Lecture 1 Basic Notes

Introduction to the Finite Element Method
and Energy Principles

Dr Alfredo Camara
Alfredo.camara@city.ac.uk
City University London
Dr Alfredo Camara
L1-EPM707
Index
1
Introduction
Brief review of the Stiffness Method
FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks
Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems
Principle of Virtual Works
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation
Summary
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Introduction
Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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Introduction
Context
Context
FEM is a numerical method that solves:
Structural mechanics problems: calculation of the field of stresses
and displacements in structures subject to static or dynamic loads
and/or strains, in linear or nonlinear range, with small or large
displacements or deformations.
Soil mechanics: similar to structural mechanics but considering a
different type of material in which the pore pressure should be
considered.
Fluid dynamics: solution of the Navier-Stokes equations in
compressible or incompressible fluids.
Heat and other diffusion problems.
Magnetic problems.
Coupled problems: involving two or more of these aspects at the
same time (e.g. fluid-structure interaction).
Solution of differential equations.
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Introduction
Context
Context
It is impossible to solve complicated problems with a continuum model of
the structure
Elements
Nodes
Continuum model
Discrete model
FEM
FEM philosophy
Discretise the continuum by dividing it into different elements
connected by nodes
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Introduction
Context
Each node has certain Degrees-Of-Freedom and the displacement field in

the element depends on the type of element.
x2
Element
e:
u6
u2
1
u5
u1
u4
2
u3
x1
Purpose of this course

It is the analyst choice to chose the elements typology, DOFs, shape
functions and size and the accuracy of the solution strongly depends on it.
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Introduction
Context
The optimum discretisation depends on what you want from FEM

Continuum:
Detailed model for local flange vibration

vehicle-bridge interaction:
Global model for general design

and analysis:
7 DOF vehicle model

Beam elements
Shell elements
with embedded reinforcement
Truss elements
Camara et al. (2013,2014)
Truss elements
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Introduction
Context
The optimum type of element should be selected considering the expected

stress and displacement response, as well as the required accuracy
Typical 2D frame model
for gobal elastic analysis:
3D model if relevant torsion

is foreseen:
Detailed analysis
of the connections:
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Introduction
Types of elements
Types of elements
The geometry and kinematic assumptions differ between elements.
The material properties in the element can be linear or nonlinear.
x3
x2
x1
Beam/Truss elements: Widely employed to model frame members.

Appropriate if one of its dimensions is much larger than the other two
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Introduction
Types of elements
Types of elements
x3
x2
x1
Surface elements: They are appropriate if one of the member

dimensions is much smaller than the other two
Membranes: to represent the in-plane behaviour
Plates: to represent the out-of-plane behaviour
Shells (curved): to represent the coupled in- and out-of-plane behaviour
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Introduction
Types of elements
Types of elements
x3
x2
x1
Solid elements: Used to model solid continua.

They may be necessary if the three member dimensions are similar
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Introduction
Types of elements
Types of elements
z
r
Line of
axisymmetry
Axisymmetric elements: If the solid is axisymmetric (i.e. obtained

by rotating a planar section about an axis), and so are the loads
(without torsion) and boundary conditions, they can be analysed by
considering a single plane and using plane elements.
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Introduction
Historical background
Historical background, from [Zienkiewicz et al., 2005].
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Introduction
Notation
Notation
Nodal quantity
Displacement
Forces
Global level
U
P
Element quantity
Internal distortion
Internal force
Boundary force
Displacement
Discrete
e
s
-
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Element level
u
p
Continuum
t
r
Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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The Stiffness Method (SM)

A deep knowledge on the Stiffness Method to solve plane trusses and
frames is required for this course.
The stiffness method allows for solving structures composed of discrete
members interconnected by nodes.
x2
EA1
L1
EA2
L2
x1
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The Stiffness Method (SM): basic procedure

1. Establish the DOFs at the nodes and obtain the element stiffness
matrix
x2
u1,p1 k1=EA1/L1 u2,p2

1
x1
"
p1
p2
| {z }
p1
"
k1 k1
=
k1 k1
|
{z
k1
#"
u1
u2
} | {z }
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u1
2. Expand the element matrices to global coordinates and assembly all

the element contributions to obtain the structure stiffness matrix
Element 1
}|
p1
k1 k1 0
u1
p2 = k1 k1 0 u2
p3
0
0
0
u3
Element 2
p1
}|
0
0
u1
k2 k2 u2
0 k2 k2
u3
0

p2 = 0
p3
Assembly:K=e ke
p1
k1

p2 = k1
p3
| {z }
P
}|
k1
0
u1
k1 + k2 k2 u2
u3
k2
k2
{z
K
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} | {z }
U
Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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FEM VS Stiffness Method

FEM approximates the behaviour of a continuum by finite elements.
The Stiffness Method (SM) deals with simple structures composed of
discrete members interconnected by nodes.
FEM and SM use the same assembly procedure to account for the
contribution of different elements/members and satisfy equilibrium
and compatibility at the nodes.
The element formulation in FEM is based on continuum models,
representing the forces (stresses) and the displacements (strains) as
functions of the nodal displacements and obtaining the element
loads using the Principle of Virtual Works (PVW) (this is different
from SM).
We will learn how to obtain the force-displacement relationships at the
element level in the form of stiffness matrices (ke ) for different types of
elements, and how to define the optimum mesh and to control the
accuracy of the solution.
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FEM displacement formulation

Since FEM represents a continuum, the number of interconnections
between elements should be infinite. How can this be solved and
formulated in a way similar to SM?
The continuum is separated by imaginary lines or surfaces into a
discrete number of Finite Elements (FE).
The elements are interconnected at a discrete number of Nodal
Points (usually at their boundaries). The displacement at these
nodes (U) are the basic unknowns.
A set of Shape Functions (N) are chosen to define uniquely the
state of displacement within each FE and its boundaries: r. This
defines in turn the strains () and stresses () in the element (in this
order).
A system of equivalent forces (pe ) concentrated at the nodes is
obtained using the PVW to equilibrate the boundary stresses and
distributed loads. This is the weak form of the problem.
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FEM: Approximations and Risks

1
The shape functions are chosen by the analyst. They always represent
the displacement within the element continuously thus satisfying
compatibility there. However, the displacement continuity between
adjacent elements may be violated.
The interpolation of the displacement field with the shape functions is
an approximation. Furthermore, the integrals are evaluated
numerically.
By concentrating equivalent forces at the nodes, equilibrium is
satisfied only in the overall sense. Local violations of equilibrium
within the element and on its boundaries usually arise. This is why it
is known as weak formulation.
... and this gives many opportunities to the skill or ingenuity of the user to
be employed, as the choice of the element architecture and shape
functions strongly influences the degree of accuracy of the solution.
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Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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Governing equations:
1
Equilibrium: Stress VS Force = f (b, t)
Compatibility: Strain VS Displacement = f (r)
Constitutive (material properties): Stress VS Strain = f ()
(Boundary Conditions)
Assumptions:
Small displacements: The equilibrium in the displaced configuration is
adequately described by the geometry in the original (undeformed)
configuration.
Small strains: The second order derivatives of the strain have small
effect
Linear and elastic material properties: The material is elastic (path
independent) and the stress is a linear function of the strain.
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1. Equilibrium
The Cauchy stress tensor is defined on a differential element:
22
21
23
12
32
11
x2
x3
33
31
13
x1
11 12 13
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the stress tensor give the principal
stresses and planes at the point in which the tensor is considered.
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1. Equilibrium
The traction t on a plane with normal n will be used to define the
tractions at the boundaries of the structure with internal stresses. It is
defined from the stress tensor as: t = T n
Practical example:
Calculate t in the stress state below (remember that they are stresses in a
differential element, and not forces) with respect to the plane .
3 MPa
n
3 MPa
10 MPa
10 MPa
3 MPa
3 MPa
45
x2
MPa
n
10 MPa
x3
x1
MPa
3 MPa
3 MPa
Check equilibrium
45
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1. Equilibrium
Rotational equilibrium:
ij = ji The stress tensor is symmetric
(1)
Translational equilibrium: Strong formulation (small displacements)

ij
+ bi = 0; if the body force is gravity bi = gi
(2)
xj
Using the symmetry conditions:
11
22

33
=
12
13
23
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(3)
2. Kinematic relationships
displaced
original
x2
x1
x3
Assumed
small displacements
Infinitesimal strain tensor:
11 12 13
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
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(4)
2. Kinematic relationships
1
ij =
2
ri
rj
+
xj
xi
(5)
ii is the normal strain and describes the change in length with respect
to the original length of the differential element in direction xi .
ij = 2ij (with i 6= j) is the engineering shear strain and denotes the
angular distortion of the differential element in the plane (xi xj )
The strain tensor is symmetric:
11
22

= 33
12

13
23
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(6)
3. Constitutive relationships
Elastic material: is a unique function of , regardless on how is
achieved (path independent). It means that the strain energy function
only depends on and .
Linear elastic material: = D, Hookes law. More generally:
= D( 0 ) + 0
Homogeneous material: D is constant for all the points of the
body.
Isotropic material: the same material properties in all directions.
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3. Constitutive relationships
In these conditions, D is defined by two material constants, usually the
Youngs modulus E and the Poissons ratio
1
E

11
22 E

33 E
=
12
0
13
0
23
| {z }
E
1
E
E
0
E
1
E
0
0
0
0
1
G
0
{z
D1
Where G = E/2(1 + ) is the shear modulus.

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0
1
G
0
0
11
22
0
33

0
12
13
0
23
| {z }
1
G}
(7)
4. Boundary conditions
The previous 3 relationships are focused on the interior of the elastic body.
In order to complete the governing equations, Boundary Conditions
(BC) are needed to describe the perimeter.
Types of BC:
ts
ds
Traction (force)
tn
rs
rs
rn
ds
ts
tn
ds
rn
ds
Displacement
Mixed
The rule is that one and only one normal and tangential BC are applied at
every node of the perimeter
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4. Boundary conditions: Typical cases

Traction free: No special treatment in FEM
Fixed boundary:
rn=rs=0
tn=ts=0
Continuum model
Continuum model
FE model
Traction: Equivalent nodal forces are computed

by PVW
tn=0
ts=0
Continuum model
FE model
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FE model
Linear elasticity: Summary

Strong formulation: The problem is completely (and exactly) defined by
ij
+ bi = 0
xj
Equilibrium:
1
Kinematic: ij =
2
Constitutive: = D( 0 ) + 0
Boundary Conditions
ri
rj
+
xj
xi
Important
Unfortunately, in practical cases it is very difficult to obtain the
closed-form solution of the governing differential equations, which require
the strong satisfaction of equilibrium at every node and portion of the
body. The FEM formulates the equilibrium in a Weak form that is much
easier to solve but it is an approximation.
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Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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Principle of Virtual Works (PVW)

Energy theorems provide an approximate solution to the previous
governing equation. The PVW is a fundamental concept. The structure in
equilibrium with externally applied loads is perturbed slightly by an
arbitrary field of virtual displacements (r)
r
Virtual displacements
applied to the body
in equilibrium
stress field in equilibrium
with body forces and
boundary tractions
r is arbitrary but must be: (1) continuous and differentiable to give

strain, and (2) respect the displacement BC.
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Principle of Virtual Works (PVW)

Statement
The equations of equilibrium are satisfied if, and only if, the internal work
(WI ) produced by the real stresses acting on the virtual strains is equal
to the external work (WE ) produced by the real body and traction
boundary forces acting on the virtual displacement field.
Z
WI =
T dV
(8)
WE =
rT b dV +
rT t dS
(9)
Where S is the surface on which the boundary conditions are specified.

WI = WE
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(10)
Disadvantages of PVW
PVW is in the core of the FEM but it is difficult to use because:
1
Difficult determination of the virtual displacement field to be used: r.
It is difficult to know what is the best form of the stress field: .
PVW does not require the satisfaction of the material constitutive or

the strain-displacement relationships.
Solution in FEM:
r and are determined by selecting an appropriate finite element
mesh and element typology.
The satisfaction of the material constitutive or the
strain-displacement relationships can be accounted for by using the
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy.
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Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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Assumptions
Assumptions of MPE
1 Elastic material, for which the stress is described by a unit strain
energy function (u)
u
(11)
=
The Total Strain Energy in the structure is:

Z
U=
u dV
(12)
The internal virtual work is then:

Z
WI =
V
T dV =
Z
V
u
dV =
u dV = U
(13)
The internal virtual work in an elastic material is invested in the variation

of the Strain Energy.
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Assumptions
Assumptions of MPE (Cont.)

2 Conservative forces, i.e. independent from the displacements.
In that case the external virtual work is:
Z
WE =
r b dV +
V
Z
r t dS =
S
r b dV +
| V
r t dS = V
{z S
(14)
Where the Potential Energy, V , is:
V =
r b dV
rT t dS
The application of the loads decreases the Potential Energy.
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(15)
Theorem
Using the PVW in Eq. (10) with Eqs. (13) and (14):
WI = WE U = V (U + V ) = = 0
(16)
Where is the Total Potential Energy. It is the sum of the elastic Strain
Energy and the Potential Energy due to the applied loads:
=U +V
(17)
The MPE principle asserts that, of all the

admissible displacements, those that
satisfy equilibrium give a stationary
and minimum value of
(r)
Equilibrium
stable
This energy is at a stationary position when

an infinitesimal variation from such position
involves no change in energy:
Minimum
The MPE principle is a special case of the

PVW for elastic structures subject to
conservative forces.
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Theorem
MPE applied to linear elastic materials

If the material is linear and elastic: = D. And the
Total Strain Energy is:
U=
1
2
T DdV
(18)
Or more generally:
1
U=
T D dV
T D0 dV +
2 V
V
And the total potential energy is: = U + V =
Z
1
2
Z
V
T D dV
Z
V
T D0 dV +
T 0 dV
T 0 dV
(19)
Z
V
rT b dV
rT t dS
(20)
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Theorem
Weak formulation of equilibrium

From Eq. (20), and considering that = (r) The Minimum Potential
Energy theorem states that the displacement field r that makes the first
variation of zero: = 0 satisfies the equilibrium equations.
" Z
1
2
T D dV
T D0 dV +
T 0 dV
rT b dV
(21)
r t dS = 0
S
Weak formulation
This formulation of equilibrium is referred to as weak because it is
satisfied in an average manner over the volume (V ) and boundary (S) of
the body. It is much simpler to solve than the strong formulation and it is
what allows FEM to solve complicated problems, although it is an
approximation.
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Summary
Index
1
Introduction
Summary
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Summary
Learning Outcomes
Understand the philosophy of FEM: discretise the continuum in a
finite number of elements connected by nodes
Overview the basic procedure in the FEM and the connection to the
Stiffness Method
Review of essential concepts in the SM and continuum mechanics
applied to linear elastic materials: the governing differential equations
are given by equilibrium, kinematic and constitutive relationships, as
well as Boundary Conditions, conforming the Strong Formulation
Understand of the Weak Form based on energy principles that are
employed by FEM to re-formulate the equilibrium equations and
approximate the solution.
Generalise the Principle of Virtual Works to continuum problems
and formulate the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy
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Summary
Disclaimer
Disclaimer
These notes have been prepared based on the following references [Fenves, 1992,
Zienkiewicz et al., 2005, Camara et al., 2013, Camara et al., 2014, Abaqus, 2014]. They
have not been subjected to the usual scrutiny reserved for formal publications. They
may be distributed outside this class only with the permission of the Lecturer.
Abaqus (2014). Finite element analysis program; version 6.14. Providence USA.
Camara, A., Nguyen, K., Ruiz-Teran, A., and Stafford, P. (2014). Serviceability limit
state of vibrations in under-deck cable-stayed bridges accounting for vehicle-structure
interaction. Engineering Structures, 61:61 72.
Camara, A., Ruiz-Teran, A., and Stafford, P. (2013). Structural behaviour and design
criteria of under-deck cable-stayed bridges subjected to seismic action. Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 42(6):891912.
Fenves, G. (1992). Lecture 1. In Finite Element Methods: Lecture Notes, University of
California at Berkeley.
Zienkiewicz, O., Taylor, R., and Zhu, J. (2005). The finite element method: Its basics
and fundamentals. Elsevier, 6th edition.
L1-EPM707

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Lecture 1 Basic Notes

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Introduction to the Finite Element Method

and Energy Principles

City University London

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Principle of Virtual Works

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Principle of Virtual Works

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation

Each node has certain Degrees-Of-Freedom and the displacement field in

Purpose of this course

The optimum discretisation depends on what you want from FEM

Detailed model for local flange vibration

Global model for general design

7 DOF vehicle model

Camara et al. (2013,2014)

The optimum type of element should be selected considering the expected

3D model if relevant torsion

Beam/Truss elements: Widely employed to model frame members.

Surface elements: They are appropriate if one of the member

Solid elements: Used to model solid continua.

Axisymmetric elements: If the solid is axisymmetric (i.e. obtained

Historical background, from [Zienkiewicz et al., 2005].

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Principle of Virtual Works

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

The Stiffness Method (SM)

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

The Stiffness Method (SM): basic procedure

u1,p1 k1=EA1/L1 u2,p2

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

2. Expand the element matrices to global coordinates and assembly all

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Principle of Virtual Works

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

FEM VS Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

FEM displacement formulation

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

FEM: Approximations and Risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Brief review of the Stiffness Method

FEM VS Stiffness Method: approximations and risks

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Principle of Virtual Works

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: The Weak Formulation

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems

Equilibrium: Stress VS Force = f (b, t)

Compatibility: Strain VS Displacement = f (r)

Constitutive (material properties): Stress VS Strain = f ()

Continuum Mechanics for linear elasticity problems