Rise Tubes
6. Down Comer Tubes
7. Water Tubes
8. Super Heaters
9. Gas Recirculation Fan (GRCF)
10. Re-Heater
11. Induced Draft Fan (IDF)
12. Chimney
13. Boiler Drum
14. Economizer
2.16. Forced Draft Fan

The forced draft fan (FDF) sucks the air from the atmosphere which is used in the furnace for
burning. The air from the atmosphere is passed through the filter to remove the dust and other
particles from the air. The air from the FDF is then feeded to the regenerative air heaters.
The motor of the FDF has following specification
Sr. No.
Parameter of Force Draft Fan
Units
Type
KK 800 11- 8
Rated Voltage
6.6KV
Rated Current
114 /121.3A
Rated Speed
747 RPM
Output
1000KW
Connection of Stator /Rotor
Insulation Class
Permissible Rise
80K
Chapter 2-35 of 157

40
Ambient Temperature
10
No. Of Phase
11
Rated Frequency
50Hz
12
Power Factor
0.81
13
Degree of Protection
IP54
14
Moment of Inertia
15
Weight
310. 2
13250Kg
Table 2-3
2.17. Induced Draft Fan (IDF)

ID fan sucks the flue gases from boiler and exhaust through chimney. The motor of the IDF has
following specification.
Sr. No.
Parameter of Induced Draft Fan
Units
Type
YKK 800 11- 6
Rated Voltage
6.6KV
Rated Current
20 A
Rated Speed
991 RPM
Output
2000KW
2Y
Insulation Class
Permissible Rise
80K
Ambient Temperature
40
10
No. Of Phase
11
Rated Frequency
50Hz
12
Power Factor
0.81
13
IP54
14
Moment of Inertia
410. 2
Chapter 2-36 of 157

Weight
15
15970Kg
Table 2-4
2.18. Gas Recirculation Fan (GRCF)

The motor of the Gas Recirculation Fan (GRCF) has following specification.
Sr. No.
Parameter of Gas Recirculation Fan
Units
Type
KK 400 11- 4
Rated Voltage
6.6KV
Rated Current
34 A
Rated Speed
1491 RPM
Rated Power
315 KW
Insulation Class
Permissible Rise
70K
Ambient Temperature
50
10
No. Of Phase
11
Rated Frequency
50Hz
12
Power Factor
0.81
13
IP54
14
Moment of Inertia
15
Weight
11.7. 2
3200 Kg
Table 2-5
2.19. Cooling Towers:

Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere.
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working
fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the
dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, chemical plants, power stations.
Chapter 2-37 of 157
2.20. Cooling Water Pump

The motor of the CWP has following specification.
Sr. No.
Parameter of Cooling Water Pump
Units
Type
Y1600-16/2150
Stator Voltage
6.6KV
Stator Current
182 A
Rated Speed
372 RPM
Output Power
1600 KW
Connection of Stator
Insulation Class
Ambient Temperature
No. Of Phase
10
Rated Frequency
50Hz
11
Power Factor
0.81
12
Weight
2Y
B
50
3
17500 Kg
Table 2-6
2.21. Condensate Water Pump

The Pump has following specification.
Sr. No.
Parameter of Condensate Water Pump
Units
Type
1400S25-1
Capacity
16003 /
Rated Speed
370 RPM
Rated Power
1600 KW
Head
Weight
25 m
35000 Kg
Table 2-7
Chapter 2-38 of 157
2.22. Air Preheater

An air preheater or air heater is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air before
another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of increasing the
thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system
or to replace a steam coil. The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue
gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue
gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack. It also allows control
over the temperature of gases leaving the stack.
Figure 2-3 Regenerative Air PreHeater
2.23. Economizers
Flue gases from large boilers are typically 450 - 650F. Stack Economizers recover some of this
heat for pre-heating water. The water is most often used for boiler make-up water or some other
need that coincides with boiler operation. Stack Economizers should be considered as an efficiency
measure when large amounts of make-up water are used (i.e. not all condensate is returned to the
boiler or large amounts of live steam are used in the process so there is no condensate to return) or
there is a simultaneous need for large quantities of hot water for some other use. The savings
potential is based on the existing stack temperature, the volume of makeup water needed, and the
hours of operation. Economizers are available in a wide range of sizes, from small coil-like units to
very large waste heat recovery boilers. The savings potential is a function of how much heat can be
recovered, which is a function of how much cold water needs to be heated. A generally accepted
"rule of thumb" is that about 5% of boiler input capacity can be recovered with a properly sized
economizer. A higher percentage can be recovered with a Flue Gas Condenser, assuming there is
enough cold water to condense all of the flue gas that is available. Therefore, for 'ball parking'
Chapter 2-39 of 157

purposes, start by comparing boiler input capacity with the need to heat water. An economizer that
recovers 5% of boiler input should easily have a 2-years payback in a year-round application.
2.24. Boiler Protection

1. Fuel protection
2. Gas pressure protection
3. Diesel oil protection
4. Furnace oil protection
5. FD fan trip
6. ID fan trip
7. Regenerative air pre heater trip
8. Drum level high
9. Drum low level
10. Reheat steam pressure drop
11. Furnace pressure low
12. Furnace flame out
13. Natural gas pressure high
Chapter 2-40 of 157
2.25. Thermal Power Cycle
Boiler Drum
HP Cylinder
Re-Heater
IP Cylinder
LP Cylinder
Condenser
Hot Well
Condensate
Pump
Air Ejector
Vent Steam
Condenser
LP Heater 1
Stage 1
Gland Steam
Condenser
LP Heater
Stage 2
LP Heater
2,3,4
Deaerator
Tank
Feed Tank
Feed Water
Pump 1,2,3
HP Heaters
5,6,7
Economizer
Boiler Drum
Figure 2-4 Thermal Cycle
Chapter 2-41 of 157
Chapter
3
3. Introduction
A steam Turbine is a device that extracts Thermal Energy from Pressurized steam and uses it to do
Mechanical Energy OR Steam Turbine is a device where Kinetic Energy converted into
Mechanical Energy. Turbine used in Thermal Power Station Muzaffargarh is impulse-reaction
steam turbine. The load requirement is controlled by the steam flow through a governing valve.
Maximum steam flow at full load is 670 tons/hour. When the load at the generator is suddenly
decreased then the rpm (frequency) of the generator is increased and to decrease the frequency we
lower down the steam flow which decreases the speed and maintains the frequency. If load is
suddenly increased rotor speed becomes slower, to increase the speed, steam flow is increased.
3.1. Rating & Design Data

OEM: Power Machines OJSC (Russia)
Model: k-210-130-8
3 Cylinder Tandem Compound Multistage Steam turbine (HP-IP-LP)
Condensing Turbine
Rated Power: 210MW
RPM: 3000
Dimensions: 19 x 6.5 x 5.5 (LWH) in meters
Inlet Temp: 540C
Inlet Pressure: 130
Exhaust Pressure: Nearly 1
Dual flow steam turbine
IP and LP turbines are Dual Reverse flow steam turbine
Page 3-42 of 157
Chapter 3 Steam Turbines
Number of Extractions are 7
Total stages 29
1. HP Turbine = 12 stages
2. IP Turbine = 11 stages
3. LP Turbine = 06 stages
3.2. Description of Steam Cycle

Steam from the boiler after passes through the super heaters enter into steam main and then passes
through the following equipments.
1. Steam from the steam main at 540 & 130kg/cm2 entre into the governing system of the
H.P turbine and then to H.P turbine.
2. Firstly, steam strikes to the cultus wheel and then passes through the fixed and the moving
blades of all other stages.
3. Steam at 130kg/cm2 and 540 entre into H.P turbine and leaves at 27.5kg/cm2 and 330.
4. Then this steam goes to the reheaters for reheat and finally it entre into the I.P turbine at
25.5kg/cm2 and 540.
5. After I.P steam goes to L.P turbine through cross over pipe.
6. Finally, after the energy conversion steam entre into the condenser for the changing its 2
phase from gaseous to liquid.
Figure 3-1 Steam Cycle
Chapter 3-43 of 157
3.3. Process Diagram of Turbine Steam Cycle
Figure 3-2 Turbine Steam Cycle
Chapter 3-44 of 157
Figure 3-3 Steam Turbine Cross-Section View
Chapter 3-45 of 157
Figure 3-4 Steam flow
3.4. Classification of Steam Turbines

In order to better understand turbine operation, Four Basic Classifications are discussed. Type of
Steam Flow & Division of Steam Flow, describes the flow of steam in relation to the axis of the
rotor. Indicates whether the steam flows in just one direction or if it flows in more than one
direction. Way of Energy Conversion & Type of Blading, Reaction, Impulse and Impulse &
Reaction Combine. identifies the blading as either impulse blading or reaction blading. Type of
Compounding & Cylinder arrangement refers to the use of blading which causes a series of
pressure drops, a series of velocity drops, or a combination of the two. (number of cylinders;
whether single, tandem or cross-compound in design). Exhausting Condition & Number of Stages
Chapter 3-46 of 157

is determined by whether the turbine exhausts into its own condenser or whether it exhausts into
another piping system.
3.5. Type of Steam Flow

Turbines may be classified according to the direction of steam flow in relation to the turbine
wheel or drum.
1. Axial
2. Radial
3. Mixed Tangential or Helical
Figure 3-5 Type of Steam Flow
3.6. Axial Flow

The great majority of turbines, especially those of high power, are axial flow. In such turbines the
steam flows in a direction or directions parallel to the axis of the wheel or rotor. The axial flow type
of turbine is the most preferred for electricity generation as several cylinders can be easily coupled
together to achieve a turbine with a greater output.
3.7. Reverse Flow

In some modern turbine designs the steam flows
through part of the high pressure (HP) cylinder and
then is reversed to flow in the opposite direction
through the remainder of the HP cylinder. The
benefits of this arrangement are: outer casing joint
flanges and bolts experience much lower steam
conditions than with the one direction design
reduction or elimination of axial (parallel to shaft)
Figure 3-6. Reverse Flow
thrust created within the cylinder lower steam

pressure that the outer casing shaft glands have to accommodate.
Chapter 3-47 of 157
3.8. Way of Energy Conversion & Types of Blading

The heat energy contained within the steam that passes through a turbine must be converted into
mechanical energy. How this is achieved depends on the shape of the turbine blades. The two basic
blade designs are
1. Impulse Turbines
2. Reaction Turbines
**Impulse & Reaction Combine
3.9. Impulse Blades

Impulse blades work on the principle of high pressure steam
striking or hitting against the moving blades. Impulse blades
are usually symmetrical and have an entrance and exit angle
of approximately 20. They are generally installed in the
higher pressure sections of the turbine where the specific
volume of steam is low and requires much smaller flow areas
than that at lower pressures. The impulse blades are short
and have a constant cross section.
Figure 3-7 Impulse Blades
3.10. Reaction Blades

The principle of a pure reaction turbine is that all the energy contained within the steam is converted
to mechanical energy by reaction of the jet of steam as it
expands through the blades of the rotor. A simple reaction
turbine is shown in Figure 19. The rotor is forced to rotate
as the expanding steam exhausts the rotor arm nozzles. In
a reaction turbine the steam expands when passing across
the fixed blades and incurs a pressure drop and an increase
in velocity. When passing across the moving blades the
steam incurs both a pressure drop and a decrease in
velocity.
3.11. Impulse Stage
Figure 3-8 Reaction Blades
In Impulse Stage Whole pressure drop in nozzle (whole enthalpy drop is changed into kinetic energy
in the nozzle). Impulse Stage an impulse stage consists of stationary blades forming nozzles through
which the steam expands, increasing velocity as a result of decreasing pressure. The steam then
strikes the rotating blades and performs work on them, which in turn decreases the velocity (kinetic
energy) of the steam. The stream then passes through another set of stationary blades which turn it
back to the original direction and increases the velocity again though nozzle action.
Chapter 3-48 of 157
Figure 3-9 Impulse Stage
3.12. Reaction Stage

In Reaction Stage Pressure drop both in stationary blades and in rotary blades (enthalpy drop
changed into kinetic energy both in stationary blades and in the moving blades in rotor). Reaction
Turbine both the moving blades and the non-moving blades designed to act like nozzles. As steam
passes through the non-moving blades, no work is extracted. Pressure will decrease and velocity
will increase as steam passes through these non-moving blades. In the moving blades work is
extracted. Even though the moving blades are designed to act like nozzles, velocity and pressure
will decrease due to work being extracted from the steam.
Figure 3-10 Reaction Stage
Chapter 3-49 of 157
Figure 3-11 Impulse & Reaction Turbine
3.13. Way of Compounding

3.14. Compounding of Impulse Turbine
This is done to reduce the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits. (A rotor speed
of 30,000 rpm is possible, which is pretty high for practical uses.) Compounding is achieved by
using more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series, keyed to a common shaft; so that
either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. Three main types
of compounded impulse turbines are.
1. Pressure compounded
2. velocity compounded
3. pressure and velocity compounded impulse turbines
3.15. Pressure Compounding Impulse Turbine

With pressure compounding the total steam pressure to exhaust pressure is broken into several
pressure drops through a series of sets of nozzles and blades. Each set of one row of nozzles and
one row of moving blades is referred to as a stage. This involves splitting up of the whole pressure
drop from the steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure into a series of smaller pressure drops
across several stages of impulse turbine. The nozzles are fitted into a diaphragm locked in the
casing. This diaphragm separates one-wheel chamber from another. All rotors are mounted on the
same shaft and the blades are attached on the rotor. Pressure staging is also known as RATEAU
staging.
Chapter 3-50 of 157
Figure 3-12 Pressure Compounding Impulse Turbine
3.16. Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine

Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine When the velocity energy produced by one set of fixed
nozzles is unable to be efficiently converted into rotational motion by one set of moving blades then
it is common to install a series of blades as shown in Figure 24. This arrangement is known as
velocity compounding.
Velocity drop is arranged in many small drops through many moving
rows of blades instead of a single row of moving blades. It consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles
and rows of moving blades attached to the rotor or the wheel and rows of fixed blades attached to
the casing.
Figure 3-13 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
3.17. Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine

This is a combination of pressure-velocity compounding. Most modern turbines have a combination
of pressure and velocity compounding. This type of arrangement provides a smaller, shorter and
Chapter 3-51 of 157

cheaper turbine; but has a slight efficiency trade off. Turbines using this arrangement are often
referred to as CURTIS turbines after the inventor. Individual pressure stages (each with two or
more velocity stages) are sometimes called CURTIS stages.
Figure 3-14 Pressure-velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
3.18. Curtis Stage

This setup of a nozzle followed by a set of moving blades, non-moving blades, and moving blades
makes up a single Curtis stage. After steam exits the nozzle there are no further pressure drops.
However, across both sets of moving blades there is a velocity drop. This causes the Curtis stage to
be classified as velocity compounded blading.
Figure 3-15 Curtis stage
3.19. Cylinder arrangement

Turbines can be arranged either single cylinder or multi-stage in design. The multi-stage can be
either velocity, pressure or velocity-pressure compounded (discussed as earlier).
Chapter 3-52 of 157
3.20. Single cylinder construction or Single Flow Turbine.

Single cylinder turbines have only one-cylinder casing (although may be is multiple sections).
Steam enters at the high pressure section of the turbine and passes through the turbine to the low
pressure end of the turbine then exhausts to the condenser.
Figure 3-16 Single cylinder turbines
3.21. Tandem construction or Compound Flow Turbine

Modern turbines are manufactured in multiple sections also called cylinders. Greater output and
efficiency can be achieved by coupling a number of individual cylinders together in what is referred
to as tandem (on one axis). Tandem compound Large electric power generating turbines commonly
have a high pressure casing, which receives superheated steam directly from the boiler or steam
generator. The high pressure turbine may then exhaust to an intermediate pressure turbine, or may
pass back to a reheat section in the boiler before passing to a reheat intermediate pressure turbine.
The reheat turbine may then exhaust to one or more low pressure casings, which are usually two
exhaust flow turbines, with the low pressure steam entering the middle of the turbine and flowing
in opposite directions toward two exhaust end before passing into the condenser. When the turbine
casings are arranged on a single shaft, the turbine is said to be tandem compounded.
3.22. Cylinder Arrangement Tandem construction

Three Cylinder Turbine It has a double flow LP cylinder with an IP cylinder arranged so that the
steam flow through it is in the opposite direction to the HP cylinder. This design also greatly reduces
the axial thrust on the rotor.
Chapter 3-53 of 157
Figure 3-17 Three Cylinder Turbine
3.23. Tandem Cross-Compounding Turbine

In cross compound turbines, the high-pressure, exhaust passes over to intermediate or low pressure
casings which are mounted on separate shafts. The two shafts may drive separate loads, or may be
geared together to a single load. In some larger overseas installations that operate at 60 hertz
(frequency) the use of cross-compounding is sometimes employed. Cross-compounding is where
the HP and IP cylinders are mounted on one shaft driving one alternator while the LP cylinders are
mounted on a separate shaft driving another alternator. This is done so as the LP cylinder with its
large diameter blading can be operated at a greatly reduced speed thus reducing the centrifugal
force.
Figure 3-18 cross compound turbines
3.24. Number of Stages

1. Single stage
2. Multi-stage
Chapter 3-54 of 157

The stage is a set of moving blades behind the nozzle. In a reaction turbine, each row of blades is
called a "stage." A single Curtis stage may consist of two or more rows of moving blades.
3.25. Exhaust Conditions

1. Condensing
2. Extraction
3. Back-pressure
Figure 3-19 Exhaust Conditions
3.26. Condensing
The condensing turbine processes result in maximum power and electrical generation efficiency
from the steam supply and boiler fuel. The power output of condensing turbines is sensitive to
ambient conditions. The cooling water condenses the steam turbine exhaust steam in the condenser
creating the condenser vacuum. As a small amount of air leaks into the system when it is below
atmospheric pressure, a relatively small compressor (Vacuum pump) or Air Ejector System
removes non-condensable gases from the condenser.
3.27. Extraction
In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or more stages, at one or more pressures, for
heating, plant process, or feed water heater needs. They are often called "bleeder turbines . The
steam extraction pressure may or may not be automatically regulated. Regulated extraction permits
more steam to flow through the turbine to generate additional electricity during periods of low
thermal demand by the CHP (Combined Heat Power) system. In utility type steam turbines, there
may be several extraction points, each at a different pressure corresponding to a different
temperature. The facilitys specific needs for steam and power over time determine the extent to
which steam in an extraction turbine is extracted for use in the process.
3.28. Back-Pressure
The non-condensing turbine (also referred to as a back-pressure turbine) exhausts its entire flow of
steam to the industrial process or facility steam mains at conditions close to the process heat
requirements.
Chapter 3-55 of 157

Where the steam of vent steam condenser and gland steam condenser comes from?
Steam for the vent & gland steam condenser comes from the venting steam of auxiliaries and from
the gland packing of valves also the sealing steam of the turbine and the valves respectively. They
are U-shaped shell & tube heat exchanger in which steam is in the shell and tubes contains the feed
water for utilizing their energy.
Where the steam of H.P & L.P heater come from?
Steam for the H.P & L.P heater are the bleeding steam of different stages of the turbine. this steam
could be extracts from the turbine for three purposes,
To avoid in the leakages of expanded steam from turbine body.
To reduce the pressure of the steam in order to make it useful for next stages.
To avoid thermal stresses developed in the turbine body.
3.29. Detailed view of the steam extraction

Total Extractions = 7
High Pressure Heaters = 3
Low Pressure Heaters = 4
First extraction is done at 9th stage of High Pressure turbine,
Extraction
No.
H.P
Extraction
01
H.P
Extraction
02
I.P
Extraction
03
I.P
Extraction
04
I.P
Extraction
05
I.P
Extraction
06
Pressure
Temperature
Kg/cm2
Flow
of
Steam
t/hr.
41.2
381
32.9
28.1
332
45.3
12.8
448
19.5
6.8
359
25.3
2.9
255
20.6
1.26
168
25.3
Heater
No.
Chapter 3-56 of 157

L.P
Extraction
07
0.28
67
12.3
Table 3-1
For 210MW generation 640t/hr. flow of steam is required, if the unit is running at its full load
capacity then,
Total Steam from boiler = 640t/hr.
Total extraction = 181.2 t/hr.
Steam to condenser = 458.8 t/hr.
3.30. Turbine Losses

In actual practice, not all of the energy in the steam is converted to useful work. Losses common to
all turbines are described below.
Loss of Working Substance Loss of steam along the shaft through the shaft glands where the shaft
penetrates the casing. Work loss. Loss due to mechanical friction between moving parts. Throttling
loss. Wherever there is a reduction in steam pressure without a corresponding production of work,
such as in a throttle valve. Leaving loss. The kinetic energy of the steam leaving the last stage
blading. This leaving loss can be minimized by lightly loading the last stage blading by increasing
the annular exhaust area of the turbine. This is often optimized through economic studies. Windage
loss. This is caused by fluid friction as the turbine wheel and blades rotate through the surrounding
steam. Friction loss as the steam passes through nozzles and blading. Diaphragm packing loss as
the steam passes from one stage to another through the diaphragm packing. Tip leakage loss in
reaction turbines as steam passes over the tips of the blades without doing any useful work.
3.31. Rankine Cycle

Rankine cycle with superheat Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an
external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. Process 3-3': The vapors are superheated.
Process 3-4 and 3'-4': The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur. Process 41: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure to become a
saturated liquid.
Chapter 3-57 of 157
Figure 3-20 TS Diagram for Rankine Cycle
3.32. Steam Turbine Components and Relative Equipments

1. Foundation
2. Rotor or Shaft
3. Cylinder or Casing
4. Blades
5. Diaphragm
6. Steam Chest
7. Coupling
8. Bearings
9. Labyrinth Seal
10. Front Pedestal
11. TSI (Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation)
12. D-EHC (Governor) Digital Electro Hydraulic Control System
13. MSV (Main Steam Stop Valve)
14. CV (Control Valve)
15. IV (Intercept Valve)
16. CRV (Combined Reheat Valve)
17. Turbine Turning Gear
18. Turbine Bypass & Drains
19. Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm (Rupture Disk)
20. Lube Oil System
21. EHC Oil System (Electro Hydraulic Controlled)
22. Gland Steam System
23. Condenser
Chapter 3-58 of 157

24. Steam Jet Ejector
25. Vacuum Breaker
Figure 3-21 Steam Turbine Components

Frame (Base): supports the stator, rotor and governor pedestal.
Shell: Consists cylinder, casing, nozzles, steam chest & bearing.
Rotor: Consists of low, intermediate, and high pressure stage blades, and possible stub shaft (s) for
governor pedestal components, thrust bearing, journal bearings, turning gear & main lube oil
system.
Governor Pedestal: Consists of the EHC oil system, turbine speed governor, and protective
devices.
Steam Turbine Rotor: Steam Turbine Rotor a multistage steam turbines are manufactured with
solid forged rotor construction. Rotors are precisely machined from solid alloy steel forgings. An
integrally forged rotor provides increased reliability particularly for high speed applications. The
complete rotor assembly is dynamically balanced at operating speed and over speed tested in a
vacuum bunker to ensure safety in operation. High speed balancing can also reduce residual stresses
and the effects of blade seating.
Chapter 3-59 of 157
Turbine Casing: The casings of turbine cylinders are of simple construction to minimize any
distortion due to temperature changes. They are constructed in two halves (top and bottom) along
a horizontal joint so that the cylinder is easily opened for inspection and maintenance. With the top
cylinder casing removed the rotor can also be easily withdrawn without interfering with the
alignment of the bearings.
Most turbines constructed today either have a double or partial double casing on the high
pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) cylinders. This arrangement subjects the outer casing
joint flanges, bolts and outer casing glands to lower steam condition. This also makes it possible
for reverse flow within the cylinder and greatly reduces fabrication thickness as pressure within the
cylinder is distributed across two casings instead of one. This reduced wall thickness also enables
the cylinder to respond more rapidly to changes in steam temperature due to the reduced thermal
mass.
The high-pressure end of the turbine is supported by the steam end bearing housing which
is flexibly mounted to allow for axial expansion caused by temperature changes. The exhaust casing
is centerline supported on pedestals that maintain perfect unit alignment while permitting lateral
expansion. Covers on both the steam end and exhaust end bearing housings and seal housings may
be lifted independently of the main casing to provide ready access to such items as the bearings,
control components and seals.
Figure 3-22 The casings of turbine
Chapter 3-60 of 157
Figure 3-23 The casings of turbine

Steam Turbine Blades: Blade design is extremely important in attaining high turbine reliability
and efficiency. A large selection of efficient blade profiles has been developed and proven by
extensive field service allowing for optimal blade selection for all conditions of service. Blades are
milled from stainless steel within strict specifications for proper strength, damping and corrosion
resistant properties. Disk profiles are designed to minimize centrifugal stresses, thermal gradient
and blade loading at the disk rims.
Figure 3-24 Steam Turbine Blades

Stationary Blade or Diaphragm: Stationary Blade or Diaphragm Partitions between pressure
stages in a turbine's casing are called diaphragms. They hold the vane-shaped nozzles and seals
between the stages. Usually labyrinth-type seals are used. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted into
the top of the casing, the other half into the bottom. Nozzle rings and diaphragms are specifically
designed and fabricated to handle the pressure, temperature and volume of the steam, the size of
the turbine and the required pressure drop across the stage. The nozzles used in the first stage nozzle
ring are cut from stainless steel. Steam passages are then precision milled into these nozzle blocks
before they are welded together to form the nozzle ring.
Chapter 3-61 of 157
Figure 3-25 Stationary Blade or Diaphragm

The nozzles in the intermediate pressure stages are formed from profiled stainless steel nozzle
sections and inner and outer bands. These are then welded to a circular center section and to an
outer ring then precision machined. The low-pressure diaphragms in condensing turbines are made
by casting the stainless nozzle sections directly into high-strength cast iron. This design includes a
moisture catching provision around the circumference which collects released moisture and
removes it from the steam passage. Additional features such as windage shields and inter-stage
drains are used as required by stage conditions to minimize erosion. All diaphragms are horizontally
split for easy removal and alignment adjustment.
Turbine Blade Fixing: Various root fixing shapes have been developed for turbine blading to suit
both construction requirements and conditions under which turbines operate. The most popular
types of blade root fixing available are.
1. Grooves
2. Straddle
3. Rivet
Chapter 3-62 of 157
Figure 3-26 Various root fixing shapes

Steam Chest: The steam chest, located on the forward, upper half of the HP turbine casing, houses
the throttle valve assembly. This is the area of the turbine where main steam first enters the main
engine. The throttle valve assembly regulates the amount of steam entering the turbine. After
passing through the throttle valve, steam enters the nozzle block.
Coupling: Coupling with multi-cylinder turbines it is necessary to have some method of connecting
individual cylinder rotors. It is also a requirement to connect the turbine to the alternator rotor. To
achieve these connections, we use a device known as a coupling. These couplings must be capable
of transmitting heavy loads and in some turbines are required to accommodate for axial expansion
and contraction. The types of couplings generally employed in power plants are:
1. Flexible coupling
2. Solid shaft coupling
Journal Bearing: The turbine rotors are supported by two journal bearings. Both the No.1 and
No.2 bearings are of a double-tilting pad type. The bearing metal is divided into six pads which are
self-aligned. A center adjustment of these bearings can easily be made with shimmed pads.
Double Tilting Pad Type Journal Bearing: Double tilting pad bearing provides maximum
stability and freedom from shaft vibration. The tilting-pad design consists generally of six steel pads
(shoes) with Babbitt linings on the bearing surface. The pads are installed on the inner of bearing
ring, and can move radial and axial direction. Therefore, the pads Move smoothly, and maintain the
correct alignment at all conditions. Hook fits in the inner of bearing ring retain the pads, and the
pads are prevented from rotating by means of loose-fitting lock pins.
Chapter 3-63 of 157

Tapered-Land Thrust Bearing: The thrust bearing is located on the main shaft of the turbine.
Independently mounted inside the standard, the thrust bearing absorbs the axial thrust of the turbine
and generator rotors, which are connected by a solid coupling. This tapered-land thrust bearing
consists of two stationary thrust plates and two rotating Thrust collars on the turbine shaft which
will provide the front and back faces to the bearing. These plates are supported in a casing so that
they may be positioned against the rotating faces of the collars. The thrust collar faces are machined
and lapped, producing smooth, parallel surfaces.
Labyrinth Seal A labyrinth seal is a type of mechanical seal that provides a tortuous path to help
prevent leakage. An example of such a seal is sometimes found within an axle 's bearing to help
prevent the leakage of the oil lubricating the bearing. A labyrinth seal may be composed of many
grooves that press tightly inside another axle, or inside a hole, so that the fluid has to pass through
a long and difficult path to escape.
Figure 3-27 labyrinth seal

Labyrinth seals are utilized as end gland seals and also inter-stage seals. Stationary labyrinth seals
are standard for all multistage turbines and grooves are machined on the rotating part to improve
the sealing effect. The leakage steam from the outer glands is generally condensed by the gland
condenser. Some leakage steam from the intermediate section of the steam end gland seals can be
withdrawn and utilized by re-injecting it into the low-pressure stage or low- pressure steam line.
Front Standard & TSI: Supports the No.1 bearing, thrust bearing and the front end of the turbine
casing. Front standard is shaped like a box. Upper half of the standard can be disassembled at
horizontal flange. A manhole located front of upper half is used oil strainer maintenance. This box
is not only the bearing standard but control box which contains some important equipment.
There are some instruments and button on the outside of the front pedestal cover. These are used
for turbine operation and supervision. Some protective devices and speed detectors are installed
inside the standard. Inside space of the standard is connected to oil tank and is kept slightly vacuum
so that the oil drain or mist inside cannot leak out. Lubricating oil is supplied from oil pipe which
Chapter 3-64 of 157

is located left side of front standard and flow out to oil tank through 1st journal and thrust bearings.
Oil strainer is located up stream of bearing.
Toothed-wheel for speed sensors The turbine rotating speed is sensed by the magnetic pickups
faced to the toothed-wheel installed on the control rotor. The pulse signal is produced when each
tooth passes the pickups. The frequency signals from two (2) pickups are converted into digital
value proportional to the turbine speed through F/D (Frequency to Digital) converters. Other three
(3) sensors are located around toothed-wheel. These sensors are used for trip detector.
3.33. Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI)

Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) or Turbine Supervision Equipment (TSE) is a generic
term used in the power generation industry. TSI refers to instrumentation systems that specifically
perform measurements of critical control parameters on large steam turbine generator trains. The
size of the machines can range between 501200 MW and their age can often be in excess of 30
years. TSI systems are normally a mandatory requirement. The same technology is employed on
other turbine types and in other industries, such as the hydrocarbon-processing sector.
Figure 3-28 Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation

Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) Although the turbine is not readily accessible during
operation, the turbine supervisory instrumentation is sufficient to detect any potential malfunction.
The turbine supervisory instrumentation includes monitoring of the following:
1. Vibration and eccentricity
2. Thrust bearing wear
3. Exhaust hood temperature and spray pressure
4. Oil system pressures, levels, and temperatures
5. Bearing metal and oil drain temperatures
6. Shell temperature
7. Valve positions
8. Shell and rotor differential expansion
9. Shaft speed, electrical load, and control valve inlet pressure indication
Chapter 3-65 of 157

10. Hydrogen temperature, pressure, and purity
11. Stator coolant temperature and conductivity
12. Stator-winding temperature
13. Collector air temperatures
14. Turbine gland sealing pressure
15. Gland steam condenser vacuum
16. Steam chest pressure
17. Seal oil pressure Steam
3.34. TSI Benefits

The use of, and experience with, TSI assists in reducing operating costs of the generation units by:
Reducing Turbine Roll Time: During the run-up and coast-down of large turbines, there are
extensive soak periods to ensure stationary and rotating parts thermally expand equally. These
periods are usually of a conservative length, but times can be further reduced with continuous and
accurate measurement of key expansion clearances (and related parameters) available with TSI
systems.
Time Between Overhauls: By using precise TSI measurement information, in an outage, the exact
amount of work can be scheduled with reduced risk of unknown problems occurring after the
overhaul is completed.
Diagnostic and Troubleshooting: The trending of TSI data provides the user with the machines
basic operating characteristics. Early detection of changes in trended data and comparisonto
normal conditions allows decisions to be made more quickly and inexpensively. More advanced
analysis methods of this same raw data can diagnose problems like mass unbalance, misalignment,
lose or broken parts, shaft cracks, seal rubs, and bearing instabilities caused by improper lubrication
or bearing design. Early identification of these problems allows for corrections to be made at a time
that is convenient to both the work force and system load.
Automatic Shutdown: Sometimes unanticipated problems arise quickly, however, TSI has the
capability to limit damage to the machine and protect against total destruction or catastrophic
failure. Confining damage flagged by vibration can make the difference between a two-week outage
and three to six months of down time. TSI system measurements can be broken down into four
major categories:
Motion Measurements Eddy current (proximity) probes, case mounted velocity (seismic)
transducers, shaft riders, and/or accelerometers can be used to monitor vibrations. Monitoring
Chapter 3-66 of 157

points may include vibration on main turbine generator and exciter, may also be used to measure
rotor eccentricity.
Position Measurements: Eddy current probes, LVDTs and linear/rotary potentiometers can be
used to monitor thrust bearing wear, rotor position, casing (shell) expansion, differential expansion
and control valve position. Speed Measurements Active or passive electromagnetic or eddy
current probes can be used to monitor main turbine speed and acceleration, over-speed detection,
zero speed detection. Process Measurements Thermocouples or RTDs can be used to monitor
bearing white metal temperature, shell differential temperature, and lube oil temperature.
Piezoelectric or strain gauge pressure transducers can be used to measure oil and hydraulic
pressures.
Arrangement of Shell Thermocouples: Thermocouples for water Induction When water flows
into the turbine due to an unexpected accident, there occurs a difference in temperature between the
upper half and the lower half of the casing. As a result, (humped effect) phenomenon is generated
on the casing, giving great damages to HP and IP casings, rotor blade, and thrust bearing. To detect
any flow of water, therefore, thermocouples are provided at several positions of the upper and lower
parts of the casing respectively to watch the difference in temperature between the upper and lower
parts of the casing.
Thermocouples for Measuring Temperatures of Internal and External Surfaces of Casing:
Thermocouples for Measuring Temperatures of Internal and External Surfaces of Casing At the
time of cold starting of the turbine, there occurs a difference in temperature between the internal
and external surfaces of casing with subsequent generation of thermal stress, which shortens the
lives of turbine parts, To control the lives of turbine parts, a thermocouple is provided at each part
of the casing for the purpose of carrying out life control for the parts.
3.35. Principles of Governing

During operation of a Turbine Generator Unit the Load carried by the Generator may vary over
time. In order to respond to changing System Load demands the amount of steam directed to the
Turbine must be varied in proportion to each demand. The function of a governor is to provide rapid
automatic response to load variations.
3.36. Steam Turbine Speed Control

The Speeder Gear of a Turbine Governor in order to maintain the system frequency constant and at
the same time allow load variation to occur, it is necessary to be able to compensate for the loss of
speed experienced with increasing load and the speed increase which accompanies load rejection.
To achieve this a device is fitted in conjunction with the governor which effectively changes the
Chapter 3-67 of 157

speed-load characteristic of the turbine in such a way that speed effectively becomes independent
of load. The device is known as the speeder gear.
Relays in all but the smallest turbine, it is necessary to use some means of amplifying the power of
the governor in order to maintain a small sensing and control device and yet still have the motive
force to position large sized throttle valves. The devices used as amplifiers are known as relays.
The most common type of relay uses an oil system employing valve and a power piston. There are
two types of these relays in use: Double acting and Single acting.
3.37. D-EHC (Digital Electro-Hydraulic Control System)

D-EHC system can be applied to control, protection and monitoring of steam turbines for various
type of power plants including conventional fossil-fired power plants, combined cycle plants, cogeneration plants, and atomic power plants.
Powerful and reliable controllers: High-speed control with state-of-the-art microprocessor based
control system.
Distributed and hierarchical architecture consists of: System controller, Master controller,
Programmable logic device, Valve interface.
Normal Operation: During Normal Operation, the main stop valves, intermediate stop valves and
intercept valves are wide open. Operation of the T-G is under the control of the Electro-Hydraulic
Control (EHC) System. The EHC System is comprised of three basic subsystems: the speed control
unit, the load control unit, and the flow control unit. The normal function of the EHC System is to
generate the position signals for the four main stop valves, four main control valves, and
intermediate stop valves and intercept valves
3.38. Main Steam Stop Valve

The main stop valve is located in the main steam piping between the boiler and the outlet piping to
turbine control valve chest in turbine casing. The main stop valve has one inlet and two identical
outlet pipe connections. Outlet pipes are welded directory. The primary function of the main stop
valves is to quickly shut off the steam flow to the turbine under emergency conditions such as
failure of the control valves to close on loss of load.
Chapter 3-68 of 157
Figure 3-29 main stop valve
3.39. Control Valves (Cv)

The control valves are arranged into an upper and lower valve group with each group mounted on
common chest which is an integral part of the upper and lower turbine outer shells. Each control
valve admits steam from the valve chest of its group to an individual nozzle box, after that controlled
steam flow into a particular section of the turbine first stage nozzles.
Figure 3-30 The control valves
3.40. Intercept Valves

During starting and loading operation without turbine bypass system the intercept valves are
operated fully opened for full arc admission starting. They remain fully open during transfer of
steam flow control to the control valves, as well as all other periods of normal operation. The other
Chapter 3-69 of 157

side, when turbine bypass system is available for the starting up and loading. The intercept valves
are used to control the steam flow to the intermediate turbine in conjunction with the control valves.
After the turbine bypass operation is finished the intercept valves will be fully opened by EHC
control system. The primary function of the intercept valve is pre-emergency protection: however,
they also trip closed upon actuation of the emergency trip system. The secondary one is to control
the steam flow during the starting and loading with turbine bypass system. The reheat stop valve is
provided to quickly shut off the steam flow storage in the reheated line to the turbine under
emergency condition.
3.41. Combined Reheat Valves (CRV)

Two combined reheat valves are provided, one in each hot reheat line. Supplying reheat steam to
the turbine. As the name implies. The combined valve is actually two valve. The intercept valve
and the reheat stop valve, incorporated in one valve casing. Although they utilize a common valve
casing, these valves provide entirely different functions.
Figure 3-31 combined reheat valves
3.42. Turbine Turning Gear

The motor driven turning gear is mounted on the turbine bearing cap, adjacent to the turbinegenerator coupling so as to mesh with a bull gear (spacer disk gear type). Which is bolted between
the turbine-generator coupling faces. The primary function of the turning gear is to rotate the
turbine-generator shaft slowly and continuously during shutdown periods when rotor temperature
changes occur. When the turbine is shutdown, cooling of its inner elements is continues for many
hours. If the rotor is allowed to remain stationary during this cooling period, distortion begins
almost immediately. This distortion is caused by the flow of hot vapors to the upper part of the
turbine casing, resulting in the upper half of the turbine being at a higher temperature than the lower
Chapter 3-70 of 157

half. The parts do not return to their normal position until the turbine has cooled to the point where
both the upper and lower halves are at approximately the same temperature.
Figure 3-32 motor driven turning gear
3.43. Water induction

Water induction can happen at any time; however, the most common situations are during transients
such as startup, shut down and load changes. It is interesting that only 18 percent of water induction
incidents occur when the unit is at load. Turbine drains are necessary to avoid slugging nozzles and
blades inside the turbine with condensate on start-up; this can break these components from impact.
The blades were designed to handle steam, not water. Turbine casing drains remove the condensate
from the turbine casing during warm-up, securing, maneuvering and other low flow conditions.
Turbine Drains: (TWIP) Turbine Water Induction Protection, often abbreviated as TWIP, is the
broad category of equipment that is installed to prevent water damage to steam turbines. Any
connection to the turbine is a potential source of water either by induction from external equipment
or by accumulation of condensed steam. Steam turbine damage by water induction is a costly
economic, safety and reliability concern. TWIP equipment is installed in the following power plant
systems:
Main steam system
piping and drains
Turbine drain systems
Chapter 3-71 of 157
Reheat steam systems, piping and drains
Turbine steam seal system, piping and drains
Reheat attemperating system
Main steam attemperator sprays
Turbine extraction systems, piping and drains
Start-up systems
Feedwater heaters,
piping and drains
Condenser steam and water dumps.
TWIP equipment is installed in the following power plant systems: Avoid discharging high-energy
bypass steam into the area between the condenser hotwell and the tube bundle Locate the curtain
spray and bypass sprayer a safe distance from the condenser tube bundles to allow a sufficient
reduction in kinetic energy, so that high-energy steam does not reach areas above and below the
tube bundles and cause a recirculation backflow with entrained water toward the turbine. Determine
an incidence angle of high-energy steam jets that will avoid reflected velocity vectors toward the
turbine exhaust.
Water induction can damage steam turbines in several ways. The damage can be caused by the
impact of large slugs of water or by the quenching effect of cold water on hot metal. The severity
of water damage can vary from minor seal rubs all the way to catastrophic damage to the turbine.
Generally, water damage falls into the following categories: Thrust bearing failure Damaged Blades
Thermal Cracking Rub Damage Permanent warping distortion Secondary Effects Secondary effects
include items such as seal packing ring damage, pipe hangar and support damage, damage to
instrumentation and controls, etc.
Sources of water induction: Water can be inducted into a steam turbine from several sources. The
following are some of the most common sources of water: Motive steam systems Steam
attemperation systems Turbine extraction/admission systems Feedwater heaters Turbine drain
system Turbine steam seal system Start-up Systems Condenser steam and water dumps (steam
bypass) Steam generator sources.
Turbine bypass systems should be provided with the same level of protection as motive steam
piping. These should include drains and drain pots (if applicable) with power-operated drain valves.
Attemperators in bypass systems that discharge to the cold reheat system (or any other line
connected back to the steam turbine) should be designed to the same requirements on motive steam
system attemperators. Non-return valves should be provided in the cold reheat system to prevent
Chapter 3-72 of 157

the reverse flow of bypass steam into the steam turbine. Designers should carefully consider the
location, design and orientation of large steam dumps (such as turbine bypasses) into the condenser.
3.44. Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm

The atmospheric relief diaphragm is a safety feature which protects the exhaust hood and condenser
against excessive steam pressure in case the condenser water for any reason is lost. The device
consists of hard rolled silver bearing copper sheet of sufficient area to pass full throttle steam flow
at a safe protective pressure. In normal operation of the turbine with proper vacuum conditions, the
diaphragm is dished inward against the supporting grid by atmospheric pressure should the vacuum
conditions fail for any reason and the internal exhaust hood pressure raise to approximately 5 psig,
it would force the diaphragm outward against the cutting knife. The diaphragm would be cut free
as a disk relieving the exhaust pressure to atmosphere.
Figure 3-33 atmospheric relief diaphragm
3.45. Turbine Lube Oil System

The function of lubrication is to interpose a film of lubricant such as grease or oil between the
moving surfaces in a bearing. Lubrication reduces friction, minimizes wear, provides cooling and
excludes water and contaminants from bearing components. The protection of rotating heavy
machinery depends greatly on the effective operation and supervision of lubricating oil systems
and bearings.
Oil lubricated bearings rely on the physical separation of the two bearing surfaces by a thin film
or wedge of oil. In order to establish and maintain this oil film the following conditions must be
established.
There must be relative motion between the two bearing surfaces to build up sufficient pressure
within the oil to prevent the film breaking down.
Chapter 3-73 of 157
There must be an uninterrupted supply of oil available to the bearing.
The bearing surfaces must not be parallel and need a narrow angle between them. This is to
enable the oil to be shaped into a thin wedge tapering off in the direction of the motion.
3.46. Turbine Gland Sealing

The purpose of the gland steam system is to reduce steam leakage to a minimum and to prevent air
ingress. Or Function of the gland sealing system falls into two categories: Seal the turbine glands
under all operating conditions, Extract leak-off steam from the turbine glands. Steam leakage leads
to the requirement for increased make up; this increases the load on the feed and boiler water
treatment chemicals and to a deterioration of the working environment surrounding the power plant.
Air ingress leads to a loss of vacuum and hence reduction in plant efficiency, and causes problems
of thermal stressing around the gland as well as increases oxygen content of the exhaust steam.
3.47. Condenser
A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger
installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. These condensers
are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used.
An air-cooled condenser is however significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam
turbine exhaust pressure as a water-cooled surface condenser.
3.48. Specification of Condenser

Condenser Type
Surface Type
Type of tubes
Material of Tubes
Copper
No. of Tubes
16760
Length of Tubes
9m
Tubes diameter
28mm
Table 3-2
3.49. Gland Steam Condenser

The gland steam condenser is cooled by the condensate extracted from the main condenser and so
acting as a feed heater. The gland steam often shares its condenser with the air ejector reducing the
cost of having two units. A fan is fitted to induce a flow through the system without incurring a
Chapter 3-74 of 157

negative pressure in the final pocket as this would allow the ingress of air. This is ensured by the
fitting on valves to the exhaust line from the glands so enabling the back pressure to be set.
3.50. Vacuum System

For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most commonly supplied by
and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the
motive fluid to remove any non-condensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser.
The Venturi effect, which is a particular case of Bernoullis principle, applies to the operation of
steam jet ejectors. Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also
popular for this service.
3.51. Vacuum Breaker

The purpose of a Vacuum Breaker Valve is to quickly allow air into the vacuum space of the
condenser and low pressure turbine exhaust hood. The vacuum breaker valve is usually located on
the steam turbine or the condenser shell/transition. A vacuum breaker valve is typically operable
by a controller responsive to losses of load on the steam turbine. Once opened, the vacuum breaker
valve will allow air into the steam space to quickly reduce the existing vacuum and hence reduce
the acceleration of the steam turbine upon loss of load by the generator.
3.52. Components of a Turbine Lubricating Oil System

1. Main Oil Tank
2. Oil Purification Systems
3. Oil Pumps
4. Oil Coolers
5. Strainers / Filters
6. Instrumentation
7. Jacking Oil Pumps
8. Hydraulic Accumulator
3.53. Turbine Protections

1. Emergency trip pushbutton in control room
2. Boiler Trip, Turbine trip
3. Axial shift displacement
4. Low condenser vacuum
5. Low lube oil pressure
6. LP turbine exhaust hood high temperature
7. Thrust bearing wear
8. Emergency trip at front standard
Chapter 3-75 of 157

9. Low hydraulic fluid pressure
10. Loss of EHC
11. Excessive turbine shaft vibration
12. Loss of two speed signals - either Normal Speed Control or Emergency Over Speed Trip
13. Over Speed Trip 1
14. Over Speed Trip 2
3.54. Steam Turbine Troubleshooting

Vibrations
S.no
1
Condition
Unbalance
Identifiable by
Uniform
vibration
throughout
turbine,
Probable cause
the
decreasing
slightly under load.
Remedy
1. Sprung shaft
1. Replace shaft.
2. Incorrectly
2. Relocate weights
located
balance
weights.
3. Displacements of
balance weights.
4. corroded or
eroded blades or
buckets
5. Sediment in
blades or buckets
6. Rotor unequally
& balance rotor.

3. Balance rotor.
4. Replace worn
blades or buckets.
5. Replace broken
blades or buckets.
6. Clean blades or
buckets.
7. Consult
manufacturer.
heated.
7. Broken blades or
buckets.
Poor
Variable vibration
1. Eccentric
alignment
least noticeable at no
flexibility
with driven
load; becoming worse
coupling
equipment.
under load.
2. Driver & driven
1. Replace flexible
coupling
2. Realign driver
with driven
equipment not
equipments as per
aligned properly
manufacturer
at installation.
instructions.
3. Piping strain on
3. Provide support
driver or driven
for piping to
equipment.
relieve strain.
Chapter 3-76 of 157

4. Foundation
4. Solidify
selected
foundation;
unequally.
regrout if
necessary.
Poor or
Vibration
of 1. Improper grouting. 1. Regrout bed-plate.
inadequate
surrounding structure; 2. Bed-plate
foundation.
constant vibration of
securely
turbine under all load
foundation.
not 2. Tighten foundation

bolts.
conditions.
Loose parts
localized vibrations
with noise at start-up
& shut-down.
1. Excessive bearing
clearance.
2. Ball joint of
bearing is loose.
1. Machine off joints

between bearing
halves; replace
bearing if
3. Loose coupling or
necessary.
coupling bolts.
2. Add shims as
required to tighten
bearing; replace
worn parts as
required.
3. Tighten setscrews
securing coupling
to shaft; tighten
coupling bolts.
Internal
localized
rubbing
with
vibrations 1. Rotating buckets
varying
turbine speed.
with
coming in contact
with stationary
buckets.
2. Inadequate casing
clearance.
3. Thrust bearing is
1. Check clearance;
adjust as required.
2. Check for chemical
deposits; adjust
bearings.
3. Replace thrust
bearing.
worn.
Chapter 3-77 of 157

6
Steam
Unusual noise at the 1. Water coming in 1. Re-evaluate
troubles
intake;
failure
of
strainer.
with steam.
2. Sediment in steam
piping; install a
separator ahead of
the throttle valve.
2. Test steam for
sediment, acid, or
salt. Take
corrective action.
Table 3-3
General
S.no
Condition
Loss of
efficiency
Identifiable by
Decreased power output
Probable cause
1. Failure of interstage packing,
gland seals or
consumption.
gland seals, or
sealing strips as
sealing strips.
required.
operation
2. Repair or replace
nozzles &
nozzles or
buckets
buckets.
3. Accumulation of
Over speed
1. Replace packing,
with increased steam
2. Failure of
Remedy
3. Clean turbine
chemical
internally;
deposits on
change feed
buckets or
water treatment
nozzles
method.
Rapid increase in turbine
1. Loss of load
1. Shut down
R.P.M.
2. Faulty governor
turbine; check
or governor
over speed trip
linkage.
control.
2. Check governor
& governor
linkage for
malfunction;
repair as
required.
Bearing
Noisy operation;
failure
overheating of operation.
1. Lack of
lubrication.
1. Check oil
supply;
Chapter 3-78 of 157

2. poor grade of oil
increase flow
3. Dirt & other
of oil to
extraneous
bearings;
material in
replace
bearing.
bearing if
worn.
2. Drain oil &
replace with
good grade of
oil as
recommended
by the turbine
manufacturer.
Table 3-4
Chapter 3-79 of 157
Chapter
4
4. Decanting Section
GENCO-III is basically a thermal power station that can produces the 1370MW of electricity by
heat energy that is produced by the combustion of the furnace oil, diesel or natural gas. However,
the large amount of electricity is produced by the combustion of furnace oil because of its lowest
cost than diesel. Due to the usage of large amount of furnace oil GENCO-III has a large storage
capacity of furnace oil and this can be transported to power station from Karachi by train and by oil
tankers. The handling of this fuel is relatively a big task so GECNCO-III built an Individual
department for the proper handling and storage of oil. This section consists of storage tanks, oil
pumping station and also the oil heaters that heats up the oil to its ignition temperature.
4.1. Oil Testing Lab:

Different tests of the furnace oil and the lubrication oil are performed in the oil testing laboratory
to check their characteristics. The test on the transformer oil is also performed in this lab. The
following tests are performed on the furnace and lube oil:
1. Moisture test
2. Flash point test
3. Viscosity test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Acidity test
6. Solubility test
7. Mechanical impurity test
8. Chlorification test
The furnace oil that is used as a fuel in the burners of the boiler furnace to produce the steam is
transported to the TPS through two ways
1. Oil Tankers
2. Train
Page 4-80 of 157
Chapter 4 Furnace Oil Decanting

For unloading of the fuel from oil tankers and train there is separate unloading or decanting station
for each. The unloaded fuel oil is initially stored in the underground reservoir; from there it is filled
in the main storage tanks. 02 pumps are used to fill the main storage tanks from the oil tankers
decanting area. One of them is active (on load) and other is standby.
From the decanting area the furnace oil is filled in the storage tanks. From there it is supplied to the
burners of the boiler furnace after proper heating. Usually one storage tank is called service tank,
from there furnace oil is supplied to the units. The furnace oil is filled in the other tanks first and
then filled in the service tanks through recirculation pumps (RCP). The oil in the tanks is kept heated
at the temperature 75 C to 80 C. There are total 06 storage tanks for furnace oil each having a
volume of 20,000 cubic meters hence each can store 2, 00,00,000 liters. There are 2 diesel oil
storage tanks each having capacity of 1000 ton.
4.2. Fuel Flow Cycle
Figure 4-1. Fuel Flow Cycle
4.3. Storage of Fuel

The oil is transported by the train or by the oil tanker is tested and then stored to the storage tankers.
The oil first of all transfer to the two oil pits inside the ground and then by the help of four oil
transfer pump oil is pumped to the storage tanks.
Chapter 4-81 of 157
4.4. Specifications of Furnace Oil Storage Tanks

No. of Storage Tanks
06
Capacity of Each
20,000m3
Height of tank
17.3 m
Diameter
39.9 m
Filling Capacity
16.5m
Table 4-1
For diesel there are two tanks of oil storage and each has capacity of 1000 m3. The natural gas is
not stored in the plant and it always transported to the plant by the pipeline.
4.5. Recirculation Pump

Pumping station consists of two RC (Recirculation) pump that heats up the furnace oil and
recirculate the storage tank. One pump is working and one is standby for emergency. Oil from
storage tanks passes through the RC pump and at the discharge of the RC Pump there are four steam
heaters that heats up the oil to 80 and recirculate to the storage tanks. Oil steam are shell & tube
heat exchanger where steam is in tubes and oil passes from the shell.
4.6. Purpose of RC Pumps
Preheat Oil to 80
Transfer oil from Phase # 01 to Phase # 02
Transfer oil from one storage tank to other
Figure 4-2 RC (Recirculation) pump
Chapter 4-82 of 157
4.7. First Lift Pump

First lift pump takes the furnace oil from the service tank and supplied to the main heaters. There
are total 04 first lift pumps which are operated according to the unit load conditions. The
specification of fist lift pump motor is as under.
3 phase 50 Hz Induction Heats up the oil to 110
Transfer oil to service tank
Provide suction head to second lift pump
At the discharge of the first lift pump there are four steam heater that heats up the furnace oil to its
ignition temperature.
Sr. No.
Parameter of first lifting pump
Units
Discharge Pressure
8.5 kg/cm2
Motor Connection
Star
Power Factor
0.9
Efficiency
90%
Voltage
230/400V
Speed
2950RPM
Current
177/102A
Table 4-2
Note: For diesel there are four pumps in which two is in operation and two standby because it
does not require heating for combustion so no heater is installed in this line.
4.8. Second Lift Pump

Second lift pumps take the furnace oil from the main heaters and supplied to boilers of the units.
There are total 04 second lift pumps which are operated according to the unit load conditions. The
temperature of the oil that is supplied to the boiler is 105 C to 120 C. The specification of second
lift pump motor is as under;
Sr. No.
Parameter of Second lifting pump
Units
Discharge Pressure
40 kg/cm2
Motor Connection
Star
Chapter 4-83 of 157

3
Power Factor
0.9
Efficiency
90%
Voltage
230/400V
Speed
2950RPM
Current
177/102A
Table 4-3
Figure 4-3 furnace oil from the main heaters
Chapter 4-84 of 157
Chapter
5
5. What is Boiler?
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into water
until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for
transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a
process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force
that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous
equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The boiler drum is placed 36m above the ground. The level in the drum is always maintained at
zero level (half portion is full with water and half with steam). Steam temperature in the boiler drum
is at temperature of 330 and pressure of 150 kg/cm2.
5.1. Components of Boiler Drum

Boiler drum of GENCO-III TPS consists of the following components,
1. Steam outlet Pipelines
2. Down Comer Tubes
3. Riser Header
4. Water Level Gauge
5. Perforated Sheets
6. Man Hole
7. Surging Plates
8. Heating & Cooling Lines
9. Chemical Dozing Line
10. C.B.D (continuous blow down)
11. Pressure Gauges
12. Feed Water Inlet Connections
5.2. Boiler Systems

The boiler system comprises of
Page 5-85 of 157
Chapter 5 Boiler Section

1. Feed Water System
2. Steam System
3. Fuel System
The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair.
The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through
a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves
and checked with steam pressure gauges.
The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The
equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.
5.3. Boiler Specification

Boiler Manufacturer
Russia
Boiler Capacity
670 TPH
Type of Boiler
Water tube Wilcox & Babcock Type Boiler
Fuel Fired
Furnace Oil, Diesel and Natural Gas
Rated Working Temperature
545
Rated Working Pressure
150 kg/cm
Drum Material
High Carbon Steel
Drum Length
24.2 m
Wall Thickness
115 mm
Inner Diameter
1.6 m
Table 5-1
5.4. Mini Boiler

GENCO-III TPS has a mini boiler which is used to supply steam to different auxiliaries such as for
the heating of the furnace oil in order to obtain its ignition temperature heat is required that is given
by steam and steam comes from mini boiler.
5.5. Mini Boiler Specification

Boiler Manufacturer
Russia
Chapter 5-86 of 157

Boiler Capacity
50 TPH
Type of Boiler
Water tube Wilcox & Babcock Type Boiler
Fuel Fired
Diesel
Rated Working Temperature
250
Rated Working Pressure
13 kg/cm2
Drum Material
High Carbon Steel

Table 5-2
5.6. Construction of Boiler

Boiler of Genco-III is designed so that it could be constructed from the following components,
1. Furnace
2. Boiler Drum
3. Super Heaters
4. Steam Reheaters
5. Economizer
6. Steam Air Heaters
7. R.A.H (Regenerative Air Heater)
8. G.R.C Fan (Gas Recirculation Fan)
9. I.D & F.D Fan
10. Attemperator
11. Soot Blower
12. Short Blasting System
13. Chimney
14. Hot Box
Chapter 5-87 of 157
Figure 5-1 Boiler Drum
5.7. Super Heaters

Steam from boiler drum is entre into the super heater for production of superheated steam to run
the turbine. In GENCO-III TPS following three types of super heaters are used,
1. Radiation Super Heater
2. Ceiling Super Heater
3. Convection Super Heater
These all are like the tubes of different shapes and dimensions. However, in between these three
super heaters an injection system is introduced to maintain the temperature of the superheated steam
and also to avoid any accident due to higher temperature. This temperature could be maintained by
the device that is called the Attemperator.
Chapter 5-88 of 157
Figure 5-2 Attemperator.
5.8. Steam Reheaters

For the increment in the efficiency of the thermal power station steam reheaters is placed after super
heaters and before the economizer. This reheat steam is further used in the Intermediate pressure
turbine and it totally utilized the energy of the flue gases. In Genco-III TPS two reheaters are placed
in the flow path of the flue gases. Reheater could take inlet of steam from High pressure turbine at
330 and 27.5kg/cm2. After passing through the reheater the steam is at 540 and 25.5kg/cm2.
Chapter 5-89 of 157
Figure 5-3 steam reheaters
5.9. Furnace
Furnace is the most important part of the boiler because it can provide the proper place for the
combustion of fuel and also generate heat energy for the production of steam. The floor of the
furnace is tilted at an angle of 30 to prevent any accident and also for the proper drain of the unburnt
oil from the furnace. Moreover, temperature inside the furnace is 1800.
Figure 5-4 Furnace
Chapter 5-90 of 157
Figure 5-5 Furnace Gate Type
Chapter 5-91 of 157
5.10. Why Furnace is Important?

In thermal power station steam is produced by the firing of the fuel, so main thing fire that
depends upon the following three things,
1. Oxygen
2. Fuel
3. Ignition Temperature
So in the furnace oxygen and fuel are mixed for three purposes.
1. Preparation of combustion products
2. Proper combustion of fuel
3. Production of heat energy.
5.11. Types of Furnace

In Genco-III TPS there are two types of furnaces are used,
1. Front Fire (Unit 1,2,3)
2. Corner Fire (Unit 4,5,6)
Note: Russian could install the front fire furnace where 12-Burners are placed to front wall of the
furnace. Chinese could install the corner fire furnace where 16-Burners are place at the corner of
the furnace and make a cyclone while the burning of fuel and the production of the flues.
5.12. Furnace Draft

The function of draft in a combustion system is to exhaust the products of combustion into the
atmosphere. The draft can be classified into two types namely Natural and Mechanical Draft.
5.13. Natural Draft

It is the draft produced by a chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight between the
column of hot gas inside the chimney and column of outside air of the same height and crosssection.
5.14. Mechanical Draft

It is draft artificially produced by fans. Three basic types of drafts that are applied are:
1. Induced Draft
2. Forced Draft
3. Balanced Draft
Note: In GENCO-III TPS Balanced draft furnace is used but the pressure inside the furnace is
always maintains slightly negative & less than atmospheric for the proper flow of the flue gases.
Chapter 5-92 of 157
5.15. What could we do when the Unit is to be running at minimum load?

When the unit is running at minimum load then the dampers of the I.D. & F.D fan less open and the
draft is disturbing and also flue gases could not properly reach to the reheater and temperature
difference occurs that may cause an accident and stops the unit. This type of problem may need
some proper solution. So, engineer think about it and invent Gas Recirculation Fan (G.R.C Fan)
concept.
5.16. Gas Recirculation Fan (G.R.C Fan)

G.R.C fan extract a part of flue gases from their flow path and deliver it to the furnace. G.R.C fan
performs the following functions.
To control reheat steam temperature.
To control erosion in the furnace.
To control harmful gases in the chimney.
5.17. Advantages of G.R.C Fan

G.R.C fan is placed before R.A.H and after economizer and has the following advantages
Mass flow of flue gases increases
Flame do not tough with wall
Unburnt gases burnt in the furnace
5.18. Boiler Soot Blower System

The boiler in the GENCO-III TPS continuously working and due to this ash lawyer is mounted on
the tubes. This soot can be removed by passing steam at higher pressure through the nozzles to the
tubes. Steam pressure is 27 kg/cm2 and temperature is 330.
5.19. Super Heater Soot Blower System

There are four soot blower on the left side and four on the right side. They are moveable and
revolving and just hit the steam to the tubes for the removal of ash/soot particles. In 24hours,
superheater soot blower could be done in one time at 1st shift.
5.20. R.A.H Soot Blower System

There are two soot blower on the lower and two on the upper side. The steam pressure is 10 kg/cm2
and temperature is 500. This soot blowing is done after every 8 hours.
5.21. Economizer Shot Blasting

Economizer soot is removed by the short blasting process in which metallic shorts is moved from
lower bunker to upper bunker by air blowing at pressure of 1 kg/cm2 and then strikes on the tubes
of the economizer.
Chapter 5-93 of 157
5.22. Flue Gas Cycle

Flue gases from the furnace passes through the following components and transfer their heat as far
as possible before it goes to the chimney and entre into atmosphere.
Figure 5-6 Flue gases
Chapter 5-94 of 157
Figure 5-7 Flue gases
5.23. Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS)

The FSSS station consists of the following parts
1. Decanting area
2. Fuel oil tanks
3. First Lift pump
4. Main Heaters
5. Second Lift pump
6. Diesel pumps
7. Recirculation pumps
8. Recirculation heaters
9. Filters
10. control Room
5.24. Burners
The important part of the furnace is the burner where the fuel is mixed with the air and burns up
for the production of flues from the furnace.
Chapter 5-95 of 157

In GENCO-III TPS theres have two types of Burners
1. Stationery Burners (Unit 1,2,3)
2. Tilting Burners (Unit 4,5,6)
5.25. Components of Burner

Burner consists of the oil gun in which the steam and oil is mixed up and then this mixture is sprayed
in the furnace where it mixes with oxygen then combustion process occurs. There are two types of
steam used in the burner.
1. Atomizing Steam (for spray of Fuel)
2. Purging Steam (for Cleaning of Oil Gun when it Choked)
Figure 5-8 Burner

Manufacture
Russians
Type of Burner
Stationery Type
Oil Capacity
4.2 t/h
Oil Pressure in Burner
42 kg/cm
No. of Burners in Furnace
12
Type of Firing
Front Fire Furnace

Table 5-3
Note: At the starting of unit first pilot burner turns ON that uses gas for firing the Furnace oil and
then after firing it shuts OFF.
5.26. Combustion Air

For the better efficiency of the thermal power plant air for the combustion of fuel is to be preheated
by the flue gases for the proper combustion of the fuel which generates heat for the formation of
steam in the boiler. The Cycle of the combustion air consists of the following components.
Chapter 5-96 of 157
F.D Fan
Steam Air Heater
Regenerative Air Heater (R.A.H)
5.27. Combustion Air Cycle Description

First of all, air is taken at the inlet of the F.D fan from the atmosphere and also from the turbine
hall. Air is taken from the turbine hall in order to maintain the temperature of the turbine hall and
also that the intake air temperature is normally greater than atmospheric because of the heat losses
in the turbine hall.
This air at 35 goes to the steam air heater. Steam air heater is the shell & tube heat exchanger
where steam is in the pipe and air in the shell. Steam air heater raise then temperature of the air up
to 70. Now the combustion air goes to the R.A.H for the further increment in their temperature
by getting the heat of the flue gases that goes to the chimney for exhaust.
5.28. What is R.A.H and which purpose it is used?

R.A.H is the regenerative air heater that raise the temperature of the combustion air by utilizing the
energy of the flue gas. In its simplest form R.A.H consists of the strips of the metal mounted on the
circular wheel that rotates with the help of motor at 2 RPM. half portion of the R.A.H includes the
combustion air and half includes the flue gases. Strips of metal exchange the heat from the flue
gases to the combustion air and then finally the combustion air is heated at 250 and goes to burner
for combustion of fuel.
Figure 5-9 regenerative air heater
Chapter 5-97 of 157
Figure 5-10 regenerative air heater
5.29. Economizer
Economizer is a device which is used to raise the temperature of the feed water at the inlet flow
path of the boiler. Basically economizer is used to preheat the water before it entre into boiler. It is
located at the flow path of the flue gas and extract heat from the flue gases and transfer it to the feed
water. This process increases the efficiency of the thermal power plant up to 1%. In GECNOIII
TPS economizer is located in the flue gas path after the reheater and before R.A.H.
Figure 5-11 Economizer
Chapter 5-98 of 157
Chapter
6
6. What is Cooling Tower?
The component of power plant that removes heat from the water used for condensing steam in
condenser.
6.1. Classification of Cooling Tower

Cooling are classified into many categories some of them are
Figure 6-1 Cooling classification
6.2. Cooling Tower Section of GENCO-III

In GENCO-III TPS closed circuit induced draft cooling tower is used for cooling raw for the
condenser to condense steam. The detail of the cooling tower is,
Raw water comes from the 16 tube wells at taleeri canal through a pipeline to the power
plant.
In plant this water is stored in the make-up water pit. Pit is 25-30feet deep.
Theres have five make up water pump that pumps water to the combine pit of all the cooling
of Phase#01.
Page 6-99 of 157
Chapter 6 Cooling Tower Section
Level of the water checked after every hour and turns the makeup water pump if level of
water turns down.
Make up water pump is the three stage centrifugal pump oriented vertically in the pump
house.
Figure 6-2 taleeri canal
6.3. Condensate Water Cycle

In GENCO-III TPS there are six cooling towers two for each unit that cools the circulating water
and then pump it to the condenser for condensing steam. C.W water cycle are as follows,
Water after condensing the steam moves towards the cooling tower for cooling this water
and then recirculate it.
There are two cooling tower for each unit.
Each cooling tower main pipeline is divided into eight small pipes.
Every pipe could further divide into two headers and each header contains 16 pipes.
So, below every fan of cooling tower theres have 32 tubes that shower water in such a way
that fan extracts heat from water due to their counter flow.
Every unit has two pumps to circulate water to the condenser.
Chapter 6-100 of 157
Chapter 6 Cooling Tower Section
Figure 6-3 C.W water cycle
Chapter
7
7. Generator
The generator is a device which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
7.1. Working Principle

The working principle of generator is based on the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that The emf (Electromotive force) is always produced in the conductor which is
placed in the magnetic field when there is a relative motion between conductor and the magnetic
field.
If the output electrical energy is AC, it is called AC generator or alternator. If the output
electrical energy is DC, it is called DC generator. In fact, there is no difference between alternator
and DC generator except the way the output is obtained from the generator. In alternator the AC
supply is produced in the armature and supply is obtained through slip rings where as in the DC
generator the generated AC supply is obtained from the armature through split rings or commutator
which converts the AC into DC.
The following three things are necessary for the generation of electrical energy.
1. Magnetic field
2. Conductor
3. Relative motion between conductor and Magnetic field
In the small generator the magnetic field is being produced in the stator and the emf is produced in
the rotor through Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The electromagnetic are used in the
generator to produce the magnetic field.
In the large generator the magnetic field is produced by the electromagnetic in the rotor and
the emf is produced in the stator. The output is taken from the stator because if the output is taken
from the rotor, the rotor must have high insulation due to the high voltage induction and it must
have heavy insulation which may increase the size of the rotor, and require more power for the
prime mover to rotate this heavy rotor.
Page 7-102 of 157
Chapter 7 Electrical Section
7.2. Synchronous Generator

The generators used in the TPS are synchronous generator. Synchronous generators are by
definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency produced is locked in or
synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.
A DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which then produces a rotor magnetic field.
The rotor is then turned by a prime mover (e.g. Steam, water etc.) producing a rotating magnetic
field. This rotating magnetic field induces a 3-phase set of voltages within the stator windings of
the generator.
Field windings applies to the windings that produce the main magnetic field in a machine,
and armature windings applies to the windings where the main voltage is induced. For
synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms rotor windings and field
windings are used interchangeably.
Generally, a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components
a) Rotor Windings or Field Windings
b) Stator Windings or Armature Windings
1. Salient Pole
2. Non Salient Pole
Figure 7-1 synchronous generator

The rotor of a synchronous generator is a large electromagnet and the magnetic poles on the rotor
can either be salient or non-salient construction. Non-salient pole rotors are normally used for rotors
with 2 or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used for 4 or more poles rotor.
A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor. Since the rotor is rotating, a
special arrangement is required to get the dc power to its field windings. The common ways
are:
Supply the dc power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and
brushes.
Supply the dc power from a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator.
Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a machine but insulated from it.
One end of the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the 2 slip rings on the shaft of the
synchronous machine, and a stationary brush rides on each slip ring.
A brush is a block of graphite like carbon compound that conducts electricity freely but
has very low friction; hence it doesnt wear down the slip ring. If the positive end of a dc voltage
source is connected to one brush and the negative end is connected to the other, then the same dc
voltage will be applied to the field winding at all times regardless of the angular position or speed
of the rotor.
7.3. Some problems with slip rings and brushes.

They increase the amount of maintenance required on the machine, since the brushes must be
checked for wear regularly.
Brush voltage drop can be the cause of significant power losses on machines with larger field
currents.
Small synchronous machines use slip rings and brushes.
Larger machines brushless exciters are used to supply the dc field current. A brushless exciter is
a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator and its armature circuit mounted on
the rotor shaft. The 3-phase output of the exciter generator is rectified to direct current by a 3-phase
rectifier circuit also mounted on the shaft of the generator, and is then fed to the main dc field
circuit. By controlling the small dc field current of the exciter generator (located on the stator), we
can adjust the field current on the main machine without slip rings and brushes. Since no mechanical
contacts occur between the rotor and stator, a brushless exciter requires less maintenance.
7.4. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. A
synchronous generators rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct current is supplied. The

rotors magnetic field point in the direction the rotor is turned. Hence, the rate of rotation of the
magnetic field in the machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by.
=
7.5. Excitation of Generator

Excitation of synchronous generator is done via DC supply which is given to the field winding of
the generator to produce the magnetic field. The generator can be classified, with respect to the
excitation, as under.
7.6. Separately Excited Generator

The generator in which the DC supply is given to the field winding of the generator through the
external source is called separately excited generator.
7.7. Self-Excited Generator

The generator in which the DC supply is given to the field winding of the generator through its own
generated supply is called self-excited generator.
7.8. Synchronous Generator in TPS

the main generators used in the TPS Phase-I are separately excited generators. For this purpose,
another synchronous generator is installed on the same shaft of the turbine and main generator
which is called Exciter. The exciter is a self-excited synchronous generator. In the initial startup
the DC supply is given to the field winding (rotor) of the exciter by the DC batteries for 4 seconds.
After that the DC batteries are cut off and the DC supply is given to the field of the exciter by its
own generated supply after the rectification. The AC supply generated by the exciter is also given
to the field winding (rotor) for its excitation after the rectification. The AC produced by the exciter
is sent to the rectifier room where it is converted to the controlled DC supply by thyristers. The
firing angles of the thyristers are controlled by the AVR (automatic voltage regulator) and hence
the excitation of the generator is controlled.
7.9. Exciter generator

Exciter generator of the exciter provides independent power supply (3-phase, 50 Hz) to the
excitation system. The exciter generator is installed on the same shaft with the turbo generator. The
exciter is excited by two water cooling thyristor converters. The thyrister converters are connected
in parallel and operate in turn: one is in operation while other is in automatic stand-by duty. The ac
and dc circuits of the thyristers includes several knife switches for removal either of the converters
from service for repair. Initial excitation of the exciter generator is carried out by a short term
connection of the storage batteries through a contactor and rectification bridge.
7.10. Cooling System of Turbo Generator

The first question arises here is that why we need cooling of the generator? As the current flow in
the stator and rotor of the generator is very high so it increases the temperature of the stator and
rotor winding. As a result, the resistance of the stator and rotor windings increases which increase
the power losses and may cause the insulation breakdown. Two types of cooling are used in the
turbo generator of TPS.
1. Stator cooling
2. Rotor cooling
7.11. Stator cooling

The stator of the turbo generator is cooled by the distillated or demineralized (demi) water. For this
purpose, a special plant is installed which prepares the demi water for the stator cooling. This demi
water is also used for the cooling system of the thyrister converters. The water is passed though the
hollow conductors of the stator winding for its cooling. The demi water is necessary for the cooling
of the stator winding because raw water is not a pure insulator which may cause the flow of leakage
current when passed through stator winding.
The demineralized water plant removes the impurities and minerals of the raw water and
make it good insulator whose Resistivity is taken at a minimum level of 200 k.cm. The demi water
that passes through the stator winding absorbs the heat of the stator winding making it cool and
becomes hot itself. The demi water then passes through heat exchangers (coolers) where its
temperature is decreased by the circulating water coming from the cooling towers. This demi water
is also passed through the mechanical and magnetic filters before passing through stator winding
and thyrister converters.
7.12. Rotor Cooling

The rotor cooling is done by the Hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas is used for the following purposes:
1. Its heat exchange capability is much better than other gases.
2. It is very lighter than other gases so do not overload the rotor.
3. Its preparation is very easy and cheap.
hydrogen gas is filled in the generator and maintained at a pressure of 4kg/cm2. It takes all the heat
of the rotor and cools the rotor winding and gets warmed itself. For the cooling of the gas there are
four gas coolers inside the generator on each corner. Circulating water of the cooling tower is used
in the gas cooler for the hydrogen cooling. Hydrogen gas is explosive if it is combined with oxygen
under pressure so to avoid any leakage of gas and entrance of air inside the generator the rotor
assembly is sealed by the seal oil whose pressure is at least 0.7kg/cm2 more than hydrogen gas

inside the generator. When the generator is turned off for a long time for maintenance purpose
hydrogen is released from the generator in the air using special method. Method involves that firstly
fill the generator with CO2 which release the hydrogen in the air and then in the end air is filled in
the generator and CO2 is released in the air.
This method is adopted because if hydrogen is released using air instead of CO2 then it can
cause explosion due to oxygen in the air which will meet hydrogen under pressure in the generator.
After maintenance hydrogen gas is refilled in the generator using the reverse process as described
above.
7.13. Protections of Generator

The following protection are installed for the protection of the generator in TPS Phase-I;
7.14. Longitudinal differential current protection

This system is intended to protect against multi-phase short circuit in generator stator winding and
at its leads including against double earth fault, one of which being in the generator.
7.15. Lateral differential current protection

This system is intended to protect against turn-to-turn short circuit of one phase in the generator
stator winding.
7.16. Earth fault protection of stator winding

This system is intended to reveal and disconnect one phase earth fault of generator stator winding.
7.17. Differential protection of the unit

This system is intended to backup longitudinal differential protection of generator.
7.18. Negative sequence current protection

This system is intended to prevent damage of generator in case of overloading by negative sequence
current caused by asymmetric load or external asymmetric short circuit and abnormal operating
condition of power grid.
7.19. Over current protection against overloading of generator

This system is intended for signaling at symmetric overloading of generator stator.
7.20. External symmetrical short circuit protection

This system is intended to protect the generator against external symmetric short circuit.
7.21. Protection against asynchronous mode, when excitation loss

This system is intended to protect against asynchronous mode. One of the elements of resistance
block relay for protection of the unit against external symmetrical short circuit is used.
7.22. Protection of generator rotor against overloading

This system is intended to protect against overloading under emergency condition as well as in case
of failure of generator excitation system which cause long term flow of current of abnormal value
along the rotor winding.
7.23. Earth fault protection in one point of excitation circuit

This system is intended to protect the generator in case of earth fault at one point of excitation
circuit.
7.24. Protection against voltage increase at generator at idle operation

This system is intended to prevent inadmissible increase in voltage at turbo generator and
transformer of unit during idle operation of the unit in case of failure of excitation system.
7.25. Zero sequence current protection

This system is intended to backup protection operating at one phase short circuit in the 220KV
network. It is also used to backup unit protections when short circuit at the 220KV side of the unit.
7.26. Differential protection of the exciter

This system is intended to protect against all kind of short circuit in the exciter winding and on its
leads.
7.27. Over current protection of exciter against external short circuit

This system is intended to protect against over current in the external system of the exciter.
7.28. Switch Yard

Mainly there are different but most important things for the protection, measurement, metering and
for the other purposes
1. Circuit Breaker
2. Isolator
3. Insulator
4. Insulator strings
5. Bus Bar
6. Current transformer (C.T.)
7. Potential transformer (P.T.)
8. Conductor
9. Control Switch
10. Relays
11. Power Line communication box
7.29. Circuit Breaker

This is the basic and the most important part of the switchyard. Isolators are used for its protection
because the minimum cost of the circuit breaker which has been installed in KAPCO is of 10 million
rupees. So, we are required to provide protection to it to avoid the burning and the familiar of the
breaker.
Objective: This is installed to protect or making some disconnection or connection part, so that
there can be a bridge between the two parts. This is an automatic device which opens and closes by
sensing the characteristics defined by the designer. Suppose if we want to work on the transmission
line going to any other region, then we make open the connections of the circuit breaker. On the
other hand, if any fault occurs on any side of the breaker, then current transformer which is certainly
installed with a breaker senses the abnormal current and sends information to the central control
room and also performs some action to protect the system from any accident. Any of the line is no
longer in contact with the generator, all lines are coming out from the bus bar and there is a circuit
breaker in between the line and the bus bar. So, by chance, if occurs a fault in transmission line then
we can easily recover it by opening the breaker. Similarly, the line from the step-up transformer to
the bus bar is also protected by a circuit breaker. So, this circuit breaker is a kind of connection and
disconnection between the generator, bus bar and the transmission line. So, by this way, the
transmission line or substation or bus bar itself and also generator are protected from any kind of
small or big accidents.
7.30. The Necessary Capabilities of Breaker:

1. It should be capable of extinguishing the arc without undue delay.
2. It should withstand the transient voltage that appears across the contacts immediately after
the current flow ceases. So it should provide sufficient dielectric strength immediately after
the rupture of current.
Inside protection: As because of the opening and closing of contacts by some other reasons, arcs
are produced inside the breaker which is dangerous for the life and the characteristics of the breaker.
So, these arcs must be quenched. There are many methods for quenching these arcs, e.g.
Air quenching
Gas quenching
Vacuum quenching
Types of Circuit Breakers: They can be classified with respect to two criteria
arc quenching media
construction

With respect to arc quenching media, we have most used types listed below
The oil circuit breakers
The air circuit breakers
The SF6 circuit breakers
The vacuum type
Chapter
8
The chemical section consists of the following sections
1. Hydrogen plant
2. Demineralization plant
3. Oil testing lab
4. Water testing lab
8.1. Hydrogen Plant

Hydrogen plant prepares the hydrogen gas which is used for the cooling of the rotor of the turbo
generator. The hydrogen gas is used for the cooling of the rotor of the turbo generator because it
has better heat transfer characteristics, cheap and easy preparation and also it is very light and hence
do not over load the rotor.
The hydrogen is prepared by electrolysis of the water. For this DC supply is given to the
electrolyze. This Dc supply is produced after step down of the 6.6 kV supply to 400 V and then by
3-pahe rectifier. Raw water is used for the preparation of the hydrogen as it supports fast electrolysis
action then de-mineralized water. Potassium Hydro oxide (KOH) is used as a catalyst. The oxygen
and hydrogen are prepared in the ratio of 1:2.
Figure 8-1 Hydrogen plant
Page 8-111 of 157
Chapter 8 Water Treatment Section
8.2. DC Power Supply

The 3-phase 6.6 kV supply is stepped down to 400 V through step down transformers. For this
purpose, 02 transformers are installed in the section.
8.3. Electrolyzer
The process of electrolyses of the water takes place in the electrolyses. The process in which DC
current is passed through the water resulting the separation of the cation and anion is known as
electrolyses. The electrolyzer has 25 cells each takes 2.2 V, a total of 55 V DC and a maximum
current of 1000 A. The separated hydrogen and oxygen then leaves the electrolyzer on its own ways.
8.4. Separating Column

The hydrogen leaving the perforated flash box (PFB) enters the separating column which removes
the small parts of alkali from it
8.5. Gas Scrubber

Gas scrubber is also called gas washer. It removes the impurities from the hydrogen such as dust
particles etc.
8.6. Dryer
The dryer dries the hydrogen coming out from the gas scrubber. As gas scrubber do the washing of
the hydrogen gas so it has to be dried.
8.7. Receiver Tanks

The receiver tanks store the prepared hydrogen gas. For this purpose, 06 receiver tanks are used.
The pressure inside the tanks is kept 10kg/cm2. 03 tanks are for oxygen and 03 are for carbon
dioxide storage.
8.8. Demineralization plant

The water which is free of all the impurities, minerals, gases like Oxygen Nitrogen and consists of
only pure water (H2O) is called demineralized water.
Demineralized plant is used for the preparation of demineralized water. Demineralized water is
used for the preparation of steam, for the cooling of stator of generator and for the cooling of
thyristors in the excitation system.
The plant has total generation capacity of 90 tons/hour. Raw water is used for the preparation of the
demi water. Raw water is pumped out by the tube wells and stored in the raw water storage tanks.
Demi water is passed through the hollow conductors of stator winding for the stator cooling. It is
used for this purpose because demi water acts as an insulator & has a resistivity of 200kOhms.it
does not short circuit the windings. Demi water is used for the steam preparation in the boiler for

the following reasons: Raw water contains mineral like Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur. These
minerals cause the stacks and corrosion in the boiler tubes which causes the heat loses and may
damage the boiler tubes. The designed loss of the demi water in the steam cycle is 2%. Make up
demi water is done in the hot well and feed water tank.
Figure 8-2 Demineralized plant
8.9. Mechanical Clarifier filters

In mechanical clarifier filter coal and gravels are is used to remove the unresolved particles from
the water.
8.10. Cation filter

In the cation filter resins is used which replaces the Na+ & Ca2+ ions in the water from the + H
ions. In the end water becomes acidic.
8.11. Decarbonized exhaust

It removes the carbonates from the water.CO2 is removed by showering of the water against air. It
is also known as degasifier.
8.12. Anion filter

In Anion filter castic soda (NaOH) is used which replaces the Cl- or SO4 ions with the OH- ions
forming partial demi water.
8.13. Cation 2nd filter

It also removes the positive ions from the water. Mixed filter: In the mixed filter both the remaining
anions and cations are removed. The water leaving the mixed bed is the pure distilled water.
8.14. Storage tanks

This prepared demineralized water is then stored in the storage tanks.
8.15. Water treatment

Ammonium hydroxide, Hydrazine and Trisodium phosphate are dozed at different points in the
boiler such as boiler drum, for water treatment. The nature of this water is acidic, to minimize the
acidity of this water ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is used. Hydrazine (N2H4) removes the
Oxygen from water and protects the boiler tubes against corrosion. Trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
is used in the boiler drum which removes the Ca, Mg and adds Na.
8.16. Installed Capacity in Pakistan (GW & Percentage)
Units
787, 3% 256, 1%
7115, 29%
7663, 31%
9085, 36%
Hydro
IPP's Thermal
Thermal
Nuclear
Wind
Graphs 8-1
19.86
2013
2014
11.09
COST PER KWH
14.25
16.58
20.05
19.4
8.17. Cost of Electricity
2010
2011
2012
2015
YEARS
Graphs 8-2
8.18. Generation Data
5485
6045
1000
5465
1000
5600
6055
Units Sold (MKWh)
1000
5390
6162
Generation (MKWh)
1000
5917
Dep.Cap. (MW)
FY 2007-08
FY 2008-09
FY 2009-10
FY 2010-11
Graphs 8-3
FINAL SEMESTER INDUSTRIAL INTERNSHIP

REPORT
GENCO THERMAL POWER STATION III MUZAFFARGARH
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Engineering &

Technology Multan
Submitted By
Hammad Naeem
2012-BT-MECH-101
Waqas Nazir
2012-BT-MECH-111
Session 2012-2016
Chapter
9
9. Introduction
Qadri-Group is foundry-man and machinery-builders, the roots of Qadri family-business trace back
to over a century. Qadri-Group today enjoys pre-eminence as manufacturers of heavy industrial
plant. Qadri-Group specialize in the manufacture of plant & equipment for various sectors including
sugar, cement, steel, power generation, chemical and petrochemical. Qadri-Group is professionally
managed business-group geared up to meet modern day challenges with the zeal to work for the
land where we were born. The process of establishing new companies within the Qadri-Group is
ongoing. In doing so, conscious effort has always been made to inculcate Qadri-Family values in
all Group-companies. Effort has also always been made for the scope of activities of each Groupcompany to complement that of the others and so to reinforce the Qadri-Group at the center. In this
sense, the pattern of our growth has been centripetal.
At the same time, Qadri-Group attach high priority to forge links with the worlds leading
technology companies for plant & equipment falling under our scope of manufacture. The resultant
synergy has enabled us to offer tailor made cost effective solutions and latest equipment to
customers at home and abroad. This engineering and manufacturing company comprises of two
main production units:
Mechanical Works
Foundry & Forge Works
The major facilities of this integrated company include Design and Engineering, Fabrication,
Machine shops, Steel Foundry, Forging, Heat treatment, Pattern Shop, Assembly & Tool Room and
a compressive Quality Assurance is set-up in addition to other infrastructure facilities
9.1. QADRI BROTHERS (PVT) LTD. (Unit-1)

Steel foundry annually producing 5000 tons castings with max. single-pour 30000 kgs. Melting
equipment includes medium and mains frequency electric induction furnaces to produce a wide
range of material grades including carbon steels, alloy steels, SG iron and stainless steels.
Page 9-118 of 157
Chapter 9 QadBros Engineering Services
9.2. QADRI BROTHERS (PVT) LTD. (Unit-2)

Modern steel foundry with an annual capacity to produce 7500 tons castings with max. single-pour
35000 kgs. Melting equipment includes medium and mains frequency electric induction furnaces
to produce a wide range of material grades including carbon steels, alloy steels, SG iron and
stainless steels.
9.3. QADCAST (PVT) LTD.

Modern iron foundry with an annual capacity to produce 9000 tons medium & heavy alloy cast
iron and non-ferrous castings with maximum single-pour 45000 kgs. Melting equipment includes
large capacity coke-fired cupola furnaces as well as medium frequency electric induction furnaces
to produce material grades including wide range of alloy cast irons, SG iron, wear resistant steel,
bronze and stainless steels.
9.4. QADRI FOUNDRY (PVT) LTD.

Jobbing-type foundry located in the port-city of Karachi. It caters to the needs of our Karachi-based
customers for small & medium cast iron and non-ferrous castings produced with a maximum singlepour 2500 kgs.
All of our foundry-works use state of the art globally renowned casting simulation software
MAGMASOFT
9.5. QADBROS ENGINEERING (PVT) LTD.

Heavy mechanical works with facilities which, combined with those of the sister-company. Qadri
Engineering, make it Pakistans largest heavy machining facility and one of our regions largest
manufacturers of heavy plant &equipment. The Company has a wide customer base within
industrial sectors including sugar, cement, steel, energy, fertilizer, general industry. The Company
also leads QADRI-Group in its interface with global partners and with worldwide customers.
9.6. QADRI ENGINEERING (PVT) LTD

Heavy mechanical works with facilities similar to but much larger than the sister-company Qadbros
Engineering. The Companys shop-floors are equipped with an array of medium and extra-large
machine tools with the capacity to handle single work-pieces weighing up to 100 tons. Like all other
companies within the QADRI-Group, this Company has 1 MW captive power installed to ensure
uninterrupted operations.
9.7. QADRI FORGE (subsidiary of QADRI BROTHER

Conventional facility using free-forge technology to produce forgings weighing up to max. 3000
kgs per piece.
9.8. QADRI SONS (PVT) LTD

Trading company engaged in the retail & wholesale of hot-rolled structural steel and bars.
9.9. KASHIF TRADEHOUSE (PVT) LTD

Trading company engaged in the import of raw materials, intermediate materials, alloying metals
required by QADRI-Groups manufacturing units as well as by the foundry and engineering
industry at large.
9.10. Departments
1. Sales and Marketing Department
2. Design and Engineering Department
3. Production Planning and Control Department
4. Production work Shops (1 & 2)
5. Quality Assurance Department
6. Project Management Department
7. Human Resources Department
9.11. Facilities
1. Fabrication
2. Machining
3. Heat Treatment
4. Casting
5. Forging
6. Tool Making
7. Assembly
8. Design and Engineering with well-equipped Computer Aided Design (CAD) facility
9. Well-equipped Quality Assurance Department with ISO 9001 Certification and
authorization to use ASME 14 for fabrication
9.12. Products
Sugar Plants
Cement Plants
Over Head Traveling Cranes
General Steel Structures
Highly Sophisticated Castings and Forgings
Paper industry parts
Fertilizer industry parts
9.13. Quality Certification
ISO 9001
UKAS
9.14. Scope
Design, engineering, manufacturing and commissioning of plants and machinery including cement,
sugar, cranes, steel structures, plain and alloyed steel castings, free and automatic die forgings, steel
billets and other similar heavy engineering equipment.
Chapter
10
10. Introduction
PPC department has been organized with the objective of improving companys performance. The
department is comprising of the following objectives;
Make complete Plan for the Execution of Project.
Provide digital data to every shop section in collaboration with EDP to make ease in
processing and manufacturing of a particular job.
Manage Inventory in collaboration with Material handling section.
Make feasibility and Quantitative detail as well as processing planning and tool designing
in collaboration with Production Technology department.
Manage input and output of material in collaboration with Dispatch Cell.
10.1. Production, Planning & Control Sections

In Qadbros Engineering Ltd. PPC department is properly organized and work as team
with the following sections
1. Project Planning
2. EDP/CP
3. Material Handling
a) MMG
b) General Stores
4. Production Technology
a) Feasibility and Quantitative Detail
b) Process Planning & Tool Designing
5. Dispatch cell
6. ICR
10.2. Project Planning

Project Planning department are established to achieve the following objectives with exact
milestone in organized way to ensure its performance,
Page 10-122 of 157
Chapter 10 Production, Planning & Control
To ensure receipts of all drawings and documentation from design as per contact and
accelerate the schedule for production and procurement.
To issue material purchase requirement to MMG.
To prepare bill of material to be purchased.
To coordinate with the production technology for preparation of necessary documents for
production.
To prepare and issue job orders and follow up.
To suggest alternate materials from stock to design.
To prepare data and reports for ICR and for survey by FBR.
10.3. Core Planning

Core planning department also called Electronic data processing department performs the following
functions,
Master schedule planning
Order activity planning
Monitoring all schedules / shop scheduling
Maintenance of balance order position.
Monthly sales and production reports
Sales / production budget.
Project review. Meeting and follow up.
Data entry, loading data and processing data
10.4. Material Handling

Material handling department works in collaboration with two departments to ensure its objectives
10.5. Material Management Group
Material requirement planning
Indenting and follow up of indents
To keep update purchase status for all the project demands
Establish stock levels for general consumable items and raw materials
Issuance of materials to the appropriate job
To keep and maintain update levels for the store items
To look after stores and related things
Figure 10-1 Material requirement planning
10.6. General Stores
To receive, issue all the materials, and equipment in stores as per laid down procedure
Maintain detailed record of store movements
Maintain stock location system
Maintain daily submission of issue and receipt statement to concerned department to

keep store areas secure and organized
10.7. Production Technology Department

Production Technology Department work to achieve the following objectives,
Feasibility study and quantitative details of clients requirements for cost estimate.
Prepare details per list, route cards, cutting plans, time sheets and process maps for all the
processes.
Designing of all types of press tools, dies, templates, jigs and fixtures
Prepare drawings for machinery components, cutting planes, marking templates for shops etc.
10.8. Dispatch Cell

Dispatch cell works under PPC and has following objectives,
To receive finished jobs from shops
To draw standard items from store for dispatch to customer
To organize packing
To organize transportation
Ensure complete accurate documentation with each product
10.9. Work Procedure of PPC
Figure 10-2 PPC
Chapter
11
11. Introduction
Fabrication shop located in mechanical works QADBROS is setup to create an interracial fault on
materials/workpieces in order to obtain any type of useful assembly or equipment. In QADBROS
Fabrication shop consists of five bays i.e., one heavy bay, two medium bays and two small bays.
Bays are divided as per the capacity of the cranes.
11.1. Fabrication Techniques

Metal fabrication is a value added process that involves the construction of machines and
structures from various raw materials. A fabrication shop will bid on a job, usually based on the
engineering drawings.
Figure 11-1 Metal fabrication
Page 11-126 of 157
Chapter 11 Fabrication Shop
11.2. Planning and Control (CTC)

CTC stands for Central Technical Cell. Basically its a planning and control section of Fabrication,
in this section different drawings are analyzed and then sent to different sections of fabrication shop
depending upon the job and capacity of the shop.
The main plans of CTC fabrication are as follows,
Job feeding to shop
Planning
Material check
Observation from manufacturing till sale.
Figure 11-2 Central Technical Cell
11.3. Marking and Layout Section

Layout section of fabrication shop is established to mark the layout on the work materials as per
cutting plans and delivered the desired part to the specific section according to the planning of CTC
after performing cutting operation. Layout section of fabrication shop consists of the following
sections,
1. Marking Sections
Marking as per Drawing
Marking as per Paper Template
Marking as per Metallic Template (Used for Mass Production)
2. Cutting Section
Mechanical Cutting
Flame Cutting
Manual Gas Cutting
Semiautomatic Gas Cutting
Parallel Cutting Machine
11.4. Marking Section

Marking out or layout is the process of transferring a design or pattern to a work piece, as the first
step in the manufacturing process. It is performed in many industries. Marking out consists of
transferring the dimensions from the plan to the work piece in preparation for the next step,
machining or manufacture.
11.5. Marking Tools

Typically following marking tools are utilized in Qadbros to transform any pattern to work piece,
11.6. Surface plate or marking out table

It provides a true surface from which to work.
11.7. Angle Plates

It assists in holding the work piece perpendicular to the table.
11.8. Scriber
It is the equivalent of a pen or pencil. It literally scratches the metal surface leaving behind a fine,
bright line.
11.9. Height Gauge or Scribing Block

It allows lines to be scribed at a pre-set distance, from the tables surface.
11.10. Surface Gauge

An ungraduated comparison measuring tool that performs much the same function as the Vernier
height gage. It is often used in conjunction with a dial indicator and a precision height gauge.
11.11. Marking Blue

To provide a usable writing surface by covering any existing scratches and providing a contrasting
background.
11.12. Protractor
To assist in the transfer of angular measurements.
11.13. Tri-Square
To transfer 90 angles to the work piece.
11.14. Punches
It pricks or Centre punch to create permanent marks or dimples for drill bits to start in Ball peen
hammer used in conjunction with the punches to provide the striking blow needed.
11.15. Dividers or Measuring Compass

It is used for marking out circles of any desired radius.
11.16. Cutting Section or Flame Cutting

Flame cutting facilities in layout section includes the following machines
Manual Gas Cutting
Semiautomatic Gas Cutting
Parallel Cutting Machine
For all these cutting machine mechanism of cutting is same but the operation is different as per the
requirement,
11.17. What is flame cutting

Gas cutting is a process of preheating carbon steel to its combustion temperature, then burning it
rapidly by means of a regulated jet of oxygen. A cutting torch is used for this operation.
11.18. Process
The process is primarily a chemical one. It is based on the chemical relationship of oxygen to iron
metals that have been heated to a temperature of 1400 to 1600 F (760 to 871C). Only the metal
within the direct path of the oxygen jet is affected. In cutting, a kerf is formed. This is a narrow
slit having uniformly smooth and parallel walls. A skilled workman using machine cutting torch
can maintain the following tolerances with respect to squarenes and straight alignment of the cut
surface: 1/32nd of an inch (.79mm) on plate thickness up to 4 inches (100mm) and 1/16th of an inch
(1.58mm) on plate thicknesses from 4 to 12 inches (100 to 300 mm).
In actual gas cutting, the iron or steel removed from the kerf is not entirely burned or consumed
by the oxygen. About 30 to 40 percent of the metal is washed out of the cut as unconsumed or
metallic iron due to the eroding effect of the oxygen jet.
This scouring can be seen if the sides of the kerf are inspected, because drag lines will be faintly
etched on the faces of the metal. For an incorrect cut, these drag lines will be more pronounced.
The inspection and analysis of these drag lines can be used to improve cutting technique. (see
illustration of drag lines below)
Vertical lines zero drag
Drag measured against plate thickness, for example, 10% drag means a lag of 10% plate
thickness
11.19. Flame Cutting Equipments

Since the oxygen-cutting process involves directing a high-pressure jet of oxygen continuously on
to an area of steel that has been previously heated to ignition temperature, the basic equipments
are.
Cutting Torch
Nozzle
Cutting Attachments
11.20. Joining Operations

Most of the time during fabrication of metals three types of joining operations are used
Soldering
Brazing
Welding
11.21. Soldering
The joining process in which solder mostly tin wire is used to join the parts together. Soldering is
done to prevent leakage in joints in rockets and missiles. This process is mostly used in PCB
manufacturing industries and its the best process for electrical joints.
11.22. Brazing
The joining process in which the parts are joined together by applying molten metal of melting
temperature less than 450
typically is of brass. This process is just like as gas welding process
and mostly used in precision works.
11.23. Welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics,
by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material
to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become strong joint, with pressure
sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with
soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the work
pieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work pieces.
So, welding is basically the Joining metals through heating them to a molten state and fusing them
together is called the welding
11.24. Classification of Welding

11.25. SMAW
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with
an arc established between a sticklike covered electrode and it is often called stick welding.
The electrode holder is connected through a welding cable to one terminal of the power source and
the workpiece is connected through a second cable to the other terminal of the power source.
Figure 11-3 Shielded metal arc welding

The heat of the arc causes both the core wire and the flux covering at the electrode tip to melt off
as droplets the molten metal collects in the weld pool and solidifies into the weld metal. The lighter
molten flux, on the other hand, floats on the pool surface and solidifies into a slag layer at the top
of the weld metal.
11.26. Purpose of Flux on Welding Electrode

Flux on the electrode performs four functions as follows
Protection from atmosphere
Deoxidizer
Arc Stabilization
Metallic Addition
11.27. GTAW
Gastungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with
an arc established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the metals. The torch holding
the tungsten electrode is connected to a shielding gas cylinder as well as one terminal of the power
source. The tungsten electrode is usually in contact with a water-cooled copper tube, called the
contact tube, which is connected to the welding cable (cable 1) from the terminal. This allows both
the welding current from the power source to enter the electrode and the electrode to be cooled to
prevent overheating. The workpiece is connected to the other terminal of the power source through
a different cable (cable 2).
Shielding gas goes through the torch body and is directed by a nozzle toward the weld pool
to protect it from the air. Protection from the air is much better in GTAW than in SMAW because
an inert gas such as argon or helium is usually used as the shielding gas and because the shielding
gas is directed toward the weld pool. For this reason, GTAW is also called tungsteninert gas (TIG).
11.28. Polarity of Current in GTAW
DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative)
DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive)
AC Current
11.29. GMAW
Gasmetal arc welding (GMAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with an
arc established between a continuously fed filler wire electrode and the metals. Shielding of the arc
and the molten weld pool is often obtained by using inert gases such as argon and helium, and this
is why GMAW is also called the metalinert gas (MIG)welding process. Since non inert gases,
particularly CO2, are also used, GMAW seems a more appropriate name. This is the most widely
used arc welding process for aluminum alloys.
11.30. SAW
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc
established between a consumable wire electrode and the metals, with the arc being shielded by a
molten slag and granular flux. This process differs from the arc welding processes discussed so far
in that the arc is submerged and thus invisible. The flux is supplied from a hopper, which travels
with the torch. No shielding gas is needed because the molten metal is separated from the air by the
molten slag and granular flux. Direct-current electrode positive is most often used. However, at
very high welding currents (e.g., above 900A) AC is preferred in order to minimize arc blow.
11.31. Recommendations
The exhaust system is not sufficient enough and more units should be installed especially near
the welding areas to suck out the welding gases produced.
There is no proper ventilation as most of the windows are closed/jammed.
Welding fumes are very hazardous and workers should be provided with free face masks, gloves,
goggles, helmets etc. with strict and proper checking of the defaulters.
More advanced machines like CNC laser cutting and water jet cutter should be installed and
replace manual machines to save time and increase production and efficiency.
Finished products placed outside the fabrication shop should have a proper storage team as they
are affected by corrosion, moisture and rain resulting in damage of the goods to be sent to the
consumers. Such materials should be used that are corrosion resistant. These machines not in
working condition should be immediately repaired without any delay no matter what the cost is.
Welding defects should be avoided. Further details are provided in NDT Section.
Quality assurance is the main priority and supervisors should check where the workers are doing
wrong to save time in case the goods are rejected.
Chapter
12
12. Introduction
Machine shop is considered as one of the most important shops of as it contributes a major part in
the income of the industry. In this shop different type of actions and works can be performed with
the help of different machines each perform unique work which is performed under the supervision
of experienced workers having experience of decades which definitely cannot be compared with
the theoretical work of anyone else. Machine shop engineers always try to complete job with
minimum cost but at the same time quality would also not be sacrificed so lots of factors are
included in a shop which makes it unique and compatible.
A theory named as FIVE Ms is adopted by different industries in order to survive in this
competitive market which is as following
12.1. Five Ms
Here following five M`s are followed for the purpose of good management
1. Man power
2. Equipment/Machines
3. Methods
4. Materials
5. Money
12.2. Division of Shop

Due to the load of job the machine shop is divided into two main sections
1. Machine shop 1
2. Machine shop 2
12.3. Sequence of Operation

It is defined as the plan through which workers and engineers have to complete the
required job according to availability of machines
Page 12-133 of 157
Chapter 12 Machine Shop
12.4. Explanation
The whole procedure of job making in machine shop may be summarize in an easy way that at first
the request of job is received by PPS department in machine shop they analyses it carefully and
make drawings that helps workers to understand their job along with the plan which makes easy for
them to accomplish goal within the time limit according to the availability of machines in machine
shop or other shops machines may also be used to fulfil the job. This job then forwarded to Incharge
of section according to the size of the job so its the duty of Incharge and engineers available there
to assign the job to any experienced worker which can effectively perform the job with minimum
usage of material it does not only save material but also so many other things like cost, time,
electricity and man power required for that job.
12.5. Raw Materials Used in Machine Shop

The selection of best material is an important task performed by specially experienced persons, the
task is not only to choose the appropriate material for the job but it should be economical which
decrease its cost in market but the quality may not be sacrificed.
Mild Steel
Steel 45
Stainless Steel
Bronze
Brass
Ferrous Metal
Nonferrous Metal
12.6. Products Seen in Machine Shop

The tour of machine shop helps us to witness the machining and other process on the required job.
It also helps to understand the modern requirement of the industries, sugar mills, etc.
Following is the list of jobs we saw in machine shop.
Pulley
Cement plant parts
Parts of sugar mill
Barrel
Gears
Fertilizer industry parts
12.7. Tools used in Machine Shop

Tool is probably one of the most important component of any sort of machine. The ability and
durability of tool predicts the quality and nature of machining on the job. There are lots of tools but
few important tools we saw in machine shop are:
Boring Tool
Used in the process of boring.
High Speed Steel (HSS)
Used for different sort of purposes including threading. Mostly used in lathe machines.
Tapping Tool
Used for internal threading.
Broaching Tool
Used to produce splines.
Turning Tool
Used for turning operation.
12.8. Machines/Equipment installed in Machine Shop

Machine shop 1 consist of various kinds of machines each having its unique identity and importance
in this sector. This kind may not only be classified as for functions only but the maximum capacity
of the machine may also be considered so according to the capacity of job and the availability of
crane the machine shop 1 is divided into two bays which are as follows
Small bay
Medium bay
In these bays the following machines are installed for the production of various types of
simple and complex objects,
Lathe machine (Three jaws and four jaws chucks)
Planer machine
Shaper Machine
Milling machine
Cylindrical Grinding Machine
Drilling machine
HDL (Heavy duty lathe)
BVT (Boring vertical turret lathe machine)
Horizontal lathe machine
Radial drilling machine
Double housing planner
12.9. Machining Operations

12.10. Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cutaway
material so that the desired part geometry remains.
Most common application includes to shape metal parts.
Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing processes in its capability to
produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features (e.g. Screw threads, gear teeth,
flat surfaces).
12.11. Turning and Related Operations

12.12. Turning
A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating work piece to generate cylindrical
shape. The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation Performed on a machine
tool called a lathe.
12.13. Facing
Tool is fed radially inward to create a flat surface.
12.14. Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer".
12.15. Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating work part parallel to axis of rotational a
large feed rate, thus creating threads.
12.16. Lathe Machines
Most lathe machines are horizontal but vertical lathe machines are also used for jobs with
large diameter relative to the length and for heavy work
The size of the lathe is designated by swing and maximum distance between centers
Swing is the maximum work part diameter that can be rotated in the spindle
Maximum distance between centers indicate the maximum length of a workpiece that can be
mounted between headstock and tailstock center
350 mm x 1.2 m lathe means a swing of 350 mm and maximum distance between center of
1.2 m
12.17. Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe

There are four common methods used to hold work parts in turning-to grasp the work, center and
support it in position along the spindle axis, and rotate it:
1. Holding the work between centers
2. Chuck
3. Collet
4. Face plate
12.18. Boring Machine
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating work part Difference
between boring and turning:
Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder
In effect, boring is an internal turning operation
Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines
Boring machines may be Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation
of machine spindle
12.19. Vertical Boring Mill
A vertical boring mill for large, heavy work parts
Usually the work part diameter is greater than its length
Typical boring machine can position and feed several cutting tools simultaneously
12.20. Drilling
Machining operation used to create a round hole in a work part
Contrasts with boring which can only enlarge an existing hole
Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit-a rotating cylindrical tool which has two cutting edges
on its working end
Customarily performed on a drill press
12.21. Milling Machine and Operation
A machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction
Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape
Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the
most versatile and widely used machining operations
Milling is an interrupted cutting operation-the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit work
during each revolution
Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth"
Machine tool called a milling machine
12.22. Basic Types of Milling Operations

12.23. Peripheral milling or plain milling:
Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
12.24. Face milling
Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter
12.25. Shaper Machine

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the work piece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except
that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. (Adding axes of motion can yield helical toolpaths,
has also done in helical planning.) A shaper is analogous to a planner, but smaller, and with the
cutter riding a ram that moves above a stationary work piece, rather than the entire work piece
moving beneath the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the column;
hydraulically actuated shapers also exist.
12.26. Planar Machine

A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the work
piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to that of a
lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. A planer is analogous to a shaper, but
larger, and with the entire work piece moving on a table beneath the cutter, instead of the cutter
riding a ram that moves above a stationary work piece. The table is moved back and forth on the
bed beneath the cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion drive or a
leadscrew, or by a hydraulic cylinder.
12.27. Pedestal Grinding Machine

This particular machine performs the actions just similar to the grinding machine. They are used
for shinning and facing the cutting tools it may be used for sharping the tip also. Silicon carbide
wheel is used for grinding according to the worker daily they have to change that wheel 3 to 4 times
as it all consumes while grinding the metal piece or cutting tool.
12.28. Production Planning Section

Production Planning Section is an important section of machine shop which plans the whole job
making procedure and way through which it has to be treated. Another important action which it

performs is the preparation of technical drawings which helps workers to understand the proper
dimensions of the job along with the properties of material which is required for that specific job.
12.29. Working
Monthly schedule
Job order
Receiving
The job order can further be classified as

1. Drawing sets
2. Component list
3. Cutting plan
4. Drawing set planning
5. Loading
6. Machining
7. Inspection
8. Assembly
9. Dispatch cell
12.30. Routes
The route of job may differ according to its requirement but normally it follows following route
12.31. Route 1
1. Forging process
2. Heat treatment shop
3. Machining
4. Assembly shop
12.32. Route 2
1. Fabrication shop
2. Machining
3. Assembly shop
12.33. Route 3
1. Casting
2. Heat treatment shop

3. Machining
4. Assembly shop
All lathe machines are operated manually which not only results in delay of job completion
but it then also totally depends on the experience and qualification of that specific worker.
Maintenance issues also affecting the productivity of machine shop due to which the
assembly shop is just bounded to specific small area not large enough for assembling of
different jobs.
First aid facilities are not enough. Workers prefer not to wear uniform which leads them in
extreme danger of damaging themselves or may lose any organ.
Cranes does not have bells so the people working on ground used to work in extreme danger
while cranes loading heavy jobs over their heads.
The machines are old enough to work perfectly as it may also be concluded through the
installation dates of each machine (mentioned in the specifications of machine). So, modern
machinery should be introduced which may help to increase the production along with the
quality and durability of the job.
Chapter
13
13. Introduction
This Shop involves various heating and cooling procedures performed to effect microstructural
changes in a material, which in turn affect its mechanical properties. Heat treatment operations are
performed in Qadbros at various times during its manufacturing sequences. In some cases, the
treatment is applied prior to shaping. In other cases, heat treatment is used to relieve the effects of
strain hardening that occur during forming, so that the material can be subjected to further
deformation. Heat treatment is also performed at or near the end of the sequence to achieve the final
strength and hardness required in the finished product. Heat Treatment is process of heating a
material to a specific temperature, then cooling at a specific rate to achieve specific mechanical
properties. Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram (Iron Carbon Phase Diagram) is an important guide
for heat treatment of different types of plain carbon steel.
13.1. Selective Surface Hardening / Case Hardening

When we require different HRC at different surface and regions then case hardening is applied.
Different case hardening methods are:
1. Flame hardening
2. Surface Hardening and then machining
Methods used in Qadbros are flame hardening, and surface hardening + machining.
13.2. Flame hardening

This method involves heating of the work surface by means of one or more torches followed by
rapid quenching via water. Fuel used is acetylene. Usually used for large and small gears. Typical
hardness depth is about 2.5 mm both manual and automatic flame hardening facility is available at
Qadbros.
Few types of machinery were under maintenance and hence must be repaired.
Modern heat treatment techniques like laser beam heating and electron beam heating are not
used and are not provided. They must be introduced to increase the quality and performance.
Page 13-141 of 157
Chapter
14
14. Introduction
The other facility of material testing provided by Qadbros is the non-destructive testing of the
material which means such methods of testing in which the breakage or damage of the material is
not involved. An example of this testing is the use of X-ray technology to locate the defects
internally. We can say that it undertakes ultrasonic, die penetrant and magnetic particles testing for
surface cracks, voids, blow holes, porosity and cavity etc. in welds, castings and forgings.
14.1. NDT Techniques

There are following tests which are being performed by the lab:
1. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
2. Magnetic Particle Testing(MT)
3. Dye Penetrant Test (PT)
4. Hardness test
5. Chemical test
14.2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation
of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. A typical UT inspection system consists of
several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A
pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the
pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced
and propagates through the materials in the form of waves.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected
back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the
transducer and is displayed on a screen. The reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time
from signal generation to when an echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to
Page 14-142 of 157
Chapter 14 Non-Destructive Testing

the distance that the signal travelled. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size,
orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.
14.3. Probe types

Normal Beam Probes: radiate their sound wave perpendicular to specimen surface.
TR Probes: separate crystal for receiving and transmitting waves
Angle Beam Probes: probes that radiate their sound wave at an angle.
14.4. Advantages
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT
methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
14.5. Limitations
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test
specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
14.6. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is an NDT process for detecting surface and slightly subsurface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The
process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Magnet ink is used as magnetic powder which is attracted to local pole sat defects.
Mostly the white powdering is done on the job to increase the contrast before magnetizing.
14.7. Dye Penetrating Test (DPT)

Penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surfacebreaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
14.8. Principle
DPI is based upon capillary action, where fluid having low surface tension penetrates into clean
and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by
Chapter 14 Non-Destructive Testing

dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess
penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the
flaw so that an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under
ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or no fluorescent (visible).
14.9. Inspection steps

1. Pre-cleaning
2. Application of Penetrant
3. Excess Penetrant Removal
4. Application of Developer
5. Inspection
Mostly cleaner for the penetrant which used are solvent and water emulsifier.
14.10. Universal Crack Depth Meter X-RT-705

The crack depth meter X-RT 705 is in a fringe area of ultrasonic application. It can detect the
position, depth and angle of inclination of cracks in the surfaces of metallic materials rapidly and
accurately. As it operates on DC thats why it is suitable for all the metals.
The recommendations for the material testing facilities are:
The testing techniques are although sufficient enough yet they are old fashioned and needed
to replace by the modern techniques and equipment.
The allocation of area for the labs is not sufficient enough according to their requirement
One does not go to the dark room without permission
Chapter
15
15. Introduction
For all the materials from which the jobs are to be made are subjected to some sort of testing
methods before the actual processing and working on it from raw material to the final and finished
jobs. The basic purpose of testing the material is to ensure adequate and the proper composition of
elements in required percentages in the material under testing so that there will be a minimum
chance of failure of job during overloading or excessive use of the job.
There are two basic types of material testing methods:
Destructive Testing
Non-Destructive Testing
In destructive testing methods the forces are applied to the material until it brakes. And by the force,
extension and respective values of stress and strain the qualities and properties are determined e.g.
impact testing and surface hardness testing.
While on the contrary the non-destructive testing includes methods which do not involve the
breakage of materials. i.e. Radiography and x-ray analysis. In Qadbros the following two testing
laboratories are present and working efficiently for testing of almost all type of the materials and
jobs being made in Qadbeos; they are:
Material Testing Laboratory
Non Destructive Testing Laboratory
15.1. Test Performed in MTL

Material testing laboratory in Qadbros is working very efficiently and it is divided in four sections
according to the type and requirement of the testing methods and for the sake of easiness and proper
working separately without any inconvenience.
Four sections of MTL (material testing laboratory) are following:
Quick analysis
Chemical analysis
Metallography
Page 15-145 of 157
Chapter 15 Material Testing
Mechanical testing
15.2. Quick analysis

Quick analysis section is located in steel foundry and is further divided into two sections. One of
them is testing by emission spectrometer and other is determination of composition by chemical
testing methods.
In spectrometer section; firstly, a sample of the molten steel is brought out in form of a cube and
solidified after which it is brought into quick analysis section in which its surfaces are polished on
grinders to make the surfaces shiny which is very necessary to make it balanced on the spectrometer
surface otherwise the high pressure argon gas will cause any serious issues. At that time the
intensity of blow holes and pores or other surface defects are also inspected visually. After this the
sample is forwarded to spectrometer room and placed below a tungsten electrode (it is used because
of its highly refractory properties) and burned while the percentages of all the components or the
elements of the material is obtained on a computer screen processed by a prescribed computer
program. According to this result the desired percentages can be achieved by adding desired
components into molten steel in case the results are not satisfactory. The same results can also be
achieved by chemical testing which is to dissolve the specific mass of the material in form of the
chips and then it is dissolved in respective acids for respective elements whose composition is to
be determined either by titration or by formulae. But the draw backs are that this method is long,
time consuming and somehow costly in terms of acids and chemical usage.
15.3. Metallography
Metallography is the process which involves the testing of materials using the microscopes and
other optical devices and then their internal structure is compared with the desired materials
intermolecular structure.
The important uses of the metallographic study are following:
Process control
Presence and identity of defects
Inclusion identification and determination of their density
Examination of cracks, fractures and other failure mechanisms
Evaluation of effects of corrosion and chemical attacks
Identification of microstructure
Grain or particle size
In metallographic section we studied and observed the microstructure of grey cast iron sample
which includes the graphite flakes with the simple microscope at 40 magnifications whereas its
magnification is up to 450. Also we observed the structure of M.S sample by digital microscope in

which a digital camera is placed and the photograph of the structure is obtained and its
magnification is up to 5000.
15.4. Process Diagram of Metallographic Testing
Figure 15-1 Metallographic Testing
15.5. Chemical Analysis

It is also a material testing facility provided by Qadbros in which almost all types of the materials
are tested not only from the QADBROS but the materials of other industries are also tested here
and its reports are considered satisfactory and authentic. A good trend by this laboratory is that the
reports are forwarded to the respective section or shops and the tested sample is kept safely for 1
year in case of any complaint of query.
The equipment possessed by this lab is:
Furnace used to burn the samples for respective testing. Can also be called as incinerator.
Hot plate, which is electric fired
Stove, and it is also electric fired
Chemicals and acids
The basic process is the same as in quick analysis chemical section and in the lab the percentages
of the elements in the materials is determined either by residual mass (percentage) of the element
or by the process which includes the dissolution of chips of sample into chemicals followed by
heating on hot plate or stove and then the determination of composition by titrating this solution
against a standard solution.
15.6. which Materials can be tested???

As a matter of fact, the chemical analysis lab is capable of testing every kind of sample given to it
but the usually it deals with the following materials mostly:
Refractory materials like sand bricks, fire bricks, coal, fire brick linings etc.
Babbling materials which includes copper, tin, lead and antimony i.e. nonferrous
materials
Copper wires
Aluminum ingots
The ferrous materials include Ferro silicon and fire bricks and ferrous rocks
15.7. Mechanical Testing

The section of mechanical testing involves the destructive testing of the materials by subjecting
them to various stationary and varying loads. It includes following testing machines:
Impact testing machine
Hardness tester machine
15.8. Impact Testing Machine

It is also a destructive test in which a sample is clamed at the bottom of the machine and a hammer
of a sufficient force let say 30 tons is impacted suddenly on the sample to break it and respective
readings are noted from the gauge on the machine.
It is usually used for the small samples and the one used in the QADBROS mechanical testing
laboratory is of 30/15 kg capacity.
15.9. Hardness Tester

Hardness can be defined as the ability of a material to resist the penetration. And in the lab there
are three testers used for this testing and they are:
Rockwell Hardness Tester: used for hard materials
Brinnel Hardness Tester: used for soft materials
Vickers Hardness Test
The operation of both machines is same in which the sample in form a sphere is placed on the bed
of the machine and clamped. After which the load is applied in form of a pointed rod like needle
which penetrates into the sample and it is resisted by the hardness of the sample and its value is
noted by the gauge indicator.
There is also another section of the material testing laboratory called as the pyrometer
section in which calibration of the gauges takes place by professional personal.
Chapter
16
16. Introduction
In Assembly shop of Qadbros like other modern industries various fastening methods are used to
mechanically attach two (or more) parts together. Many products in Qadri Group are assembled
largely by mechanical fastening methods;
Sugar industry machinery
Cement Industry Parts
Paper Industry
Cranes
Power plant
In QadBros both temporary and permanent fastening methods are used.
16.1. Temporary Fastening

Those that allow for disassembly e.g., Threaded fasteners like Screw, bolts and nuts
16.2. Permanent Fastening

Those that create a permanent joint e.g., rivets
Assembly shop is responsible for all type of assemblies generally including assembly of overheard
cranes, and mobile cranes, sugar and cement plant components etc.
16.3. Assembly
Assembly is a manufacturing process in which parts (usually interchangeable) are added to a
product in a sequential manner to create a finished product
16.4. Why we prefer mechanical assembly?

1. Ease of assembly
2. Ease of disassembly
3. Mechanical assembly can be done by unskilled workers as compare to welding.
4. Ease of transportation
5. Easily inspected
Page 16-149 of 157
Chapter 16 Assembly Shop

6. Saves Time
Qadbros provides the facility of assembly at the site saving both time and cost of the costumer.
We divide mechanical assembly methods used into following categories:
1. Threaded fasteners
2. Rivets
16.5. Threaded fasteners

Threaded fasteners are discrete hardware components that have external or internal threads for
assembly of parts e.g., Screw, Bolts and Nuts. In Qadbros threaded fasteners are used to assemble
almost every major product. From rollers in sugar industry to boilers, cranes to road rollers, fans to
metallic gates.
16.6. Screw, Bolts and Nuts

Screw and bolts are threaded fasteners that have external threads. A Screw is an externally threaded
fastener that is generally assembled into a blind threaded hole. A bolt is an externally threaded
fastener that is inserted through holes in the parts and screwed into a nut on the opposite side.
Machine screws are used for assembly into tapped holes. Cap screws are used for higher strength
metals and to closer tolerances. Set screws are used for fastening collars, gears and pulleys to shafts.
A self-tapping screw is used to cut or form threads in a pre-existing hole into which it is being
turned.
Thread fasteners in QADBROS are mainly made of steel because of its good strength and low cost.
They are usually coated in Ni, Cr, Zn, and black oxide etc. for resistance to corrosion.
16.7. Washer
It is a hardware component often used with threaded fasteners to ensure tightness of the mechanical
joint. They
Distribute stresses that might otherwise be concentrated at the bolt or screw head and nut
Provide support for large clearance holes in the assembled parts
Increase spring tension
16.8. Assembly Shop
Protect part surfaces
Seal the joint
Resist inadvertent unfastening
16.9. Tools and Methods for threaded fasteners

Tools used varies from simple hand held Screwdrivers or wrenches to hydraulic, pneumatic or
electric powered tools. Usually the pneumatic power tightening is done at the site and simple
manual tightening is done at the shop
16.10. Rivets
A rivet is an unthreaded, headed pin used to join two (or more) parts by passing the pin through
holes in the parts and then forming (upsetting) a second head in the pin on the opposite side. The
deforming operation is usually performed by hammering or steady pressing. In addition, special
rivets are used for special applications. Rivets are primarily used for lap joints. Riveting method is
used as it
Offers higher production rates
Simplicity
Dependability
Low cost
In Qadbros the tooling and methods used in riveting are
Impact, in which pneumatic hammer delivers a succession of blows to upset the rivet.
Steady compression, in which the riveting tool applies a continuous squeezing pressure to
upset the rivet
A combination of impact and compression
Equipment used was portable and manually operated.
16.11. Types of Fittings

Fitting is the process of joining two mechanical parts to each other
16.12. Fits
The relation between two mating parts is called fit. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole or
shaft sizes, fits may be classified as clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit.
16.13. Clearance fit

Clearance fit is defined as a clearance between mating parts. In clearance fit, there is always a
positive clearance between the hole and shaft.
16.14. Interference fit

Interference fit is obtained if the difference between the hole and shaft sizes is negative before
assembly. Interference fit generally ranges from minimum to maximum interference.
16.15. Transition fit

Transition fit may result in either an interference or clearance, depending upon the actual values of
the tolerance of individual parts.
16.16. Assembly Systems

16.17. Hole Basis System
The size of the shaft is obtained by subtracting the allowance from the basic size of the hole.
Tolerances are then applied to each part separately. In this system, the lower deviation of the hole
is zero. The letter symbol indication for this is 'H'.
16.18. Shaft Basis System

The upper deviation of the shaft is zero, and the size of the hole is obtained by adding the allowance
to the basic size of the shaft. The letter symbol indication is 'h'.
Pneumatic, electric or hydraulic powered tools for fastening are not provided to workers at
the shop. This reduces efficiency, Wastes time and decreases quality.
Hence these tools must be provided.
The bending machine is under maintenance.
Chapter
17
17. Quality Control Procedures
Inspection is a process in which the material is just visually Checked by using many apparatuses
like Vernier Calliper, Micro meter screw gauges, Tapes, Compasses etc. When this is done, then a
report is prepared containing all the references with respect to that the material was passed out from
the inspection stage and this is a necessary step to assure the quality of the product. And is done
where the status of the manufacturing industry is to be maintained and the Quality of the
manufactured product is too kept up to the standards.
The working process starts with agreement between purchaser and manufacture, the manufacture
provides Preformat Invoice (PI) to the purchaser which explains the equipment specification and
related price. Then the purchaser issues the Purchase Order (PO) which confirming the preformat
invoice. Before start of manufacturing, the purchaser must provide equipment inspection and test
plan (ITP) to the manufacture. The ITP identifies all inspection points for purchaser inspector.
Then the manufacture needs to prepare the project quality control plan based of this inspection and
test plan. The manufacture notifies purchaser inspector in advance to attend to her factory for
witnessing the inspections and tests. The communication and coordination channel between
manufacture, purchaser inspector and purchaser are agreed in the Pre-inspection meeting (PIM).
Based the international practice manufacture sends her notification to the purchaser, and purchaser
reviews the notification and after her approval sends to the inspector.
Then the inspector will be attended in the in manufacture shop to witness the test or inspection. The
purchaser inspector will send his/her inspection visit report to the purchaser. Purchaser can assign
his/her own inspector which is her own direct employee or hire a third party inspection agency to
carry out inspection.
Inspection and test plan has tabular format and its content extracted from construction code. In each
row of the table there is quality control and inspection requirement and determine which party is
responsible for control and inspection. There are three parties in ITP:
1.
Manufacturer
2.
Third Party Inspector (TPI)
3.
Client or purchaser.
Page 17-153 of 157
Chapter 17 Quality Control Department

Final Inspection before manufacturing section consists of Pre-Inspection Meeting (PIM) and review
of quality control documents which need to be approved before start of manufacturing. There are 3
or 4 important terminologies in the ITP which determines the responsibility of each party. These
are:
17.1. Hold point (H)

Hold on the production till TPI Inspector perform inspection and supervise the required test, as
general; attendance to the PIM meeting, raw material inspection and identification, Post Weld Heat
Treatment Review, Hydrostatic Test, Performance Test, Run-Out Test and Final Inspection Are
Hold points. Normally manufactures shall notify TPI Inspector 7 working days in advance.
17.2. Witness Point (W)

Manufacture shall notify client and TPI Inspector but there is no hold on the production, client can
waive this inspection based on his discretion and inform TPI Inspector.
17.3. Spot Witness (SW)

For items with spot witness manufacture shall notify TPI inspector as fulfilling the monitoring for
example one random visit for whole UT Tests or one or two visit for whole surface preparation
work for painting.
17.4. Review (R)

Review means Review document, which includes the review of quality control records, test reports
and etc. When TPI Inspector make visit for hold or witness point, the inspector can review the
related documents.
Rejection Cost of Group Companies in 2015-16
200
178
180
160
140
120
100
75
80
67
60
40
40
20
0
0.2
0
QBL
QCL
D&E
Qty.
QE
QEN
Procurment
Millions
Graphs 17-1
Rework Cost of Group Companies in 2015-16
300
260
250
200
159
150
100
50
32
27
0
29
0.3
0
QBL
QCL
D&E
Qty.
QE
QEN
Marketing
Millions
Graphs 17-2
Departmental Delivery Delay In 2015-16 Against Internal Commitments
1.20%
1.10%
1.00%
0.80%
0.60%
0.40%
0.20%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
Import
Procurment
QBL
D&E
QCL
0.00%
0.00%
QE
QEN
Graphs 17-3
Delivery Delays In 2015-16 Against Customer Delivery Dates

90
82
80
70
60
49
50
40
30
20
10
0
QadBros Engg.
Qadri Engg.
Graphs 17-4
Utilized Capcity of Group Companies in 2015-16

180000
157869
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
QBL
QCL H.F.F
QCL CUPOLA
0
QE
QEN
Graphs 17-5
Job Completion Detail in 2015-16 QadBros Engineering(QE)

3000
2810
2494
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
316
0
TOTAL NO.OF JOBS
ON TIME
DELAY
Graphs 17-6
QE Monthaly Booked Capacity In 2016 Machine Family Wise

50%
46%
45%
42%
40%
35%
30%
25%
23%
23%
22%
20%
20%
17%
15%
10%
10%
8%
10%
7%
6%
9%
6%
4%
5%
1%
0% 0%
0%
0%
V.LATEH
PLANNER
S.LATHE
0% 0%
0% 0%
0%
FLOOR
BORING
M.BORING
H.LATHE
JAN,2016
FAB,2016
FABRICATION SHELL BORING
MAR,2016
Graphs 17-7

Brief Report of GENCO Thermal Power Station 3 Muzaffargarrh (Internship Report MNSUET Multan)

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Brief Report of GENCO Thermal Power Station 3 Muzaffargarrh (Internship Report MNSUET Multan)

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Contents

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants ........................................................... 1-16

Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1-16

Sources of Energy Fuels ................................................................................. 1-16

1.31. Pollution.......................................................................................................... 1-27

Introduction ........................................................................................................ 3-42

3.2. Description of Steam Cycle .............................................................................. 3-43

3.37. D-EHC (Digital Electro-Hydraulic Control System) ..................................... 3-68

Decanting Section .............................................................................................. 4-80

Chapter 5 Boiler Section ............................................................................................... 5-85

What is Boiler?................................................................................................... 5-85

5.6. Construction of Boiler ...................................................................................... 5-87

What is Cooling Tower? .................................................................................... 6-99

Chapter 7 Electrical Section ....................................................................................... 7-102

Generator .......................................................................................................... 7-102

7.5. Excitation of Generator .................................................................................. 7-105

8.9. Mechanical Clarifier filters............................................................................. 8-113

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 9-118

Chapter 10 Production, Planning & Control ......................................................... 10-122

Introduction .................................................................................................... 10-122

10.1. Production, Planning & Control Sections .................................................. 10-122

10.8. Dispatch Cell .............................................................................................. 10-124

Introduction .................................................................................................... 11-126

11.1. Fabrication Techniques .............................................................................. 11-126

Chapter 12 Machine Shop ....................................................................................... 12-133

Introduction .................................................................................................... 12-133

12.1. Five Ms ...................................................................................................... 12-133

12.34. Recommendations .................................................................................... 12-140

Introduction .................................................................................................... 13-141

13.1. Selective Surface Hardening / Case Hardening ......................................... 13-141

Introduction .................................................................................................... 14-142

14.1. NDT Techniques ........................................................................................ 14-142

Introduction .................................................................................................... 15-145

15.1. Test Performed in MTL .............................................................................. 15-145

Introduction .................................................................................................... 16-149

16.1. Temporary Fastening .................................................................................. 16-149

16.3. Assembly .................................................................................................... 16-149

Quality Control Procedures............................................................................ 17-153

17.1. Hold point (H) ............................................................................................ 17-154

Figure 3-28 Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation ...................................................................... 3-65

understand the concept of power plant.

understand the types of power plants.

2. Sources of Energy Fuels

Page 1-16 of 157

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants

1.2. Types of Fuels

Page 1-17 of 157

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants

1.6. Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Chapter 1-18 of 157

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants

Figure 1-1 hydroelectric power

1.10. Problems with Hydroelectric Power

1.11. Advantages and Disadvantages

Inexhaustible fuel source

Minimal environmental impact

Viable source--relatively useful levels of energy production

Can be used throughout the world

Smaller models depend on availability of fast flowing streams or rivers.

Chapter 1-19 of 157

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants

1.13. Problems with Solar Power

Chapter 1-20 of 157

Chapter 1 Power Resources and Power Plants