4.

3 Species and Evolution

Naming organisms
The Binomial name -Every organism is given 2 names to avoid
confusion in different countries:
:The genus (a genus is a group of similar species) and the
species name
.

Humans

Eg Homo sapiens
the genus

Maize
Zea mays

The first name is

and the

second is the spieces

.Written
in small letters,
Why was the binomial name used

What is a Species-a group of closely related organisms that

are all potentially capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring.
A horse and a donkey can interbreed to make
a mule. The mule is infertile .so its not the
same species.
Grouping Organisms
1-Originally scientists classified organisms by looking at similar
features , Morphology (outer and inner appearance ). It was
used to group them into species , genus
2-Today scientists use Molecular Phylogeny which analyses
DNA, RNA and proteins

-However, even though there are many similarities in molecules

across all species ,when we break them down to smaller parts
differences are revealed.
Scientist have a lot of difficulty classifying species. There are
different classification systems. In the natural history museum
in London there are millions of species. They used to use cards to
classify a species . This was time consuming so now they use
computer systems. Called VIADOCS
It helps to classify new organisms.

Faster and more convenient method to

identify a species..
Other definitions of Species include:
1-Ecological species: species based on the ecological niche
which they occupy.
2-Recognition species: based on unique fertilisation systems
including behaviour.

3-Gene species: based on DNA evidence.

-Each of these definitions has its strength
and weaknesses.
-Vast majority of the species today are defined by their
morphology.

1 Classic morphology: advantage

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Gene flow: advantage
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Scientists spent many hours classifying organisms by
looking at their external features (morphology)
Eg if they have wings , or 6 legs or 8 legs.
However if we look more closely at their molecular
phylogeny we will see many differences.
Eg the American porcupine and African porcupine look
similar morphologically but if you look at molecular phylogeny
they are very different.

Some other examples of molecular phylogeny are to :

Look at the pigment in red blood cells of vertebrates and
invertebrates.
All vertebrates have haemoglobin ----- but invertebrates have
haemocyanin .

Molecular phylogeny
Is the analysis of structures of different chemicals
,proteins,DNA and RNA to identify interrelationships
between groups of organisms.
This type of grouping does not always agree with the grouping
based on morphology.

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Lynn Margulis theory of evolution of Eukaryotes:

The theory was that Eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes
A eukaryote cell engulfs an aerobic prokaryote. It did not digest
it .the prokaryote lived in symbiosis . eg mitochondria or
chloroplast.

Recent groupings of organisms have stopped using kingdoms and

now use the term DOMAINS.
For many years biologists thought that there were 2 GROUPS:

Eukaryote and prokaryotes. ( now there are three groups called

DOMAINs . Eukaryotes , Archae and prokaryotes )

Domains
Bacteria, Achaea and Eukarya;
Archaea and Bacteria are Eukaryotes ( Archaea and bacteria
distantly related, so classified into two domains ;)
Eukaryotes have a nucleus

Archaea

(ii) In stage 2, Woeses paper was checked by scientists before

publication.
Explain why his paper was checked by scientists at this stage.
(1)
Peer review / conclusions drawn from data are { logical / valid / eq } / data are {acceptable /
reliable} / check for plagiarism

.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................

(iii) Suggest two ways, other than publication in a journal, that

scientists can use
to present their data to the scientific community.
(2)
1. (scientific) conference/ poster / presentation/ seminar / lecture ;
2. internet / eq, e.g. websites blogs ;
3. book / scientific magazine

(iv) Explain what is meant by the phrase allowed critical evaluation

of his data by
the scientific community in stage 3.
(2)
1. idea of {checking his methods / repeating experiments / eq} ;
2. to collect more data /review his data / test his results / eq ;
3. to see if his results could be replicated / check reliability of data / eq

Taxonomy

Science of classification - naming & organising organisms into groups based on

similarities and differences

Classification rankings

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

1 A niche is the way an organism lives, including what it eats, whether it moves etc. To
be successful (i.e. grow and produce offspring) the organism needs to be well adapted
to the conditions around it, and therefore its niche, so that it can find food and a mate.
2 a Time before the dive.
b c. 4.5 minutes

c 160 20/160 100% = c. 88%; without bradycardia = 4.5 min 12% = c. 32 seconds.

-Biodiversity describes the number and variety of different

organisms found in an area

Ecology and Adaptation:

Population : is a group of organisms of the same species ,

living and breeding together in a particular niche in a habitat
Community: is all the populations of living organisms living in a
habitat at any one time.
-Ecology is described as the study of relationships between living
organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem:
-An ecosystem is an environment that includes all the living
organisms interacting together, the nutrients cycling through the
system and the physical and chemical environment in which the
organisms are living.
Habitat:
-The place where an organism lives.
-When organisms live in only a small part of a habitat it is
called a microhabitat.
Community:
-It is all the populations of living organisms living in a habitat at
any one time.
Niche
It is the way a species exploits the environment and the role of
the organism in the community. Each species has it own niche.
No two species s occupy the same niche

Adaptation to Niches:
-A successful species is well adapted to its niche. -This means that
individuals in that species have characteristics that increase their
chances of survival and reproduction which they pass on to the
next generation.
-These adaptations may be of different kinds.
-These include anatomical adaptations (adaptations of the
anatomy of an animal of plant to conditions), physiological
adaptations (adaptations of the biochemistry orphysiology of an
organism to the environment in which it lives) and
behaviouraladaptations (adaptations of the behaviour of an
animal which gives it selectiveadvantage).
Examples:
1) Anatomical Adaptations:
-Includes thick layers of blubber in seals and whales.
-Includes sticky hairs on sundew plants that enable it to
capture insects ready to
digest.
2) Physiological Adaptations:
-Diving animals can stay underwater for far longer than nondiving mammals without drowning.
-Once they are underwater, their heart rate drops
dramatically.
-Blood is pumped around the body less often and the oxygen
in the blood is not used asrapidly.

-Main body muscles work effectively by anaerobic respiration.

-Oxygen-carrying blood is still carried to the brain where it is
needed.
-This is known as the mammalian diving response.
3) Behavioural Adaptations:
-Insects and reptiles orient themselves to get maximum sunlight
when the temperature is low to warm them up and allows them
to move fast enough to escape predators.
-Social behaviour includes hunting as a team or huddling
together for warmth.
-Migrating to avoid harsh conditions, courtship rituals and
using tools are also otherexamples.
-Natural selection leads to adaptations which give individuals
an advantage in a
particular niche.
-If conditions change, those adaptations might not be as
successful, and the selection pressure
will change.
-This may lead to change in the species or evolution.
-The niche of an organism has a big effect on the genetic
make-up of the population.

1 A niche is the way an organism lives, including what it eats, whether it moves etc. To
be successful (i.e. grow and produce offspring) the organism needs to be well adapted
to the conditions around it, and therefore its niche, so that it can find food and a mate.
2 a Time before the dive.
b c. 4.5 minutes

c 160 20/160 100% = c. 88%; without bradycardia = 4.5 min 12% = c. 32 seconds.

3 More efficient hunting means that they get enough food to eat
but in less time so that
they are submerged in the cold water for as short a time as
possible. They therefore
minimise the energy they lose through hunting, so need to catch
no more food than
less efficient birds in warmer waters.
page 237
1 Most rats that came into contact with warfarin when it was first
used did not have the
resistance allele and so died. Only those who had the resistance
allele (or didnt come
into contact with warfarin) survived and produced offspring,
passing the resistance
allele (if they had it) on to their offspring. So the proportion of rats
in the next
generation that had the resistance allele would increase, and
continued to increase
where warfarin was used.
2 Small populations contain only a relatively small number of
genes (and possible
alleles) compared with large populations. If those populations
were founded by only
a few individuals, the variety of alleles will be restricted to those
in the founding
organisms.
Large genetic diversity is better for populations that face
changing environments,
because there is a greater chance that some individuals have
alleles that will enable
them to survive the changes and reproduce.
page 241
1 Changes in a niche or habitat may favour individuals with
different adaptations to
those that had been successful. Individuals with these different
adaptations will survive
and breed more successfully than individuals without them. So
more individuals in

later generations will show these adaptations as the allele

frequency changes over
time the species will be seen to change.
2 The greatest decline was over two years. It took about 15 years
for the dominant allele
to become sufficiently dominant for the population numbers to
begin to recover.
The change in the niche was the arrival of the disease, the
adaptation was the increase
in proportion of the population that was resistant to the disease.
3 By random variation, some seals would have behavioural or
physiological adaptations
that allowed them to dive slightly deeper or for slightly longer
than other seals. This
would help them find more food which means they would grow
better and produce
more offspring than other seals. Over time, the selection for
diving deeper/longer to
get more food would result in the evolution of seals with the
diving response

-Natural selection results in organisms that are adapted to fit a

particular niche.
-It is often acting in the genes.

Mutations and Natural Selection:

-Mutations can cause small changes in genes.
-This is the source of variation on which natural selection
acts.
-Mutations can increase the size of the gene pool of a
population this is all the different
genes (alleles) found in a population.
-The relative frequency at which a particular allele is found in a
population is known as the
allele frequency.
-This is one way of measuring biodiversity.
-Alleles in a population are affected by natural selection.
-A mutation in a gene may result in a change in the physical
appearance of an organism,
in its physiology or even in the pattern of its behaviour.
-If this change is advantageous then the frequency of those
advantageous alleles will increase.
-If this change is disadvantageous then natural selection will
usually result in its removal
from the gene pool.
-Sometimes the mutation is neutral (neither increasing or
decreasing the success of the
individual), in this case it will remain in the gene pool by chance.
For Example:
-When Warfarin was introduced, some rats by chance carried the
harmless mutation that caused
them to be resistance to this poison.
-The powerful selection factor of the poison resulted in a rapid
increase in the frequency of
the resistance allele.
-Soon, the majority of the rats were resistant to the poison
and a new, more powerful
poison had to be introduced.
The Effect of Small Populations:
-Large populations containing many individuals have large gene
pools.
-This is because the chance of losing the allele by bad luck is
much less.

-For example, in a population of 10 individuals; 1 individual carries

an advantageous allele of
allowing the individual to run faster.
-If a predator chases the individual, and the individual breaks its
leg then the favourable allele
will be lost from the population.
-However in a large population, favourable alleles will be carried
by a larger number of
individuals and the likelihood of these organisms all being
destroyed is remote.
-So, there is a bigger chance of a potentially useful alleles
being maintained in the larger
population.
-This is one reason why large, genetically diverse populations are
needed to maintain
biodiversity.
-Similarly, when a small number of individuals leave the main
population and set up a separate
new population, genetic diversity is easily lost.
-The alleles this group carries may be a random selection of the
gene pool.
-Any unusual genes in the founders of this new population may be
amplified as the
population grows.
-This is known as the founder effect process by which any
unusual alleles become
relatively common in a small population where the
founders started off with the
particular unusual allele.
Adapting to Change:
-In 1915 in Malpeque bay, the fishermen began to notice amongst
healthy oyster catches there
were a few diseased oysters.
-The disease spread throughout the entire oyster
population with a few disease-free
with an allele resistant to the disease.
-Only individuals with this allele were able to survive and
reproduce and so the population of
healthy oysters jumped back up.

Selection for Change or Stability:

Directional Selection :
-The oysters in Malpeque bay are a good example of directional
selection.
-This is when individuals undergo change from one phenotype
to another which is more
advantageous under the circumstances.
-Occurs anywhere that environmental pressure is applied to
a population.
-Frequently seen in populations of insects and plants that are
regarded as pests.
-They are sprayed with chemical insecticides or herbicides.
-These chemicals have a devastating effect initially, but
directional selection ensures that
there is an increase in resistant individuals in the
population within few generations.
Diversifying Selection:
-Another variety of selection.
-It is a form of natural selection which results in increased
genetic diversity of a
population rather than a trend in one particular
direction.
-Occurs when conditions are very diverse and small
subpopulations emerge evolve
different phenotypes suited to their very particular
surroundings.
Balancing Selection:
-It is a form of natural selection that maintains a
disadvantageous allele in a
population because of benefit to the heterozygote.
-For example, the thalassemia allele affecting haemoglobin
is usually lethal if homozygous.
-However, the heterozygous form gives protection against
malaria.
-This is known as heterozygote advantage or hybrid vigour
(when the heterozygote state for
a particular gene gives advantages to an individual).
-When changes in niches cause great changes within a species,
we may consider that a new

species has evolved from the old one.

Darwins Finches:
-Darwins finches is a classic example of how the availability
of
different niches can provide different selection pressures
and
result in the evolution of several species.
-These birds were discovered by Charles Darwin.
-On the Galapagos Islands, there are a number of feeding niches
near
the equator for birds.
-These include: small seeds, large nuts and insects living in rotten
bark.
-The original finches that arrived at the island were of a single
species.
-The islands are 500 miles from land, people suspect a hurricane
or storm carried the birds there.
-Within the birds that have arrived at the island, there would have
been variation in alleles
and characteristics, and different niches on the island
would have favoured
individuals with different variations.
-So, a bird with a slightly smaller, stronger beak would get food by
eating mainly seeds.
-This would enable it to thrive, reproduce and pass on its beak
characteristics to its offspring.
-Over generations, natural selection resulted in individuals with
small strong beaks ideally
adapted to eating seeds.
-Similarly, a finch with a longer, thinner beak would be more
successful probing dead wood for
insects.
-By exploiting different niches, the finches avoid
competing for the same relatively
scarce food sources.
-As a result, 14 different species of finch (remarkably similar DNA)
have evolved on the
Galapagos Islands over several million years from one common
ancestral species.

-Food was such an important selection pressure.

-So, it was important to mate with a finch with a similarly shaped
beak to pass on the
advantageous characteristic.
-Mating with a finch that had a differently shaped beak would
produce a variety of offspring
that were less well adapted to feeding, so there would also
be a selective pressure on
choosing the right kind of mate.
-Any other behavioural or phenotypic changes that made
choosing the right mate
easier were also selected for.
-Selection for features that give reproductive success is known
as sexual selection.
-In many species, there are clear anatomical adaptations to help
in attracting a mate and so
to pass on his genes.
-These include the mane of a lion, the antlers of a stag and
the tail of a peacock.
Isolating Mechanisms:
-For different species to evolve from one original species,
different populations of the
species have to become isolated from each other so that
mating, and therefore gene
flow, between them is restricted.
-There are a number of ways this could happen:
1) Geographical Isolation:
-A physical barrier that separates individuals from an
original population.
-E.g.: rivers, mountains.
2) Ecological Isolation:
-Two populations inhabit the same region but develop
preferences for different parts
of the habitat.
3) Seasonal Isolation:
-The timing of flowering or sexual receptiveness in some
parts of a population drifts
away from the norm of the group.

-This can lead to two groups reproducing several months

apart.
4) Behavioural Isolation:
-Changes may occur in courtship rituals, displays or
mating patterns so that some
animals do not recognize other animals as being potential
mates.
-This might be due to mutation that changes the colour or
patterns of marking.
5) Mechanical Isolation:
-A mutation may occur that changes the genitalia of
animals, making it physically
possible for them to mate with only some members of the
group.
-A mutation may also occur changing the relationship
between stigma and stamens in
flowers, making pollination between some individuals
unsuccessful.
Allopatric Speciation:
-Speciation that results when populations are physically separated
in some way.
Sympatric Speciation:
-Speciation that takes place in spite of the fact that the two
populations remain geographically
close to each other.
Endemism:
-Describes the situation where a species which only occur in a
very specific small area such
as an island and they are unique to the area.
-The organism is said to be endemic to the area.
-The availability of niches to species that first colonise on the
island, the different selection
pressure on those niches compared with the home
environment and the founder
effect of a limited gene pool all combine to result in the
evolution of new species that
occur only in that small area.
-Species become endemic to a specific area because they
evolved within the region and

havent migrated out to other areas.

-Migration is limited by geographical boundaries.
-So islands are more likely to have endemic species, however
that doesnt mean endemism
is confined to islands alone.
Examples of Endemism:
Endemic Species of Madagascar:
-Madagascar is a large island off the coast of East Africa.
-Provides good samples of endemism.
-Almost all the species found are endemic to the island.
-These range from the giant baobab trees to ring-tailed
lemurs and from bizarre
elephant s foot plant to the yellow-streaked tenrec.
-The only species that are not endemic are the ones that have
been taking the island by
people in relatively recent times.
The Isolated Islands of Hawaii:
-The island populations show clearly how living organisms adapt
to a particular niche or role in
the community.
-The islands are very isolated.
-They have great biodiversity in terms of species numbers 1000
species of native flowers,
10,000 species of insects, 1000 species of land snails and 100
species of birds.
-In these isolated circumstances, a small group of founder
organisms adapted and
evolved to take advantage of the different ecological
niches that were available to
them.
-Places where endemism is common often have a rich
biodiversity in terms of species
numbers but relatively low genetic diversity.
-This is one reason why areas with many endemic populations are
very vulnerable to the
introduction of disease.
-Island ecosystems are small and so they are very vulnerable to
interference and damage
of human beings.

-Over the last 400 years, 75% of the animals extinct were island
species.
Biodiversity:
-Biodiversity comprises every form of life, from the smallest
microbe the largest animal,
the genes that give them their specific characteristics are
the ecosystems of which
they are part. This includes diversity within species,
between species and of
ecosystems.
-Decreasing at an alarming rate.
-The number of different species is a useful measure, but the
concept of biodiversity is much
more far-reaching than this.
-The differences between individuals in species, between
populations of the same type
of organism, between communities and between
ecosystems are all examples of
biodiversity.
Why is Biodiversity Important?
-Organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent.
-These ecosystems are linked on a larger scale across the
Earth.
-If biodiversity is reduced in one area, the natural balance
may be destroyed elsewhere.
-Healthy biodiversity allows large-scale ecosystems to function
and self-regulate.
-The air and water of the planet are purified by the action of a
wide range of organisms.
-Waste is decomposed and rendered non-toxic by many
organisms, including bacteria and
fungi, microorganisms in soil and water convert toxic ammonia
into nitrate ions which are
then taken up and used by plants.
-Photosynthesis plays an important role in stabilizing the
atmosphere and world climate.
-Plants absorb vast amounts of water from the soil which then
evaporates into the atmosphere
by transpiration.

-Plant roots also hold the soil together, affecting how water runs
off the soil surface and reducing
the risks of flooding.
-Plant pollination, soil fertility and nutrient recycling in systems
such as the nitrogen cycle are
vital for natural ecosystems as well as farming, and they depend
on thriving biodiversity.
-Biodiversity also provides the genetic diversity that has
allowed us to develop the
production of crops, livestock, fisheries and forests, and
enables further
improvements by cross-breeding and genetic engineering.
-This helps us to cope with problems arising from climate
change and disease.
-Biodiversity also provides the potential of plants to produce
chemicals that are important in
many areas of human life.
Are some species more important than others?
-The media usually express important of extinction and loss
of biodiversity when it
comes to large, charismatic animals such as pandas,
elephants, whales and tigers.
-However, plants lower down the food chain have an important
role in preserving
biodiversity.
-Understanding the complex feeding relationships can help us
protect whole ecosystems.
Example:
-Figs are staple food for hundreds of different species in many
different countries.
-Animals from tiny insects to birds and large mammals feed on
everything from the bark and
leaves to the flowers and fruits.
-Each species of figs have a specific fig wasp that has evolved
to pollinate only that type
of fig.
-So, without the fig wasps, the fig trees would die out and
many other species would be
affected.

-The figs and pollinators are closely linked, and problems for
each of them would result in a
huge effect with a great loss of biodiversity.
-The fig wasps have a vital role.
Keystone Species:
-A species that has a major effect on its environment even
if they are not the most
obvious species in the area.
-A large number of other species depend on a keystone
species for their survival.
-The fig wasps would be an example of a keystone species.
Another Example:
-Sea otters play an important role in preserving
giant kelp forests in the ocean.
-Kelp forests provide a home for a wide range
of other species .
-Kelp, itself, is also the main food of purple and
red sea urchins.
-When there are a lot of sea urchins free from
predators, they roam the ocean floor and eat
kelp as it starts to grow.
-This keeps the kelp short and stops forests
developing which in turn reduces
biodiversity.
-However, sea otters are major predators of
sea urchins, so sea urchins tend to hide to
avoid predators.
-This allows kelp to grow and as it forms, bits
break off and fall to the bottom and provide food for sea
urchins hiding in crevices.
-Sea otters are a keystone species here however they are
vulnerable to human hunters.
-Scots pine is the keystone species in the Caledonian forest.
-A huge number of species depend on these trees.
Are some places more important than others?
-In terms of number of species, around the world biodiversity
varies enormously.
-Wet tropics are generally areas of highest biodiversity.

-As you move away from wet tropics, the species diversity tends
to fall.
-Some areas were identified as biodiversity hotspots an area
which is particularly rich in
different species.
-Species richness is not the only important factor.
-Another important criterion is endemic species in an area.
-Areas of biodiversity are not always the same as areas with
endemic species.
-This makes it difficult to prioritise areas for conservation.
-Many
ideas
have
been published as theories about why particular areas have
particularly rich biodiversity.
-Many of these theories have been eliminated as they apply to
organism or are not support by
evidence.
-A very stable ecosystem allows many complex relationships to
develop between species.
-High levels of productivity (when photosynthesis rates are high)
can support more niches.
-A paper published suggested that species diversity is linked to
productivity through a speeding
up of the evolutionary process.
-In other words, in areas where organisms grow and produce
more rapidly, more
mutations can occur which introduce more variety,
enabling organisms to adapt to
particular niches and evolve to form new species.
-The risks to biodiversity are not evenly spread around the world.
-Some areas are more vulnerable to damage and loss, especially
small areas such as islands,
rainforests, coral reefs, bogs and wetlands.
-Many of these areas are biodiversity hotspots, so if they are
damaged many species will be lost.
-Every time a species is lost, the worlds biodiversity decreases.
-Biodiversity is often measured by species richness the
number of species in the area.

What do we measure?
-It isnt necessary to observe every different type of
organism in an area to build up a
picture of the health of the ecosystem.
-Certain species are susceptible to change in biodiversity.
-These species are referred to as indicator species or
bioindicators.
-These species are particularly sensitive to change and so
can be used to indicate
problems in an area which might lead to loss of
biodiversity.
-Changes in these species reveal changes in the overall
balance of the ecosystem.
-The size of populations of different species can also give us an
idea on the biodiversity.
-If there arent enough organisms in a population, it may be
difficult to find a mate.
-There wont be a sustainable breeding population.
-Also, if gene pool is reduced in a way that many individuals share
the same alleles, faulty traits
show up more and there is less variety.
-So, introduction of disease is able to wipe out a small population.
-The population size of keystone species is also important to
monitor.
-Any significant increase or decrease can have major effects on
the whole food web.
When to measure biodiversity?
-Biodiversity is not constant.
-Animal species in an area can vary with the time of
day, as well as seasons.
-Due to migrating of birds, different plant species
fertilizing at different times etc.
-When measuring, you need to assess the number of
species in the area and the size of their populations.
-You also need to identify them correctly.
Measuring Genetic Biodiversity:
-The genetic variety within a population is also an
important measure of biological

health and wellbeing.

-Without variety, a population is vulnerable (disease,
human interference etc.).
-With modern technology, it is possible to build a clear model
of genetic diversity (variety
of genes and alleles) within a population.
-This includes analysing the DNA and comparing particular
regions for similarities and
differences.
-Cheetahs have low genetic diversity.
-Vulnerable to being wiped out by a disease or change in
their environment.
-As habitats disappear, there are serious worries about the
survival of species.
-Models of molecular phylogenetic relationships between
related organisms based on
DNA and other evidence has proved to be a very useful
tool for genetic biodiversity.
-Maps showing species richness and genetic variety are
important.
-Comparison allows confidence in choosing best area to preserve
biodiversity.
-Can be generated for overall biodiversity or for the diversity of
particular groups of animals and
plants.
-Can be produced for the whole worlds, individual countries or for
smaller local areas.
-This data is valuable as it can be used to highlight areas that
need protection.
-Provides a way of monitoring changes in biodiversity, with
regular updating, in any particular
area or worldwide.