Workshop Theory Uploaded by Chimweka

MODULE 1
TITLE: WORKSHOP THEORY AND PRACTICE

Unit A 1:
1.1.
1.2.
Apply General Shop Safety and Preventive Maintenance.
Personal Safety
Tool Safety
TYPES OF WORKSHOP
There are three main types of workshops and these are:
i.
ii.
iii.
Job Shop
Limited Production Shop
Mass Production Shop
Every personnel operating in these workshops must abide by the rules and regulations of those
workshops, failure by which:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Time and money will be lost

Tools and equipment will be damaged
Jobs will be spoiled
Injury and disabilities can occur
Property can be lost or damaged
Each and every member of a workshop must exercise caution to avoid accidents that could lead to the
above stated happening.
RULES FOR SAFE WORKING HABITS
Understand the rules in any given situation; practice them until they become part of you.
wear nothing that can get caught up in a rotating machine
Protect yourself from flying chips by wearing goggles
Wear gloves when touching objects with sharp and ragged corners
Keep your floors clear of oil and short pieces of metal stock
The walkways should be free from obstructions most especially around machines
Where you dont know, always ask for assistance
Be aware of possible hazards associated with the job you are doing
Horse play is not allowed in the workshop
NOTE: Horse plays not allowed in the workshop.

Page 1
HOUSEKEEPING (GOOD)
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This involves cleanliness and neatness where everything is in its place, the result is safety and efficiency.
When removing chips from a table or a machine bed always use a brush, never handle chips with
bare hands.
When you intend to operate a machine, ensure that safety guards are in position.
Always use the right tool for the right job
RULES FOR USING A FILE
Be sure that the file has a handle; in short never use a file without a handle.
Remove burrs etc, from the handle before using it.
Never use a file as a hammer.
Do not strike a file with a hammer because splinters may fly out causing injury.
Do not use a file as a pry.
Always keep files separate from each other.
Do not use oiled files, slippage would cause skinned knuckles.
HAMMERS
Always check that the hammer and the handle are safely secured together.
Avoid hammers with broken or split handles.
Never use hammers on hardened surfaces.
Use the right hammer for the job.
a. Ball Peen
b. Straight Peen
c. Cross Peen
WRENCHES (SPANNERS)
Keep them clean
Always switch off machines before using a wrench on them.
Ensure that the wrench fits on bolts or nuts snugly.
RULES FOR USING A HACKSAW
Mount the blade with teeth facing forward and apply pressure on the forward stroke only. The
backward stroke is used for cleaning.
Do not use a dull blade for this will necessitate application of high pressure which would cause
breakage and injury.
When you are using an old blade and it breaks start with the new blade on the opposite side.
Cut at the rate of 50 to 60 strokes per minute or slower in case of harder metals.
Slow down when you are about to completely cut through the material.
NOTE:
i. Grip your work in a vice firmly.

ii. Start the saw with light, even strokes while holding the frame at an angle. After the cut has
been established hold the frame level and saw the full length of the jaw.
iii. Use most of the blade when cutting.
iv. Use correct number of teeth blade for a particular job. Course blade for thick material and
fine blade for thin material.
RULES FOR USING A DRILL PRESS
Ensure that you know how to operate the machine before operating it.
Ensure that drill is firmly held in chuck and like wise job is firmly secured in vice.
Do not drill hand held jobs.
The operator should keep his/her hair short or wear a cap.
Avoid using a dull drill bit.
When drill digs into job and the job is whirled from its fastenings, shut off power
immediately. When all movements have stopped reverse the drill by hand to dislodge it.
SAFETY WHEN USING A GRINDING MACHINE
Wear goggles when using the machine.

Check for cracks in wheel before mounting on machine spindle.
Ensure that guards are in place.
After starting ensure wheel runs full speed before grinding.
Avoid feeding job with excessive pressure.
Keep your head out of line of the sparks
Keep hands away from the revolving wheel.
FIRST AID
INTRODUCTION
We have so far looked at the various ways in which we can keep workshops safe to work in. Many dos
and donts we have identified. But in nature, despite having all these rules and regulations, accidents in
workshops still happen. When they do reference to rules and regulations will no longer be valid. The
victim of an accident needs to be assisted in a way as to comfort him as proper medication is being
sought.
DEFINATION
This is help/aid given to an accident victim so as to comfort him as proper medical attention is being
sought.
SITUATIONS THAT REQUIRE FIRST AID
Cuts
Bone breakage
Electrical shock
Dislocations
Suffocations
Burns
Gas poisoning
Contamination
TREATMENT
1. Cuts and bleeding
Clean the part
Apply tourniquet/digital pressure method
Bandage the part
2. Bone breakage
Do not worsen the situation
Align the affected limb
Clamp the limb if possible using wooden blanks
Wrap affected limb together with wooden blanks
3. Electric shock
Isolate person from electrical shock source
In case victim is failing to breathe, lay him on the back and apply a kiss of life.
Avoid overcrowding around victim
Assure victim that all will be well
Keep victim warm
4. Dislocation
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
Tools and equipment require care, as already been established during their use. Not only should they be
cared for while in use but also during storage. Tools and equipment are designed to maintain strength,
appearance and serviceability, etc, if they are maintained in accordance with practices laid down for
them. When such practices are overlooked or carried out at less intervals than specified, discolouration,
malfunction or complete and serviceability is bound to occur. One should not wait until each occurs in
order to attend to his/her tools or equipment. Any unsatisfactory condition e.g. loose nuts, etc, must be
attended to in order to maintain serviceability. Ignoring such may create a bigger problem that might
lender equipment unserviceable and may require a lot of money to repair; as the saying goes,
prevention is better than cure.
DEFINATION
Preventive maintenance denotes activities carried out in order to perpetuate serviceability of tools and
equipment; this is done in order to prevent failure of parts.
Preventive maintenance demands the scheduling of activities. This is done by considering the
characteristics of the materials used the environment within which the material operates and the time
frame within which the materials become affected by the environment. For example, in Aircraft
Maintenance all works other than defect rectification is preventive maintenance. Activities like engine
overhaul, engine shock loading, preflight inspection, checks 1, 2 and 3 are all meant to prevent failure.
Materials like engine oil is scheduled to be replaced every 50 hours of engine operation or 4 months
from the time it was put in the system. Such timings are arrived at by considering the time it takes for
the oil to detiorate in quantity under such conditions. Before oil reaches this extent it must be changed
to prevent exhausted oil creating a problem to equipment.
In a workshop situation, tools which are prone to corrosion must be kept oiled. Those with flaked paint
need to be touched-up. Serviceable machines need to be periodically run. (Functional checks).
To ensure effective preventive maintenance, schedules are drawn for tools and equipment. This can be
in a form of a card which would include;
Description of tool or equipment

Status
Last date of servicing
Next service due
Signature of inspector
Etc
This card is secured to appropriate equipment. In fact, all equipment must be tagged to ascertain their
condition whether serviceable or unserviceable. Unserviceable equipment must have on their cards a
note indicating the cause of the unserviceability.
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
Below are some of the practices required to endure that serviceability of electrical/electronic
equipment is enhanced.
Such equipment should not be positioned in a place where they can easily be knocked over
and dropped by personal moving about the workshop. Positions like towards the edge of a
work bench or edge of a shelf have to be avoided.
Keep dirt/dust away from equipment and occasionally remove accumulated dust/dirt from
equipment. Dust can be removed effectively by use of an air blower.
Keep away moisture or remove any moisture that may find itself on and inside the
equipment. Moisture has effects of:
(a). Creating undesirable current paths in an equipment (short circuits)
(b). Creating corrosion of conductors most especially with the combination of heat.
Deteriorated conductors create high circuit resistance which could lead to
malfunction and system and system over heating.
Periodic checking of lubricant/coolant say; in transformers. Low or knock oil will lead to over
heating transformer, burning of insulation and eventually render transformer unserviceable.
Motor and generator bearings etc, have to be lubricated approximately in order to preserve
their lives.
When about to use a piece equipment ensure connections are correctly made in case of
polarity and that appropriate voltages are used.
AN EXAMPLE OF AN INSPECTION SCHEDULE
AIR COMPRESSOR
ITEM DESCRIPTION
No.
01
Cylinder
BEFORE USING
AFTER USING
Clean and check

security
Drain water
Check quality of oil
Drain water
Cylinder
02
Oil sump
03
Cooler fan
Check security of
mounting bolts
__
__
04
Motor
Check security of
mounting bolts
__
__
05
Pump
__
__
06
Filters
Check security of
mounting
Check clean lines
07
Whole unit
__
__
5 HOURS
__
__
Change
oil
Replace
filters
__
10 HOURS
Wash
cylinder and
pressure test
Change to
next grade of
oil
Replace
mounting
bolts
Clean with
solvent
Clean with
solvent
Replace
filters
If not in
constant use,
functional
check after
15 days
FIRE PROTECTION (WORKSHOPS)
INTRODUCTION
Due to the devastating effects of fire, it is a requirement that workshops be arranged and provided with
equipment that will help combat a fire in case if its occurrence in these places.
Fires have been known to reduce expensive equipment and facilities and also cause injury and death to
personnel; for this reason, it must be eliminated from workshops. In fact, it must not be started in these
areas.
COMPONENTS OF FIRE
A fire requires 3 things:
Fuel:
This is a material when combined with oxygen in the presence of heat will
release more heat thereby reducing itself to other chemical.
Heat:
This is considered as a catalyst which accelerates combination of oxygen
and fuel thereby releasing more heat.
Oxygen: This is an element which combines chemically with other substances
(Oxidation). Rapid oxidation with noticeable release of heat and light is
The combustion or burning. Removal of any one of these components
terminates the fire.
TYPES OF FIRE
There are three basic types and the fourth (4th) results from the three. These are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Class A fires: This is the burning of ordinary combustible material such as wood,
Paper, cloth, etc.
Class B fires: Fire from combustion of flammable petroleum products or other
A combustible liquid, greases, solvents, paints, etc.
Class D fires: This concerns burning metals. It is not considered a basic type
Because its caused by class A, B or C fires.
The usual affected metal is magnesium in aircraft wheels and brakes.

Note: Any of these fires can occur during maintenance or operation. As such, knowledge of
appropriate fire extinguishing agents is important.
FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
There are four (4) agents and these are water and water based agents, dry chemical, gas and powder.
1. WATER AND WATER BASED AGENTS
These can be combined with anti-freeze compounds or wetting agents to accelerate penetrating of
material by water. Water extinguisher fires by cooling fuel below its combustion temperature.
Examples of compounds that are used in this category are: soda acid and foam. They act on the fire
by lowering the temperature.
Foam on petroleum based forms prevents oxygen from getting into the fire.
2. DRY CHEMICAL
There are 4 types of chemicals used and these are:
(i)
Sodium bicarbonate (formula H)
(ii)
Ammonium phosphate (multi purpose)
(iii)
Potassium bicarbonate (purple K)
(iv)
Multipurpose dry chemical (ABC); this extinguishes fire by smoothening it, preventing oxygen
to reach the fire.
The blanket of dry chemicals prevents fires re-flash. It also protects the operator from heat.
Note: All dry chemicals are non-conductors of electricity.
3. GAS
Here we have two known types and these are:
(i)
Carbon dioxide
(ii)
Halogenated hydrocarbons known as Freon in industries.
Carbon dioxide: This extinguishes fires by dispersing oxygen in immediate locality.
Halogenated hydrocarbons: These are numbered in accordance with the chemical formula with
halon numbers.
Six examples of this are:
(i)
Carbon tetrachloride (Halon 104; ccl4)
Characteristics
- Toxic and poisonous
Hydrogen chloride (Hcl) Acid Vapour, Chloride (cl) and phosgene gas are produced when used on
ordinary fires. Phosgene gas increases when carbon tetrachloride is in direct contact with hot metal or
electrical arcs. (no longer approved for use on the aircraft).
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Methyl Bromide (Halon 1001; CH3 Br): it is a liquefied gas. This is effective but it is toxic and
also corrosive to aluminium alloy. (Al Al), magnesium (mg), and zinc (Zn).
Chlorobromo Methane (halon 1011; CH2 CL Br): it is a liquefied gas.
Dibromodifluoro Methane (Halon 1211; CBr CLF2 F2).
Bromochlorodifluoro Methane (Halon 1211; CBr CLF2): it is a liquefied gas colourless, noncorrosive and evaporates rapidly leaving no residue. It does not freeze or cause cold burns
and causes no harm to fabric. Metals or other materials in contact. It acts rapidly on fires by
producing a heavy blanketing mist that eliminates air from the fire source and also interferes
chemically with the combustion process. It also prevents reflash of a fire.
Bromotrifluoro Methane (Halon 1301; CF3 Br): This is also a liquefied gas and has
characteristics similar to those of halon 1211. The significant difference is that halon 1211
forms a spray similar to carbon dioxide, while halon 1301 has a vapour spray that is more
difficult to direct.
(vi)
Note: the first 4 are not recommended for aircraft use.

4. DRY POWDER
This is suitably used for metal fires which require special handling. Water on magnesium fires
accelerates burning. Therefore, special powder normally applied by scoop or shovel are
recommended.
FIRES AND APPROPRIATE EXTINGUISHERS
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Class A fires: water and water type extinguishers also class B and C extinguishers,
but their wetting and cooling action is not equal to class A
extinguishers.
Class B fires: carbon dioxide, halogenated hydro carbons and dry chemical.
These displace oxygen from air thus preventing combustion. Foam
is effective when used in large quantities water will cause a fire
to spread.
Class C fires: carbon dioxide which displaces oxygen from the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide equipment must be equipped with non-metallic
horn approved for use on electrical fires, this is because:
(a). carbon dioxide discharge through metallic horn can set-up static
charges which can re-ignite the fire.
(b). metal horn if in contact with electric current would transmit this to
the operator.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are effective on class C fires. Their vapours act
chemically with flame to extinguish it so are dry chemicals but
contamination of the local area with powder is a disadvantage. Also when
used on wet and energized electrical equipment, may aggravate current
leakage.
Class D fires: dry powder which prevents oxidation and the resulting flame.
Note: water must not be used on metal fires because it will cause it to burn more violently
and can cause explosions.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER PERIODIC MAINTENANCE CHECK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ensure appropriate extinguisher in appropriate place.

Ensure safety seals are unbroken.
Ensure gauge or indicator is in operating range.
Check that extinguishers are of the proper weight.
Check for nozzle obstruction.
EXTINGUISHER IDENTIFICATION
Effective identification is by inscriptions on the cylinder. For example a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher
cylinder is written CARBON DIOXIDE GAS. Colour codes can be also be used, but one type of
extinguisher can come in more than one cylinder colour e.g. Red/Yellow for foam/chemical. To avoid
confusion the inscriptions must be read.
UNIT A2
MEASURING TOOLS (DIMENSION)
PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Accurate measurement in the production or manufacturing of any product is important. This leads to
better ways of measuring being sought everyday. Tools have been developed to measure dimensions to
high accuracy such as
th of an inch. The degree of accuracy depends on the product being made
and its function. There is a variety of measuring tools in use nowadays some of which are quite simple
and inexpensive but others are quite intricate and inexpensive mostly being used for linear
measurements. In this topic we will discuss the following:
Rules
Calipers
Dividers
Micrometers
Vernier calipers
Surface table
Rules
A rule is an instrument designed to measure linear dimensions to the accuracy of
th of
an inch, or th of a centimeter. Rules are made from a variety of material such as

plastic, wood, steel, etc. for the purpose of this discussion we will concentrate on steel
rules.
Types of steel rules
There are many types of steel rules found in industries and each meant to meet particular
requirements. Examples of such rules are:
Narrow rule
Flexible rule
Short rule
Beveled edge rule
Hook rule
Standard rule which is No. 4 and it is 12 inches
Slight caliper rule
Narrow rule
This is made of tempered steel and about
th of an inch thick,
th inch wide and
between 4 12 inches long. These are useful for measuring small openings and
spaces.
Flexible rule
This is made of tempered spring steel above
th of an inch thick, inch wide and 6
inches long. It is available in many graduations and lengths, and generally used for
measuring curves.
Short rule
These usually come in a set which would consist of a inch, th inch, inch, inch
and 1 inch length rules. They are held using a holder and useful for taking
measurements in small spaces where no other rule can work.
Bevel edge rule

This rule has a beveled edge that put the graduations close to the work so as to
reduce possible error.
Hooked rule
This has a hook attached to one end; the rule is convenient for measurements taken
from an inside edge when it is not possible to see the other edge of the rule.
Standard rule
This is 12 inches long and has No. 4 graduations.
Slight caliper rule
These are made of a narrow rule which slides in a wider rules groove.
A rule must be handled with care and must not be used for turning screws. It should be kept clear from
moving machinery and no other tools must be allowed to rest on it. It should be wiped frequently with
an oily cloth to prevent rusting and occasional cleaning fine steel wool will keep graduations legible.
Measurements should be taken from the 1 inch mark or other major graduation marks then from the
end. Use the correct rule for the job. Coat the tool with rust preservatives when in long term storage.
NOTE: Rules are found in both metric and empirial units.
Callipers
Callipers are instruments used in conjunction with a rule or any other suitable measuring
tool for purposes of:
Taking external measurements
Taking internal measurements
Transfer of measurements from a rule to any suitable measuring tool to work and to
scribe these measurements.
Three callipers can be identified and these are;

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The outside calliper

The inside calliper
The hermaphrodite calliper
(i) The inside caliper
This is the instrument used to make internal measurements such as the

Internal diameter of a pipe.
(ii) The outside caliper
(ii). The outside caliper
This is the instrument used to make external measurements such as the diameter of a stock.
(iv)
The Hermaphrodite
This is an instrument used for transferring measurements from a rule or other

dimensions to a layout work and scribing it. It may also be used for scribing
arcs. They are useful for scribing lines parallel to the edge of a component.
Note: the curved or bent leg is also referred to as odd leg. This instrument should be handled
with care to avoid damage and kept clean to prevent rapid deterioration. They should be kept in
appropriate places.
Dividers
These are instruments used for transferring measurements from a rule or other dimensions
to a lay out work and for scribing circles and arcs. They consist of two legs (points) held
together at a point and a knurled handle. A trammel is a type of dividers used for scribing
large circles which are not possible using an ordinary divider. A trammel also referred to as
beam compass consists of a long thin rod known as beam on which two sliding head with
scriber points are mounted. One head is fitted with an adjusting screw. Extension rods can
be added to the beam to increase the capacity of the tool.
MICROMETERS
A micrometer is a precision measuring instrument. It consists of a frame, the barrel, the anvil, the
spindle, the thimble/ the sleeve, the ratchet stop, and a lock. Both the thimble and the barrel have
scales that are used to determine pressure is attained; the ratchet slips to prevent further tightening.
Micrometers can either be in imperial units or metrics
IMPERIAL (ENGLISH) MICROMETERS
This is used to measure dimensions to the accuracy of 0.001 or a thousand of an inch or even 0.0001
or a ten thousand of an inch if a vernier scale is available. They usually come in ranges of 1 i.e. 0 1,
1 2, 2 3, etc.
This micrometer consists five (5) principle parts which are the frame, anvil, thimble, spindle and barrel
and the whole unit is made of high quality tool steel.
OPERATION
The spindle and barrel threads have a pitch of 0.025 (40 teeth/inch, TPI) i.e. one complete revolution of
the spindle and the sleeve will increase or decrease the distance between the anvil and the spindle by
0.025 with left and right turning respectively. The barrel or main scale is gradated tenths (0.1) and
fortieths (0.025) of an inch whilst the sleeve or thimble scale consists of 25 equal divisions. If the
spindle is advanced or withdrawn by rotational movements equal to 1 sleeve graduation, then the
distance between the measuring faces is decreased or increased by one thousandth (0.001) of an inch.
The micrometer measurement reading is equivalent to the total number of thousandth (0.001) of an
inch indicated by the sleeve scale graduations which is coincident with the barrel scale line or datum. To
read the dimensions, the visible barrel graduations in tenths (0.10) and fortieths (0.025) are recorded.
To this figure is added the number of thousandths (0.001) shown on the sleeve scale at the intersection
with the barrel line.
In the figure below, the reading is 0.290.
THE METRIC MICROMETER
This is a precision measuring tool which gives dimensions to an accuracy of one hundredth (0.01mm) of
a millimeter. The basic construction is the same as that of an imperial micrometer; the difference being
the units used. The spindle and barrel threads have a pitch of 0.5 mm. thus one complete turn of the
spindle and sleeve will increase or decrease the distance between the anvil and the spindle by this
amount. The barrel scale is graduated into 25 divisions of 1mm (see figure below), and usually every 5th
division is numbered in multiples of 5. The millimeter divisions are subdivided into half mm and the
sleeve is gradated into 50 equal divisions. Thus, the movement of sleeve equal to 1 sleeve division
equals 0.5/50mm or 0.01mm.
To read the micrometer, the highest figure on the barrel scale is noted together with any additional
visible marks that is half mm divisions. To this is added the number of hundredths (0.01#) of a mm which
are indicated by a coincidence sleep and datum lines. Thus, the reading of the metric micrometer scales
depicted in the figure below is 5.70mm, but how?
THE VERNIER CALLIPER
Assuming two lines of equal length, each divided separately so that the total number of divisions in one
is greater by 1 division that the number of divisions in the other, the displacement or reading is equal to
the linear difference between any two divisions.
For example, one of the commonly used scales is were the main scale is divide into 0.05 (twentieths) of
an inch and the vernier scale comprises 50 division over a distance of 2.45, each division on the main
scale and any division on the vernier scale is 0.001. One other widely used scale is where the main
scale is divided into 25 equal divisions over a distance of 1.225.
Vernier instruments graduated in metric system are also available. Some are composite types with inch
and metric scales on opposite sides while others read inches or metric dimensions only.
To read measurements registered by the vernier caliper shown above:
1. The number of inches and sub divisions of an inch that the zero line of the vernier scale has
moved over the main scale should be noted. In this case the inches are 5 and the sub divisions
give 2.5.
2. To the main scale reading should be added the thousandths of an inch, which indicated where a
line of the vernier scale is coincident with a line on the main scale. in this case its 23 line.
3. The final reading is obtained as follows:
(a). main scale:
Inches = 5.000
Tenths = 2.500 * 0.100 = 0.250
(b). Vernier scale
23rd line is coincident: 23*0.001 = 0.023
.
. . 5.000 + 0.250 + 0.023 = 5.273
READING THE METRIC UNIT VERNIER

This instrument reads in the similar manner to the inch unit vernier. It has main scale graduations of
centimeters, millimeters and half-millimeters. The vernier scale (equal to 24 half millimeters) is divided
into 25 equal parts, one division, producing a difference between main scale graduations of 0.5*1/25 =
1
/50mm (0.02mm)
MEASURING CAPACITY
The measuring capacity of vernier instruments is its graduated length minus length of the vernier scale.
Thus, an instrument having a scale such as 14.450 minimum would be implied as having a measuring
capacity of 12 inches.
THE VERNIER CALLIPER GAUGE
It consists a beam on which is marked the main scale and two jaws between which the item to be
measured is placed. One jaw is integral with the beam whilst the other, upon which is mounted the
vernier scale slide along the beam.
The measuring faces of the jaws are accurately machined to be straight and parallel.
The moving jaw may be connected to a clamping device (termed the fine adjustment clipper) by means
of a fine adjusting screw assembly. The clipper can be locked on the beam at any position by means of a
locking screw the accurate setting of the measurement being achieved by rotating the knurled wheel of
the fine adjustment screw assembly in the required direction.
Some degree of skill is necessary to obtain the correct feel otherwise inaccurate readings will be
obtained, and if over-tightening is done the instrument may be permanently damaged. The jaws should
always be closed gently onto the work piece no attempt being made to alter the measurement by force.
The parts to be measured should be perfectly clean as foreign matter will not only affect readings
obtained but may also damage the accurately finished faces of the jaws.
Knife-edge jaws mounted immediately above those for external measurement are used for internal
measurements. No attempt must be made to force a locked caliper such would result into out of
parallelism. Some makes of caliper are marked with two spots or targets on the jaws on which dividers
or trammels may be set after the caliper has been set.
N.B. before use (in particular, before using a particular instrument for the first time) the caliper should
be checked by closing the jaws and holding the instrument up to the light, checking for full contact of
the measuring surfaces without disturbing the jaws, the reading of the caliper should then be checked
to ensure that the zero line of the main scale and that of the vernier scale are coincident.
PARTS OF A VERNIER CALLIPER
SURFACE TABLE/PLATE
PURPOSE
This provides a true, flat, smooth and plain surface as base for working out measurement accuracy.
CONSTRUCTION
Made of either cast iron or granite machined very smoothly and hand scrapped to provide a true flat
surface. Granite is very hard and sometimes it can be as hard as diamond. It does not rust, corrode or
stain. It also resists temperature changes and is none magnetic. It therefore, retains its accuracy much
longer than cast iron.
OPERATION
Clean before and after use to reduce the effect of rust.

Avoid unnecessary moving, rough work, etc.
Clean job before working.
Use for specified purpose only.
When not in use put it in a wooden cover.
HACKSAWS AND SAWING

Hacksaws are classified by type of frame, length and teeth per inch (TPI) of the blade e.g. adjustable,
12, 38 TPI.
BLADE MATERIAL
Tool steel, high speed steel, tungsten alloy steel, Adjustable hacksaw blades range from 8 12 (from
one centre hole to the other).
BLADE CONDITION
Entire blade hard, i.e. hardened for accurate cut.

Flexible where only teeth are hardened and this is used for general purposes.
Spring back where teeth are hardened and the rest of the blade is made of spring material;
its tempered for long life.
The adjustable hacksaws range from 8 to 12 (the length determined from centre of one hole to the
other).
TEETH SETTING
The teeth are set alternatively left and right to cut a slot wider than the back of the blade to prevent
binding and breaking. A wavy teeth arrangement is another alternative.
N.B.
Fine blades usually have double alternate i.e. teeth set alternately in pairs.
A fine blade is used for cutting hard metal due to high tooth contact per job which should be
restricted to a minimum of 2-3 teeth in contact.
A course blade is used for cutting soft materials because the teeth of a fine blade would pin.
A typical hacksaw blade is 12 inches long, inch wide and 0.025 inches thick.
OPERATION
Right way
wrong way
Always fit blade with teeth facing/pointing forward.

Re-tension blade after 15 strokes to take up the slack due to expansion.
Always apply pressure on the forward stroke; the cutting stroke, the return stroke is used for
cleaning.
Use the full length of blade at the rate of 50 to 60 stokes per minute or slower for hard
materials such as High Speed Steel (HSS) or stainless steel (SS) to avoid overheating.
When cutting thin sheet metal, avoid screeching sound by sand-wiching it with two pieces of
wood and then clamp in the vice.
Adopt a correct stance and always be professional in your thought and action.
BLADE PITCH
Through experience, it has been found that all materials do not cut equally well with the same size of
saw teeth. The greatest efficiency is obtained by using a blade with teeth of the proper size for a given
operation. Tooth size determines the teeth pitch. Pitch is simply the number of blade teeth available in
an inch of blade length. Typical examples of pitch are 14, 18, 24 and 32 teeth per inch.
14 TEETH PER INCH (5.5 teeth per cm)
This is used for cutting materials such as machine steel, cold rolled steel and structural steel units having
thick sections. The main advantage of the course pitch is that it makes the saw free and fast cutting, for
this reason it is preferred where a smooth cut is not important.
18 TEETH PER INCH (7 teeth per cm)
This is used for sawing any solid stock, including such materials as aluminum, babbitt, cast iron, high
speed steel, tool steel, etc. This pitch of blade is recommended for general use where a smooth cut
surface is required.
This is used for cutting pipe, tin, brass, copper, small structural steel units and sheet metal over 18
gauge.
For cutting, small tubing, conduit and sheet metal of gauge thickness less than 18. These very thin
materials require a very fine pitch to prevent the stripping of teeth.
CARE
Occasionally wipe the blade with an oily cloth to prevent corrosion. Keep it away from other tools to
prevent the possibility of teeth being broken or dulled.
Always replace a worn out blade, never attempt to sharpen due to fineness and hardness of teeth.
CHISELS
Cold chisels as they are referred to are tools used for cutting metal in jobs such as breaking reverts,
splitting nuts, removing excess material, cleaning corners, cutting key ways, etc.
They are usually octagonal sided and are made of either high carbon steel (HCS) which is hardened or
tempered. They are left soft to reduce chipping during use.
ANNEALING
Most chisels are subjected to extreme shock which creates strain and brittleness in the metal. Annealing
releases the internal strain in the metal and reduces brittleness.
CUTTING ANGLE
This is mainly determined by materials to be cut. As a general rule;
Soft materials need a small cutting edge angle.
Hard materials greater angle.
Mild steel 55o
Cast iron 60o
Aluminum 35o
Brass 40o
Those with cutting edge angle between 60o 70o are chisels for general use.
TYPES OF CHISELS
Four types are identified here and these are:

The cape or cross cut
Used for cutting key ways, narrow grooves and square corners.
The round nose chisel
Used for cutting semi circular grooves and chipping inside corners which have a fillet or
radius.
The flat cold chisel
This is widely used by servicemen. It has a cutting edge which is slightly convex. This allows
the centre portion to receive the greatest shock, thereby protecting the weaker corners. For
general purpose use, the cutting edge angle should be 60o to 70o.
Diamond point chisel
Used for cutting V. grooves and square corners.
OPERATION
Ordinarily, chisels should be held between the thumb and first finger about an inch from the
head with a steady but rather loose grip to lessen the impact on the hand in case of a miss.
Always wear safety glasses/goggles when chiseling.

Chisel will cut any metal that is softer than itself. Always use a chisel big enough for the job
and a hammer heavier enough for size of chisels; the larger the chisel, the heavier the
hammer.
Ensure cutting edge is at correct angle in contact with the job before striking with hammer.
When grinding chisel to sharpen dip it frequently in water or coolant to keep it cool. Heat will
draw the temper from the cutting edge causing it to become soft and almost useless.
Reset each chisel position before each hammer blow.
Avoid using chisel with spread or mushroomed head. Injury could result I case the chisel slips
or piece breakaway from the overhang. Always grind off the mushroomed part.
FILES AND FILING
A file is a hand-tool used for removing small materials at a time from metal or stock or other materials
used in industry such as plastic.
Files are classified by type and length, cross section and spacing of teeth.
CONSTRUCTION
Files are made of high carbon steel (HCS) hardened and tempered. The tang is not hardened, but
remains soft so as to avoid fracture during use.
Files are brittle. Any sharp blow or drop may cause fracture.
File length is determined from point/tip to shoulder/heel. The lengths vary from 4 to 20 but those for
general purpose use are usually 4 to 12. The file width usually tapers towards the point except for
blunt or hand file which has uniform width.
The file cut or teeth spacing is defined as the number of T.P.I. or pitch. More T.P.I. constitutes a fine cut
whilst less T.P.I. coarse cut.
PARTS OF A FILE
The file consists of body length, shoulder/heel, tang edge, side or face, point or tip.
TEETH PER INCH (PITCH)
This varies with the area of face/side of the file.Generally, the smaller the file, the finer the pitch and
the larger the blade the coarser the pitch.
FIVE STANDARD GRADES OF A FILE
These are:
Rough
Bastard
Second
Smooth
Read smooth
File types are also categorized by the way teeth are cut onto the face. This gives us four types which are
the single cut, double cut, rasp and curved tooth files.
SINGLE CUT FILE
Also referred to as the mill file, which derives this name by having been used to sharpen saws. They are
always single cut i.e. only one row of teeth appearing on the blade.
DOUBLE CUT FILE
Also known as machinists file has two rows of teeth crossing each other.
RASP CUT FILE
This is a file on which teeth have been individually cut and disconnected from each other for
independent teeth in cutting.
CURVED TOOTH FILE
This has a single row of teeth cut on the blade in a curved to aid in self cleaning.
FILE APPLICATION
Mill tool sharpening

Machinist file filing and finishing machine parts
Rasp file cutting wood, and very soft materials
Curved tooth file used to file aluminum and steel sheets
FILE CONVEX SHAPE

Files are usually convex along the length of side/face. This presents all teeth making contact at same
time so that less pressure will be required to drive the file. The other reason being to prevent the
tendency for a file to bend along its length during operation; if the file were flat, then during use, it
would form a concave shape and leave a high spot on the job i.e. convex finish.
FILE CROSS SECTIONS
Flat, hard/blunt, square, round, half round,3 square/triangle.
OPERATION
Keep file and job clean and in case of pinning or clogging use scratch or file card.
Work in file (new) by first using it on soft materials for about 2500 strokes, then use it on
hard materials. This process also increases the files life.
FILING TECHNIQUES
Grip handle with fore finger resting on blade.

Grip pint between thumb and fore finger.
Apply pressure on forward stroke (cutting) only and no pressure on the return stoke, but
keep file level to pressure on the return stroke a cleaning stroke.
Adopt proper stance.
In case operators height is inadequate, DUCK BOARDS will help raise the shoulders to the
correct height as necessary.
Job should be damped in vise at wait level.
Avoid file rocking.
File at 40 60 stroke per minute.
Apply cross filing where each forward stroke is moved side ways to give a shearing action.
Cross filing reduces pinning and increases the cutting action of a file.
Files must be:
Cleaned after use
Stored on/in racks
Not knocked together for teeth might break.
Taps and Dies
Taps and dies are made of cast or high-speed tool steel and are used for cutting an internal (female)
thread; either left or right hand. They are usually made in sets of three:
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TAP
The taper.
The intermediate and,
The plug taps. (bottoming tap)
Taper tap
This tapered off for 8 to 10 threads and is used first cutting to the full thread graduation.
Intermediate tap
This is full-sized untapered threads to the end and is a main finishing tap. In the case of a blind hole, a
plug tap must be used.
Plug tap
This has full-sized untapered threads to the end, and is a main finishing tap, used in case of a blind hole.
Taps are normally driven using a tap wrench. The appropriate size of wrench should always be used for
a given tap, to ensure that the jaws fit correctly.
Care must be taken as not to damage the cutting edges and a chipped tap must never be used. When
not in use, taps should be kept clean and stored in a rack.
Using taps
A hole must be drilled to the core diameter size (taping size) of the thread. The work piece must be fully
secured. When starting the cutting, the tap must be at 90o to the work. Excessive force must not be
used as this will result in breaking the tap. Cutting fluid should be used. The thread must be cleaned as
often as is necessary to prevent flute clogging.
Dies
A die cuts as external (male) thread which may be right or left hand. It is made of high quality tool steel
which is suitably heat treated.
There are three types of dies and these are:
The button
The half and,
The solid dies
A die is held in a stock to facilitate turning.
The Button Die

The button or split die allows a limited amount of adjustment in the depth it will cut, by means of
screws in the stock which sprig it open or shut.
It should be fully open for the first cut and then gradually reduced to the finish size. It must be checked
against an existing thread or die not of correct size.
Half Die (split die)
This has the advantage of taking smaller cuts to reach correct size and are marched in pairs, and should
always be used in that combination.
The Solid Die (slip die)
This is used for repairing a damaged thread and not for cutting a new one.
When not in use, dies should be kept clean and stored in a partitioned box to prevent damage to the
cutting edges.
Using Dies
The work should be chamfered to allow for ease in starting. The work piece must be securely supported
and vertical in the vice. Great care must be taken to start a thread true to the axis of the bar. Lubricants
must be used and the thread must be cleaned as often a necessary.
Determination of Accuracy of Finished Thread
1. The external thread is checked with a RING THREAD GAUGE, according to the fit specified on the
blue print.
2. Internal thread is checked using a PLUG THREAD GAUGE of the GO NO GO TYPE.
Screw Thread
The product of cutting either a male or female thread is a screw thread.
Parts of a Typical Screw Thread
The purpose of a screw thread is:
1. For joining or fastening component parts e.g. nut, bolt or stud.
2. For providing means of fine adjustments.
3. To facilitate means of fine measurements e.g. the micrometer.
Multi-Start Thread
These are formed by cutting more than one groove on the cylinder start of each thread and are
arranged symmetrically around the circumference. Usually two start threads are encountered, but
occasionally three starts may be found.
DRILLS AND DRILLING
Drills are used for cutting holes in metal or other materials to an accuracy of 0.005. They are made of
Carbon Tool Steel or High Carbon Tool Steel. Tungsten and carbide normally added for durability and
hardness. The twist drills are forged, hardened and tempered.
Parts OF A Drill
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Shank; may be parallel or tapered.

Neck; only in taper shank drill bits.
Margin; part which cuts hole bigger to prevent whole drill surface contacting job.
Tip or Dead Centre; for directing drill bit such as on pilot holes or punch marks.
Tang; only on taper shank drill bits.
Web; forms backbone of drill.
Axis; centre line of drill through the web, from tip to end of shank.
Flute; helps to throw away swarf and also help in directing lubricant.
Angles and Clearances

The normal cutting angle for a drill bit is 59O each side of the axis.
N.B: (i). for very hard materials the drill bit to be used should be more than 59o.
(ii). Soft material, the angle should be less than 59O (Remember the angles each side of the axis
must be combined to come up with the cutting angle of a drill bit).
By increasing the cutting angle, the lip length is decreased and the drill bit is correspondingly
strengthened and vise versa.
N.B. If the lips are of unequal length, an over size hole will invariably result. Where lips are of unequal
length, only one cutting edge is actually working leading to premature failure of drill, usually cracked
web. The clearance angle is usually 8o to 15o depending on the material to be drilled. Hard materials; a
small angle will work and vice-versa.
If the clearance angle is less than 8o too much job/drill contact is affected resulting in excess friction and
drill dulling. If the clearance angle is more than 15o weak lips will result causing lip-chipping. The rake
angle is formed between the flute line and the drill axis, but may also be described as the angle between
the flute line and job.
Common drill errors

1. Lips of unequal angles hence unequal lip lengths.
2. Excess friction causing loss of temper due mainly to excess heat due to excessive drilling speed
or insufficient lubrication.
3. Incorrect clearance angle leading to dulling of drill and lip chipping.
Common cause of drill vibration
1. Drill not correctly held in chuck.
2. Job not firmly held in vice/clamp.
3. Drill bent.
4. Cutting angle incorrect,
During the drilling operations
Lubricate constantly cooling
Avoid excess pressure to prevent drill dulling
Remove swart regularly using brush or invert job (dont use fingers to remove swart).
If drill vibrates, stop and investigate
Clean and store correctly after use.
The chip
This is the name given to tightly wound metal.
Cutting which emerges from the hole during drilling. Normally hard metal will produce a tight chip and
soft materials a loose chip.
The chip condition is an accurate indication of the drill tip condition. If cutting and clearance angles are
correct and drill speed and pressure are correct, a good chip will result.
Drilling an accurate hole
1. Mark out on job.
2. Prick punch intersection point.
3. Enlarge centre point with centre punch.
4. Drill pilot hole whose diameter should be slightly larger than drill web line length.
5. Carry out drilling.
6. At intervals during drilling stop, remove drill bit from hole and check the condition of the hole.
7. If all is well continue drilling while observing precautions concerning speed, pressure and
lubrication.
Lubricants and cutting speeds
Below are recommended cutting compounds (lubricants) for commonly used metals.
Metal
Recommended Cutting Compounds
1.
Aluminum
Kerosene, Kerosene and Nard Oil, Soluble Oil
2.
Brass
Kerosene, Kerosene and Nard Oil, Soluble Oil
3.
Soft Bronze
Soluble Oil, Nard Oil, Mineral Oil
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Cast Iron (soft)

Soft Steel
Malleable Iron
Cast Iron (hard)
Tool Steel
Steel Forgings
Money Metal
Stainless Steel
Soluble Oil
Soluble Oil, Mineral Oil, Sulfurised Oil, Nard Oil
Soda Water
Soluble Oil
Soluble Oil, Mineral Oil, Nard Oil, Sulfurised Oil
Soluble Oil, Sulfurised Oil, Mineral Oil, Nard Oil
Nard Oil, Soluble Oil
Sulfurised Oil, Nard and Soluble Oil
Below are the average cutting speeds recommended when using drill bits made of High Speed Steel
(HSS) . For drills made of carbon tool steel, the speed should be reduced by half.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Aluminum 200-300 f.p.m

Brass-soft 200-300 f.p.m
Cast Iron-soft 100 -150 f.p.m
Copper 200 f.p.m
Machine steel 80 100 f.p.m
Monet 40 60 f.p.m
Stainless steel 30 50 f.p.m
Tool steel alloy 50 60 f.p.m
N.B: Tungsten carbide is the hardest man-made metal. It is almost as hard as diamond. The metal is
moulded from tungsten and carbon powder under heat and pressure. Tools made from this metal can
cut metals many times faster than high speed steel.
*A drill point gage is used for checking the cutting edge angle.
WRENCHES
Also known as spanners are classified by type and size. e.g. 5/16 open ended spanner. The purpose of
spanners is for loosening and tightening nuts and bolts. They are made of High Carbon Steel (HSS) and
may contain 6% chromium to reduce the effects of corrosion.
Types
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Single open ended

Single ring
Monkey wrench
Double ended open or ring
Combination open and ring
C type
Pipe wrench
8. Tool post wrench

9. Adjustable wrench
10. Lever jaw (vice grip)
11. Off-set double ended and ring
12. Strap wrench
13. Socket wrench
14. Tap wrench
Single ended spanner
The jaws are set at 10o 20o angle to the handle.
Double ended wrench
Jaws are set at 10o 20o and of two different sizes e.g. 5/16. 3/8.
Ring
May be 6 or 12 point to ensure grip at small pull angles.
Adjustable
Has one jaw fixed and another movable. This is meant to fit various sizes of nuts and bolts.
Lever jaw (vice gripe) (mole)
This is adjustable and fits various sizes. It locks onto bolts and nuts.
Monkey spanner
Heavy duty and fits various sizes of nuts and bolts.
Combination
Has open jaws and ring. The jaws are set at 10o 15o and the ring is offset by 10o 15o .
Offset double ended
The ring is offset at 10o 15o. it maybe 6 or 12 point.
C type
Has a c shape and peg and fits only one size.
Adjustable C type
Has a c shape and peg and fits various sizes.
Strap wrench
Fits various diameters cylinders and pipes.
Pipe wrench
Adjustable and grips various diameter cylinder and pipes.
Tool post wrench
Heavy duty and fits one size tool post such as screws on the lathes tool post.
Socket wrench
Maybe 6 or 12 point and may have 1/4" or 3/8 or 1/2' drive. Maybe wasted for easy access of job.
Maybe extra deep, long to reach deeply located components e.g. spark plugs. These are turned using a
ratchet handle or T.bar, in conjunction with 6, 12 or 18 extension bars.
Tap wrench
Has a V shaped opening and may be adjustable used to drive taps and hand reamers.
N.B: Always keep wrenches and their operations clean. For open ended wrenches, avoid too much force
or jaws will spring out. Too much force on ring may cause ring to crack.
For adjustable wrenches always pull with fixed jaw away from you.
Avoid using adjustable wrench if open or ring is available.
Lever jaw is used only when nut or bolt is to be discarded. For sockets, always select the correct size,
ensure that ratchet square drive is home and ball is in place.
Reamers
Reaming is the operation that produces holes that are extremely accurate and have an exceptional fine
finish. Machine reamers are made in a variety of sizes and styles and are usually manufactured from
High Speed Steel (HSS). Below are some types of reamers and their description.
1. Jobbers Reamer
This is identical to the hand reamer except that the shank is tapered and designed for machine
operation.
2. Chucking Reamer
This reamer is manufactured with both straight and taper shanks. It is similar to the jobbers
reamer but the flutes are shorter and deeper. It is available with straight or spiral flutes.
3. Ross Chucking Reamer
This reamer is designed to cut on its end. The flutes provide chip clearance and a ground to act
as guides. It is best used when considerable metal must be removed and where the finish is not
critical.
4. Expansion Chucking Reamer
A reamer with straight flutes and available either with a straight or taper shank slots are cut in
the body to permit the reamer to expand when the adjusting screw in the end is tightened.
5. Shell Reamer
This reamer is mounted on a special arbor that can be used with several reamer sizes. It may
have straight or spiral flutes and also made in rose style. The arbor shank may be straight or
tapered. The hole in the reamer is tapered to fit the arbor which is fitted with drive legs.
6. Hand Reamer
Has a square on the shank end that is suitable for holding in a tap wrench. It may be made of
high speed steel or carbon steel. The cutting end is ground with a slight taper to provide ease of
starting it in the hole.
REAMER FLUTES
Counter Sinking
This is an operation that cuts a chamfer in a hole to permit a flat headed fastener to be inserted with
the head flash with the surface. The tool need is called the countersink and is available with cutting
edges of 60, 82, 90, 100, 110 and 120o included angles. Countersinks may also be used for debarring
holes.
Counter Boring
The head of fillister and socket head screws are usually set below the work surface. A counter bore is
used to enlarge the hole to the proper depth and machine a square shoulder on the hole to secure
maximum clamping action from the fasteners.
The tool has a guide called a pilot.
A drop of oil on the pilot will prevent it from binding in the hole during operation.
Solid counter bores are available. However, counter bores with interchangeable pilots and cutters are
commonly used because they can be changed from one size cutter or pilot to another size.
Spot Facing
This is the term applied when a circular spot is machined on a rough surface to furnish a bearing surface
fir the head of a bolt or nut. The tool used is the spot facer.
Guillotine
(To use equipment in mechanical workshop to describe and explain operation.)
TORQUE AND TORQUE LOADING
Torque is the force applied to an object e.g. nut, bolt, stud, heat tends to produce twist or tension.
A torque wrench is a special instrument used in engineering to apply the correct tension to a threaded
fastener. Torque loading is necessary to:1. Ensure that components retained by a nut and or bolt are firmly held together.
2. Prevent over-tightening which will cause damage to the component and excessive stress in the
fastener.
Calculating Torque
This is done based on two factors:1. The effective length which is the distance from the centre or axis of a fastener to the point at
which force is applied.
2. The effective force which is the force applied by the operator to the lever at a given distance
form the axis or centre-line of a fastener.
T=FxL
Where,
T = Torque (lb in, lb ft, NM)
F = Force (lb force, Newton, etc)
L = Length (inches, feet, meters)
T=Fxl
= 10 x 2
= 20 lb ft
2. F = 20 lb,
l = 20
T = 20 x 20
= 400 lb in
N.B: in example 2 to correct to lb ft, divide the result by 12.
The purpose of a torque wrench is to apply a predetermined torque to a threaded fastener. Their use
makes the engineers work easier because one does not have to make calculations before hand.
Types of Torque Wrenches
1. Dial type
2. T handle type
3. Break back, click or cam type
4. Flexible beam
Torque loading procedure
1. Examine threads for damage which may cause friction.
2. Clear threads IAW manufacturers instructions
3. Lubricate threads IAW manufacturers instructions.
4. Screw fastener finger tight.
5. Slacken off to allow threads and components to bed-in.
6. As a special precaution always drive fastener to the final torque figure using an approved and
serviceable torque wrench.
7. Safety wire lock or fit locking plates as required.
N.B. never use torque wrench for loosening fasteners.

Calibration
This is the determination of the serviceability and accuracy of the torque wrench. The periods between
calibrations is determined by the frequency of use. Torque wrenches can be calibrated using the
Acratork or Bristol Test rig.
Pliers
Pliers are classified by type and length e.g. 8 long nose. The purpose of pliers is for gripping jobs and
cutting wires. They are made of high carbon steel (HCS) with jaws being hardened and tempered. The
handles are knurled and covered with plastic rubber to ensure firm grip.
Types of pliers
Plain, combination, diagonals, snips, long nose, side cutting pliers, round nose.
N.B. in operation, keep it clean, avoid using combination pliers on bolts and nuts to avoid damage.
1. Long nose pliers/Needle nose
(Straight and curved nose Av) used to grip and clamp job in limited spaces. Side cutters are
usually embodied. Avoid using excessive pressure to avoid bending the jaws.
2. Diagonals
Also known as side cutter and used for cutting wire and cable. When cutting locking wire, always
cut away from body to avoid injury due to flying pieces.
3. Snips
Used for cutting thin sheet metal.
4. Combination pliers
Also called a slip joint pliers; used for holding and gripping small articles in situations where it
may be inconvenient or unsafe to use hands but this must never be used as wrench.
5. Side cutting pliers
Used for cutting heavier wire and pins. Some side cutting pliers have a wire stripping groove and
insulated handles.
6. Round nose pliers
Used to form wire and light metal without marring the surface.
Construction
As already stated, pliers are made of High Carbon Steel, HCS, hardened and tempered.
Operation
Do not use pliers as a wrench. Use only for intended purposes.
HAMMERS
Hammers
Soft
Hard
Ball peen
Straight peen
Cross peen
Plastic faced
Rubber faced
Soft metal
faced
Specific Users of Hammers

1. Ball Peen Hammer
The flat face of a ball peen hammer is used for general work such as striking punches; the
rounded (ball) end is used for riveting and peening.
2. Straight Peen Hammer
This has the peen end parallel to the axis of the hammer handle and is used for stretching and
drawing out metal when forging.
3. Cross Peen Hammer
This has the peen end at right angles to the hammer handle and is used for riveting stretching
and drawing metal.
Hard hammers and Mallets
Hammers and mallets are classified by shape and weight of head. This classification is mostly convenient
for hammers. They are further classified as hard or soft hammers and their purpose is to drive and
shape materials in all areas of engineering.
Soft Hammers
Consist a cast tube with a recess to accommodate a face insert. The face insert can be a soft metal,
plastic, rubber, glass or leather.
Hard Hammers
These are made of high carbon steel (HCS), hardened and tempered. The handles can be made of wood,
ash, hickory. The weight is normally stamped on the head and the handle of sufficient length to give the
hammer balance.
Operation
Keep it clean
Check handle for splitting and that it is securely light in head.
Avoid using hammers on hardened surface e.g. bearing races or cast iron. Metal chips may
cause injury usually to the eye as they break away due to impact of hard hammers for the
job.
Use appropriate size hammers for the jib
Grip hammer from the elbow and not the wrist.
When using soft hammers on finished surfaces, check that no sharp object such as metal
chip/swarf, etc. is embedded in the face. This may dent/damage the finished surface.
Mallets
Consist of a head made of soft material, the purpose of which is for shaping thin sheet metal. The head
can be made of materials such as hide, rubber, wood or plastic and the handle can be made of
ash/hickory, metal or wood.
Operation
As for hammers
Screw Drivers
These are for turning screws and are classified by length and type of bit/tip.
Construction
Handle may be made of metal, wood or plastic and the blade of High Carbon Steel (HCS) and the bit
made of HCS, hardened and tempered.
Types of Bits/Tips
1. Plain
2. Phillips (cross head)
3. Reed and prince
N.B. Phillips bit is blunt whilst Reed and Prince is pointed at the Centre.
Types of Screw Drivers
1. Plain flat tip
2. Stubby/dumpy can be flat, Phillips or reed and prince
3. Double ended offset can be flat Phillips or reed and prince
4. Jewelers flat and Phillips
5. Ratchet flat, Phillips, reed and prince

6. Pump or spiral flat, Phillips, reed and prince
7. Heavy duty heavy square shank used with wrench
N.B. pump and some ratchet screw drivers may have facility for interchangeable bits.
Operation
1. Keep it clean
2. Ensure handles are free from burrs to avoid injury
3. Ensure that the bit is normal and damage free
4. Avoid slipping for this could cause damage to component and injury to operator
5. Use correct size for the job
6. Avoid using screw-drivers as a punch or drift
7. Avoid over-tightening; this could cause seizure and damage to the bit and screw slot
Application
1. Stubby screw-driver
Used in areas where clearance is limited
2. Offset screw-driver
Used in areas where clearance is extremely limited
3. Jewelers screw-driver
Used on fine screws, on instruments and radio works
4. Phillips screw-driver
For use only on Phillips headed screws. Not to be used on reed and prince otherwise the
cross slot will be damaged due to pointed tip preventing full contact with the screw head.
5. Pump/spiral
Used as time saver where a large number of screws require to be removed or fitted.
6. Ratchet screw driver
For use on panels retained by a large number of screws
7. Reed and prince
For use only on reed and prince headed screws. Not to be used on Phillips headed screws or
slot will be damaged
8. Heavy duty screw driver
Used on stubborn and large screws
Sharpening Flat Bit
1. Bit must be as thick as slot in screws head

2. Avoid overheating when sharpening on grinding stone to avoid loss of temper
3. Grind face until bit is of required thickness
N.B. wear eye protection when using grind stone
PUNCHES
Punches are used for:
1. Driving pins
2. Marking drill holes
3. Marking before chiseling
Construction
High carbon steel hardened and tempered
Types
1. Center punch
2. Prick punch
3. Drive pin punch

4. Drift punch
5. Gasket punch
6. Punches are normally classified by type and length e.g. 6 centre punch
Drive pin punch
Is blunt at the tip and has a parallel shank
Drift punch
Has a blunt tip and tapered shank
Centre punch
Has tip and angle of 600 to 900 *usually centre area is knurled for grip, the head chamfered to
reduce fraying or mushrooming
Operation
Keep it clean
Ensure point is sharp and clean
Hold punch firmly with two/three fingers at the knurled area
Avoid using punch with fraying or mushrooming head to prevent injury to hands and eyes by
frying metal chips
Application
1. Prick punch
Used for marking centers for drill holes
2. Center punch
Used to enlarge prick punch holes
3. Drive pin punch
Used to install or remove straight and tape pins were binding is to be avoided
4. Drift punch
Generally used for removing pins
5. Gasket punch
This is used to cut clean bolt holes in asbestos gasket material. The eye slot is used to remove
waste materials from the centre of the gasket punch.
PULLERS
These are special tools used to remove or install parts by the application of an even and smooth force.
Types
Three basic types are available and these are; the external, internal and press pullers
1. External puller
This consists of jaws and forcing screw. The jaws grip the back of the object to be pulled and the
forcing screw pushes against a stationary part. In operation, when the forcing screw is turned,
the jaws pull the object.
2. Press puller
This consist legs that mount on the stationary parts and the forcing screw. The forcing screw is
screwed into the part to be removed and when this happens the part is removed.
3. Internal puller
This consists of legs jaws which go inside the part to be removed. The legs are mounted on the
stationary parts. The jaws are attached to a forcing screw and when the forcing screw is turned,
the jaws pull the parts out of its installation. Its most convenient for removing bearings out of
their installation.
Rules for use of pullers
1. Use a puller on machined parts and precision bearings which have a press fit for such can be
ruined if a hammer was used.
2. Choose the right type and size of pullers which can reach the part and grip it and also allow
enough force to be applied.
3. Use a puller to give a smooth, even pull that prevents cocking the part you are removing as
may be the case when you use the pry bar.
4. Use a hydraulic puller for bigger jobs.

5. Use pullers with a forcing screw which is at least 1/2 x the of the shaft to prevent over loading
the puller.
6. Always press a shaft protector between the shaft and the forcing screw of the external puller.
7. To force parts into their installation, do not use a puller, rather use the press.
PICK UP TOOLS
These are the tools used to retrieve small parts which have fallen into areas inaccessible by normal
means.
These consists a telescoping handle, a swivel to which is attached the pick up points could either be a
magnet or mechanical fingers.
Types
1. Mechanical fingers
2. Magnetic pick-up-tools
The magnetic pick-up-tools have a small magnet on the tip. It is used to retrieve small magnetic parts
that have fallen into far hard to reach places to prevent stripping of a complete unit in order to recover
the part.
CLAMPING TOOLS
These also referred to as clamping and holding devices are tools specially designed to hold work
securely while being worked on. They could be of a specific purpose i.e. to hold specific type of work
pieces or of a general type. They include clamps and vices.
VICES
These include bench vices, hand vices, combination vices, etc.
1. Bench vice (solid base)
This is mounted far enough on a bench edge to permit clamping of long work. They consists
stationary and movable jaw. The faces of the jaws are usually lightly serrated and hardened to
ensure a firm grip on the work.
2. Hand vice
Also known as tool makers hand vice, is a small steel vice with two interchangeable blocks
which are chosen depending on the size of the work to be held. It is convenient on the bench for
small machining operations such as drilling or tapping.
3. Combination vice
This is hand, supported and consist a handle which terminates onto a bracket which supports the
movable jaws through guide pin and warm thread. In a bench vice, one jaw is fixed whilst the
other is movable, but in this case, both jaws are movable, movement is achieved by the rotation
of the worn thread.
4. Swivel base vice
This is a bench vice similar to a solid base vice. This one has, as the name suggests a swivel base
that allows work to be rotated and pivoted in a desired working position. The base is split and
after rotating the vice to a desired position, it is locked using a locking screw in the base.
Note:
a. Finished surfaces are protected in the vice by inserting brass or copper jaw caps to
cover the serrations, whose object is to prevent marring the surfaces.
b. Never tighten the vice by the hammering on the handle or applying additional
pressure by using a piece of pipe for leverage.
c. When desires to hammer work piece held in vice, support it with wood or metal
underneath to prevent it from being driven down through the vice jaws.
CLAMPS
Two types of clamps are identified. These are the C clamp or in some quarters, G clamp and the
parallel clamp.
1. C Clamp
The jaw opening determines the size of the clamp. It is made in the shape of the letter C and is
used for general work. Many sizes are available.
2. Parallel clamp
This consists two flat steel jaws, adjustable to fit a piece of work by means of screws one screw
passes through the centre whilst another towards the end of the jaws. The clamp is used for
holding small parts on the bench or in a machine.
Precaution
Jaws must be kept in a parallel position, if not, the clamp screws may seem to be tight but will
not be holding the work lightly. The screws will just be tightened against each other.
3. V block clamp
V as the term suggests, are used with V blocks either singly or pairs to hold cylinder work
securely during the lay out works and for machinery operations.
SWAGING AND SPLICING

Introduction
Control cables or attachment cables normally are supplied without end-fittings. To make them useful
for an application, end fittings have to be attached at the ends of the cable or formed. This can be done
either by swaging or splicing.
SWAGING
This is the provision of an end fitting onto a cable by first inserting cable into the hollow shank and then
compressing the shank onto the cable using a swaging tool, end fittings in aircraft cable are secured in
this way.
SPLICING
This is the provision of an end fitting to the end of the cable by forming that end of the cable into a solid
end-fitting. There are two methods used here, viz swage splicing and hand splicing.
1. Swage splicing
This has the strength of 90% of the cable break load and is quicker to accomplish.
Procedure
a. Select correct ferrule
b. Fit cable through ferrule to form a loop.
c. Fit thimble of correct size
d. Adjust cables to the following dimensions
- Ferrule to neck of thimble = 11/2 x cable diameter
- Cable protruding out of ferrule = at least 1/2 x cable diameter
e. Close the ferrule using an approved tool until faces of the swage touch
N.B. Ferrule materials
- On galvanized steel cables Al Al
- On corrosion resistance cables copper
f. double swaging may be necessary upon use of longer than normal in special cases.
2. Hand splicing
This is the formation of an end fitting at the end of the cable by weaving the strands of the cable.
It has the strength of 80% the cable break load.
ABBRASIVE TOOLS/MATERIALS
An abrasive is commonly thought as any hand sharp material that can be used to wear away another
material. There are many types of abrasive tools/materials but will consider the grinding wheel/stone
and sand paper.
The grinding wheel
Grinding is an operation that removes materials by rotating an abrasive wheel against the work. Jobs
like sharpening, removal of materials which are too hard to machine, fine surface finishes and close
tolerances can be achieved by grinding. The grinding wheel consist many abrasive grains. The abrasive
grains are actually cutting teeth. With use, these teeth become dull, hence the need to dress the wheel
with a diamond dressing tool. A standard system of marking grinding wheel was adopted by the
Abrasive Industry in which five factors were considered. These factors are: Abrasive type, grain size,
grade, structure and bond. These are discussed individually below:1. Abrasive Types
Two main groups of manufactured abrasive are available identified using the letter symbol
system. These are:
A, denotes aluminum Oxide Abrasive and C, the Silicon Carbide Abrasive. A prefix number
indicates a particular type of aluminum oxide or Silicon Carbide Abrasive.
2. Grain size
Abrasive materials are crashed from large chunks into various sizes determined special
screens. Difficult grain sizes will operate well for a particular type of job. That must be born in
mind when selecting wheels for use on particular jobs.
3. Grade
This denotes the strength of the bond holding the wheel together ranging from A to Z i.e. soft
to hard.
4. Structure
This is the grain spacing or the manner in which the abrasive grains are distributed
throughout the wheel. Its numbered from 1 to 12; the higher the number, the more open the
structure i.e.
THE DRILLING MACHINE
This is a machine primarily used for cutting round holes. This is achieved by rotating a cutting tool, the
drill bit, against the material with sufficient pressure to cause the drill to penetrate the material. It can
also be used for counter sinking and counter boring; even reaming.
TYPES
1. Manually operated
2. Electrically operated
3.
-
Portable/hand held
Pedestral
Pneumatically operated
portable/hand held
Pedestral
CONSTRUTION
The construction of the pedestral drilling machine consists:
- The base
- The column
- Work table
- Table clamp lever
- Table inclination clamp
- Feed handle
- Pulleys
- V-belt
- Pulley guard
- Start and stop buttons
- The chuck
- The spindle
- Drill head clamp
- Drill head bracket clamp
Operation
(Demonstrated)
N.B: 1. Work need to be supported in a holding device such as a drill vice or jig
2. Some drill bits have holes through the body to allow oil to reach the point to lubricate
and cool it.
LUBRICATION
The column and spindle, lubricated with oil. A grease ripple may be available to provide grease for
lubrication of speed mechanism.
N.B; its a good practice to lubricate drill press with oil before and after use. This has to be done
to a clean surface.
THE GRINDING MACHINE
The machine used for grinding is the act of dressing, shaping or finishing surfaces using a rotary abrasive
wheel.
CONSTRUCTION
A general purpose grinding machine can either be bench or pedestral type and would consist;
- A motor onto which shafts protrude for purpose of mounting the abrasive stones.
- Wheel guards and exhaust.
- Tool rest which would be secured with 1/16 maximum clearance.
- Abrasive wheels, one course, another fine, mounted onto motor shafts and secured with
nuts.
- The base for mounting to bench or stand.
- On and off switch.
- Eye shields
N.B: Some pedestral grinders will have in build system for providing coolant to the wheel which
washes away loose particles and keeps the work cool.
Operation
(Demonstrated)
N.B: always wear goggles when operating the grinding machine.
THE LATHE MACHINE
This is a machine in which the work is held and rotated while being cut or shaped by a cutting tool that
is fed against the work. The Lathe size is determined by the swing and the bed length.
MAJOR PARTS OF THE LATHE
Each part falls into one of the three (3) functional categories. These categories are;
-
Driving the lathe

Holding and rotating the work
Holding and moving the cutting tool.
The major parts are:

1. The lathe bed
This is the foundation or base to which other parts are fitted
2. Head stock
Prominent features in this case are the spindle, the control mechanism, the motive generator,
back gears, bull gear lock pins, the chuck, the guards, etc.
3. The tail stock
The unit that supports the other end of the work or can supports a drill bit for purposes of
cutting a hole in a rod turning in the chuck. The unit is clamped to the ways by tightening the
clamp bolt nut. The spindle is positioned by rotating the hand wheel and is locked in position
with the binding lever.
4. The carriage
This includes saddles, Apron, Cross and Longitudinal feed and screw cutting mechanism
compound rests and tool parts. The cutting tools are supported and its actions controlled by the
carriage which is moved along the ways by hand (manually) or power feed.
N.B: lubrication of the lathe machine depends upon the length/frequency of its use. When in
use, the headstock bearings must be oiled daily including such parts as gears, spindle, etc.
Many parts have oil fittings where this oil can be applied. Remember to wipe out any
dripping. Also bear in mind that for a lathe machine being used on a daily basis will
require daily lubrication.
THE POWER SAW
Metal rods and flat bars can be cut satisfactory using hand held hacksaws. Appreciable amount of
cutting can be done using a hand held hacksaw but, when the back log increased or the size of the
material is big, then the operator will easily tire and retire.
The power saw comes in handy in that will cut automatically and quicker and unaffected by the capacity
of the operator.
Parts
The power saw consists:
- Frame
- Blade
- Bed
- Bed vice
- Lubrication system
- Motor
- Transmission system
- The feed
- Guards
- Etc
Operation
(Demonstrated)
Provision, were made during manufacture to facilitate lubrication of the moving parts with oil. Other
parts can also be oiled to prevent corrosion.
FASTENNERS
IDENTIFICATION OF:
Identifying nuts, bolts, screws and indeed some other threaded fasteners may not easy as they may not be
marked with standards to which they conform.
For example, two bolts may appear identical and yet it would be dangerous to interchange them as they may be
made of different materials and machined to different tolerances.
Two bolts 5/16 and of the same length may be made of stainless steel (ss) and mild steel (ms) and it would be
dangerous to interchange them due to difference in strength.
Some fasteners are meant to carry shear loads while others tensile loads.
There are many systems used to identify fasteners but in our case we will look at the British and American
system.
BRITISH SYSTEM
BSF [British Standard Fine]
BA [British Association]
UNF [Unified Fine]
UNC [Unified Course]
Some other abbreviations used with this system are:
AGS [Aircraft General Standards]
AL AL [Aluminum Alloy]
Cad [Cadmium Plated]
Cad h & t [Cadmium Plated Head and Threads only]
Csk [Counter Sunk]
Clt [Close Tolerance]
Fcs [Free Cutting Steel]
CRS [Corrosion Resistant Steel]
Hd [Head]
Hex [Hexagon]
HTS [High Tensile Steel]
LTS [Low Tensile Steel]
Nat [Natural Finish]
AMERICAN SYSTEM
These conform to Government, military and the civil specifications. The most common are:
AN Airforce / Navy Specifications
NAS National Aerospace Standards
Mil and Ms Military Standards
RIVETS AND REVETTING
REVETTING
This is the process of fastening parts or sheet metal together by use of rivets. There are two types of rivets and
these are:
1. The solid rivets and

2. The blind rivets
Joint Strength
The load path between (A) and (B) is in this case a rope. The load is transmitted through the load path from (A) to
(B).
Just as the load is transmitted through aircraft components, therefore, a repair on an aircraft component must be
able to transmit load from one side to the other and the load path must be complete.
Each side of the repair must be capable of carrying the total load. Fasteners used must be able to transfer the
load to the repair doubles.
The repair doubles must be able to carry the load across the component break. Fasteners on the other side of the
repair must be strong enough to return the load back to the component. In order to know how many fasteners
are required for a repair, ways in which they fail must be known.
Types of Failure
1. Shear Failure
2. Bearing Failure
3. Shear Tear-Out Failure
In instoning Aluminum aircraft rivets, there are certain factors to consider. These are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The size of rivet required and style.

The number of rivets required for a repair.
The material and temper designation as well as the strength.
The size of rivet holes.
Distance of rivets from each other.
Head failure due to tensile loads. Rivets not normally used in tension.
Edge Distance = 2 x of the rivet shank (min)

Edge Distance = 2 1/2 x of rivet shank (counter sunk rivets)
Pitch = 3 x of rivet shank (min)
Rivet length A = total rivet length
D = B + C = grip length
e = amount of length required to make a shop head
A = B + C + 11/2 of rivet shank
e = 11/2 of rivet shank
Special Rivets
There are many places on an aircraft where access to both sides of the riveted structure is impossible or limited.
This limits the use of a backing bar to form a shop head. Some non structural parts such as furnishings, floorings,
de-icing boots, the full strength of a solid shank is not necessary.
This necessitates use of special rivets. There are sometimes lighter than solid shank rivets, but are quite strong for
their purpose. There are several types of these special rivets with unique characteristics that require special tools
for installation and because of the installation where one head (shop head) cant be seen, they are called blind
rivets.
BEND ALLOWNACE AND SET BACK
In laying out any sheet of metal part which has a bend or flanged area, allowance must be calculated for the
amount of material/ metal required to make the bend. The amount of metal required to make a bend is referred
to as Bend Allowance.
Bend Allowance (B.A) is depended upon the material thickness, the radius of the bend and the number of degrees
of the bend.
The Empirical formula for BA,
BA = (0.01743 R + 0.00 78 T) N
Where; BA = Bend Allowance
R = Bend Radius
T = Material Thickness
N = Number of degrees of Bend
T = 0.065
R = 0.250
D1 = 7.50
D2 = 1.250
N = 90
Using the above information, calculate Bend Allowance and layout the work.
BA = (0.01743 R + 0.0078T) N
= (0.01743 x 0.250) + (0.0078 x 0.065) x 900
= (0.0043575 + 0.000507) x 900
= 0.0048645 x 90
= 0.438
The bend accuracy depends on the thickness of the material. We have seen that its calculation (B.A) depends on
the radius of the bend, the number of degrees of the bend and the material thickness.
B.A for 900 bend = R + T
Circumference of the circle = 2 x R + T
Since 900 is of a circle, we divide by 4, then BA = (2(R) + (1/2T)
Solution Procedure
1. Add half the thickness to get total Radius R.
R = R + T or radius of the circle at the neutral axis.
2. Calculate the circumference of the circle by multiplying by 2; = 2 x R + T.

3. Since 900 is of a circle, and then divide the whole equation by 4.
Characteristics of a Bend
When a sheet metal is bent, outside bend is under tension while as inner bend part is in compression. Where
compression and tension meet in the metal lies a plane neither under tension nor compression. This is the neutral
axis. It is approximately 44.5% of the metal thickness measured from inside the bend.
The bend begins and ends at the bend tangent lines and the length of the neutral axis between the two lines is
the bend allowance. Since the neutral axis does not change in length, the BA can be measured on the flat part of
the metal before it is bent.
The MLD given from end to end of the metal to the outer mould point OMP which is the intersection of the outer
mould lines after the part has been bent.
The amount of material saved by bending around a given radius is the setback.
METAL SHAPING PROCESSES
There are two main processes that are used to shape metal. These are:
1. Hot working process
This is a metal-shaping process carried out above the recrystallisation temperature of a metal.
2. Cold working process
This is a metal shaping process carried out below the recrystallisation temperature of the
metal/material.
Cold and Hot Working Processes
Most metals are shaped by hot working processes. This is so because hot metals are soft and more malleable and
hence require less energy to shape. Such processes use compression loads because metals use their ductility at
their hot working temperatures and any attempt to pull them through dies leads to their fracture. Therefore,
shaping processes that use tensile loads are cold working processes. But a cold working process requires frequent
annealing because the metal work hardens. Annealing increases production costs.
Cold Working Process
This process uses both compressive and tensile loads. Processes under this are:
a. Drawing: which involves the pulling of a metal through a die such as in wire making.
b. Cold Rolling: a pressure process used in the manufacture of metal plate, sheet and strip.
Advantages of Cold Working Processes
(i)
Used to obtain desired combination of hardness and strength. Mild steel and most non-ferrous
metals can only be hardened and strengthened by cold working.
(ii)
Produces a smooth and clean surface finish. A hot working process leaves the surface scaly and
oxidized which has to be cleaned by such methods as acid pickling.
(iii)
Attains greater dimensional accuracy.
Note:
The main disadvantage is that a cold worked metal work hardens easily, needing interstage annealing and hence
increasing production costs.
Hot Working Process
At the hot working temperature, recrystallisation occurs simultaneously with deformation, hence the material
does not work harden it retains malleability and remains soft. Processes under this include;
a. Hot Rolling: a pressure method used for producing metal plates, strips and sheet.
b. Forging and Drop Forging: pressure method for producing relatively simple shapes with relatively
superior qualities with respect to costing.
c. Extrusion: a pressure process for producing rods and hollow sections.
d. Costing: this is the shaping of metal while in molten state.
Note
Whilst there are low production costs at the initial stages, this process has the following attributes;
(i). poor surface finish oxidized and scaly.
(ii). Poor dimensional accuracy.
(iii). Requires surface cleaning.
(iv). Final products requires at least a cold work before passing into service.
METAL SHAPING PROCESSES
Hot Working Processes
A hot working process is a metal shaping process carries out above the recrystallisation temperature of a metal.
Some main hot working processes are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Forging
Drop Forging
Hot Rolling
Extrusion
Casting
1. Forging
This process involves hammering the metal into shape using simple tools such as tongs, swage and
an anvil.
2. Drop Forging
This is a process used for mass production of identical parts. The process uses a shaped two part-die
where one part is carried on the hammer and the other on the anvil.
The hammer drops onto the workpiece placed on the anvil. The hammer is power assisted.
3. Hot Rolling
In this process, an ingot is passed through a pair of rollers known as a two-high mill. The two high
mill breaks off a piece from the ingot and the broken off piece is then passed through a train of
rollers which reduce it to the desired shape and size.
The rollers which reduce the metal to final shape and dimension are known as Finishing Rollers. The
final operation is followed by cold rolling to improve dimensions and surface finish.
This process is used to manufacture metal plate sheet and metal foil.
4. Extrusion
In this process a hot metal is place in an extrusion container. It is then made to flow under pressure
through a die by a ram. The ram is driven by hydraulic pressure. The metal to be extruded is known
as the Billet. Before extrusion, the Billet is heated to its extrusion temperatures.
Extrusion temperatures for:
Al Al = 3500C 5000C
Brasses = 700 0C 8000C
Steels = 1100 0C 12500C
The process is used for producing round rods, thin rods for drawing into wires, hexagonal rods for parting off into
nuts and stress bearing parts in aircraft structures such as stringers of aluminum alloys.
COLD WORKING PROCESSES
A cold working process is a metal shaping process carried out below the recrystallisation temperature of a metal.
Some metals can only be hardened by cold working and as such, these metals are subjected to cold working after
a final hot working process to give them the required combination of hardness and strength.
Some shaping processes involve application of tensile stresses to the metal. At the hot working temperature the
metal is weak in tension and any attempts to pull the metal through a die results in the metal breaking.
Therefore, such metal shaping processes can best be carried out in a cold working process.
Cold working process produces dimensionally accurate components with clean surfaces.
Some cold working processes are;
1. Cold Rolling
2. Drawing
1. Cold Rolling
This is a process used for producing thin sheet, metal plate and foil. It uses cluster mills and four
high mills.
2. Drawing
This process involves pulling a metal through a die. Its used in the manufacture of rods, wire
tubular cross sections such as pipes.
and
In the manufacture of pipes, mandrels are used in the die.

Drawing dies are made from high carbon steel, tungsten molybdenum, steel etc.
CASTING
Casting is a material shaping process in which a liquid metal is poured into a shaped vessel known as a mould. On
solidifying the metal acquires the shape of the mould.
There are many casting processes and these are continuous casting, sand casting, die casting, centrifugal casting,
shell moulding, investment casting and full mould casting.
A casting is an object which after casting does not require further shaping processes. In our case we will consider
two casting processes and these are:
1. Sand casting
2. Centrifugal casting
1. Sand casting
In this process the casting mould is made of sand. A typical sand consists silica bonded with clay or
silica bonded with 3 4% bentonite with 10% cement and 3 5% water hardened by passing Co 2
through the mould.
Process
This begins with moulding of foundry sand in a moulding box around a pattern so that the pattern can be
withdrawn to leave a cavity of the correct shape.
The mould is split into two or more parts to facilitate removal of the pattern. The top part is known as the COPE
and the bottom the DRAG.
The pattern together with the drag is placed on the moulding board.
Moulding sand is then riddled over the pattern in the moulding box, rammed around the pattern so that the sand
particles adhere together. When the drag is filled, the sand is cut level with the edge of the drag and the assembly
turned over.
A layer of parting sand (dry clay free material) is sifted onto the mould surface. The sand prevents the cope
adhering to the drag and form a rough surface.
The cope is then placed over the drag together with risers and runner pins and the ingate is held steady by a little
sand pressed around it. The runner admits molten metal into the mould and the riser forms a reservoir from
which molten metal feeds back into the casting as it solidifies and shrinks. The cope is riddled with sand and
rammed around the pattern riser and runner and ingate pins. Later the pattern, ingate, runner and riser pins are
removed and the cope repositioned on the drag, then the required object is cast by pouring molten metal down
the runner.
2. Centrifugal Casting
In this process, the mould is a metal cylinder. The mould spins at high speed while also moving along
an axis away from the fixed pouring spout and at the same time molten metal is poured into the
cylinder.

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MODULE 1

TITLE: WORKSHOP THEORY AND PRACTICE

Apply General Shop Safety and Preventive Maintenance.

Time and money will be lost

NOTE: Horse plays not allowed in the workshop.

i. Grip your work in a vice firmly.

RULES FOR USING A DRILL PRESS

SAFETY WHEN USING A GRINDING MACHINE

Wear goggles when using the machine.

SITUATIONS THAT REQUIRE FIRST AID

Description of tool or equipment

Clean and check

The usual affected metal is magnesium in aircraft wheels and brakes.

Note: the first 4 are not recommended for aircraft use.

Ensure appropriate extinguisher in appropriate place.

an inch, or th of a centimeter. Rules are made from a variety of material such as

th inch wide and

th of an inch thick, inch wide and 6

Bevel edge rule

Three callipers can be identified and these are;

The outside calliper

(i) The inside caliper

This is the instrument used to make internal measurements such as the

This is an instrument used for transferring measurements from a rule or other

THE VERNIER CALLIPER

READING THE METRIC UNIT VERNIER

Clean before and after use to reduce the effect of rust.

HACKSAWS AND SAWING

Entire blade hard, i.e. hardened for accurate cut.

Always fit blade with teeth facing/pointing forward.

Four types are identified here and these are:

Always wear safety glasses/goggles when chiseling.

Mill tool sharpening

FILE CONVEX SHAPE

Grip handle with fore finger resting on blade.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TAP

The Button Die

Shank; may be parallel or tapered.

Angles and Clearances

Common drill errors

Cast Iron (soft)

Aluminum 200-300 f.p.m

Single open ended

8. Tool post wrench

4. Expansion Chucking Reamer

N.B. never use torque wrench for loosening fasteners.

Specific Users of Hammers

5. Ratchet flat, Phillips, reed and prince

1. Bit must be as thick as slot in screws head

3. Drive pin punch

4. Use a hydraulic puller for bigger jobs.

SWAGING AND SPLICING

Driving the lathe

The major parts are:

1. The solid rivets and

3. Shear Tear-Out Failure

The size of rivet required and style.

Edge Distance = 2 x of the rivet shank (min)

2. Calculate the circumference of the circle by multiplying by 2; = 2 x R + T.

In the manufacture of pipes, mandrels are used in the die.

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