7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

Hydrostatics
Afriendlysciencewithconcretepostulates,straightforwardanalysis,ancienthistoryandusefulapplications

Introduction
Hydrostaticsisaboutthepressuresexertedbyafluidatrest.Anyfluidismeant,notjustwater.ItisusuallyrelegatedtoanearlychapterinFluidMechanics
texts,sinceitsresultsarewidelyusedinthatstudy.Thestudyyieldsmanyusefulresultsofitsown,however,suchasforcesondams,buoyancyandhydraulic
actuation,andiswellworthstudyingforsuchpracticalreasons.Itisanexcellentexampleofdeductivemathematicalphysics,onethatcanbeunderstoodeasily
andcompletelyfromaveryfewfundamentals,andinwhichthepredictionsagreecloselywithexperiment.Therearefewbetterillustrationsoftheuseofthe
integralcalculus,aswellastheprinciplesofordinarystatics,availabletothestudent.Agreatdealcanbedonewithonlyelementarymathematics.Properly
adapted,thematerialcanbeusedfromtheearliestintroductionofschoolscience,givinganexcellentexampleofaquantitativesciencewithmanypossibilities
forhandsonexperiences.
Thedefinitionofafluiddeservescarefulconsideration.Althoughtimeisnotafactorinhydrostatics,itentersintheapproachtohydrostaticequilibrium.Itis
usuallystatedthatafluidisasubstancethatcannotresistashearingstress,sothatpressuresarenormaltoconfiningsurfaces.Geologyhasnowshownusclearly
thattherearesubstanceswhichcanresistshearingforcesovershorttimeintervals,andappeartobetypicalsolids,butwhichflowlikeliquidsoverlongtime
intervals.Suchmaterialsincludewaxandpitch,ice,andevenrock.Aballofpitch,whichcanbeshatteredbyahammer,willspreadoutandflowinmonths.Ice,
atypicalsolid,willflowinaperiodofyears,asshowninglaciers,androckwillflowoverhundredsofyears,asinconvectioninthemantleoftheearth.Shear
earthquakewaves,withperiodsofseconds,propagatedeepintheearth,thoughtherocktherecanflowlikealiquidwhenconsideredovercenturies.Therateof
shearingmaynotbestrictlyproportionaltothestress,butexistsevenwithlowstress.Viscositymaybethephysicalpropertythatvariesoverthelargest
numericalrange,competingwithelectricalresistivity.
Thereareseveralfamiliartopicsinhydrostaticswhichoftenappearinexpositionsofintroductoryscience,andwhicharealsoofhistoricalinterestthatcan
enliventheirpresentation.Thefollowingwillbediscussedbrieflyhere:

Pressureanditsmeasurement
Atmosphericpressureanditseffects
Maximumheighttowhichwatercanberaisedbyasuctionpump
Thesiphon
Discoveryofatmosphericpressureandinventionofthebarometer
Hydraulicequivalentofalever
Pumps
Forcesonasubmergedsurface
TheHydrostaticParadox
Buoyancy(Archimedes'Principle)
MeasurementofSpecificGravity
References
Astudyofhydrostaticscanalsoincludecapillarity,theidealgaslaws,thevelocityofsound,andhygrometry.Theseinterestingapplicationswillnotbediscussed
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

1/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

inthisarticle.Atabeginninglevel,itmayalsobeinterestingtostudythevolumesandareasofcertainshapes,oratamoreadvancedlevel,theforcesexertedby
heavyliquidsontheircontainers.Hydrostaticsisaveryconcretesciencethatavoidsesotericconceptsandadvancedmathematics.Itisalsomucheasierto
demonstratethanNewtonianmechanics.

Pressure
Byafluid,wehaveamaterialinmindlikewaterorair,twoverycommonandimportantfluids.Waterisincompressible,whileairisverycompressible,butboth
arefluids.Waterhasadefinitevolumeairdoesnot.Waterandairhavelowviscositythatis,layersofthemslideveryeasilyononeanother,andtheyquickly
assumetheirpermanentshapeswhendisturbedbyrapidflows.Otherfluids,suchasmolasses,mayhavehighviscosityandtakealongtimetocometo
equilibrium,buttheyarenolessfluids.Thecoefficientofviscosityistheratiooftheshearingforcetothevelocitygradient.Hydrostaticsdealswithpermanent,
timeindependentstatesoffluids,soviscositydoesnotappear,exceptasdiscussedintheIntroduction.
Afluid,therefore,isasubstancethatcannotexertanypermanentforcestangentialtoaboundary.Anyforcethatitexertsonaboundarymustbenormaltothe
boundary.Suchaforceisproportionaltotheareaonwhichitisexerted,andiscalledapressure.Wecanimagineanysurfaceinafluidasdividingthefluidinto
partspressingoneachother,asifitwereathinmaterialmembrane,andsothinkofthepressureatanypointinthefluid,notjustattheboundaries.Inorderfor
anysmallelementofthefluidtobeinequilibrium,thepressuremustbethesameinalldirections(ortheelementwouldmoveinthedirectionofleastpressure),
andifnootherforcesareactingonthebodyofthefluid,thepressuremustbethesameatallneighbouringpoints.Therefore,inthiscasethepressurewillbethe
samethroughoutthefluid,andthesameinanydirectionatapoint(Pascal'sPrinciple).Pressureisexpressedinunitsofforceperunitareasuchasdyne/cm2,
N/cm2(pascal),pounds/in2(psi)orpounds/ft2(psf).Theaxiomthatifacertainvolumeoffluidweresomehowmadesolid,theequilibriumofforceswouldnotbe
disturbed,isusefulinreasoningaboutforcesinfluids.
Onearth,fluidsarealsosubjecttotheforceofgravity,whichactsverticallydownward,andhasamagnitude=gperunitvolume,wheregistheacceleration
ofgravity,approximately981cm/s2or32.15ft/s2,isthedensity,themassperunitvolume,expresseding/cm3,kg/m3,orslug/ft3,andisthespecificweight,
measuredinlb/in3,orlb/ft3(pcf).Gravitationisanexampleofabodyforcethatdisturbstheequalityofpressureinafluid.Thepresenceofthegravitationalbody
forcecausesthepressuretoincreasewithdepth,accordingtotheequationdp=gdh,inordertosupportthewaterabove.Wecallthisrelationthebarometric
equation,forwhenthisequationisintegrated,wefindthevariationofpressurewithheightordepth.Ifthefluidisincompressible,theequationcanbeintegrated
atonce,andthepressureasafunctionofdepthhisp=gh+p0.Thedensityofwaterisabout1g/cm3,oritsspecificweightis62.4pcf.Wemayaskwhatdepth
ofwatergivesthenormalsealevelatmosphericpressureof14.7psi,or2117psf.Thisissimply2117/62.4=33.9ftofwater.Thisisthemaximumheightto
whichwatercanberaisedbyasuctionpump,or,morecorrectly,canbesupportedbyatmosphericpressure.
ProfessorJamesThomson(brotherofWilliamThomson,LordKelvin)illustratedtheequalityofpressurebya"curtainring"
analogyshowninthediagram.Asectionofthetoroidwasidentified,imaginedtobesolidified,anditsequilibriumwas
analyzed.Theforcesexertedonthecurvedsurfaceshavenocomponentalongthenormaltoaplanesection,sothepressuresat
anytwopointsofaplanemustbeequal,sincethefluidrepresentedbythecurtainringwasinequilibrium.Therighthandpart
ofthediagramillustratestheequalityofpressuresinorthogonaldirections.Thiscanbeextendedtoanydirectionwhatever,so
Pascal'sPrincipleisestablished.Thisdemonstrationissimilartotheusualoneusingatriangularprismandconsideringthe
forcesontheendandlateralfacesseparately.
Whengravityacts,theliquidassumesafreesurfaceperpendiculartogravity,whichcanbeprovedbyThomson'smethod.Astraightcylinderofunitcross
sectionalarea(assumedonlyforeaseinthearithmetic)canbeusedtofindtheincreaseofpressurewithdepth.Indeed,weseethatp2=p1+gh.Theupper
surfaceofthecylindercanbeplacedatthefreesurfaceifdesired.Thepressureisnowthesameinanydirectionatapoint,butisgreateratpointsthatlie
deeper.Fromthissamefigure,itiseasytoproveArchimedes'sPrinciple,thatthebuoyantforceisequaltotheweightofthedisplaced 2/13
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

deeper.Fromthissamefigure,itiseasytoproveArchimedes'sPrinciple,thatthebuoyantforceisequaltotheweightofthedisplaced
fluid,andpassesthroughthecenterofmassofthisdisplacedfluid.
Ingeniousgeometricargumentscanbeusedtosubstituteforeasier,butlesstransparentarguments
usingcalculus.Forexample,theforceonactingononesideofaninclinedplanesurfacewhose
projectionisABcanbefoundasinthediagramattheright.Oisthepointatwhichtheprolonged
projectionintersectsthefreesurface.ThelineAC'perpendiculartotheplaneismadeequaltothe
depthACofpointA,andlineBD'issimilarlydrawnequaltoBD.ThelineOD'alsopassesthrough
C',byproportionalityoftrianglesOAC'andOAD'.Therefore,thethrustFontheplaneistheweightof
aprismoffluidofcrosssectionAC'D'B,passingthroughitscentroidnormaltoplaneAB.Notethatthethrustisequaltothedensity
timestheareatimesthedepthofthecenterofthearea,butitslineofactiondoesnotpassthroughthecenter,butbelowit,atthecenter
ofthrust.Thesameresultcanbeobtainedwithcalculusbysummingthepressuresandthemoments,ofcourse.

AtmosphericPressureanditsEffects
Supposeaverticalpipeisstoodinapoolofwater,andavacuumpumpappliedtotheupperend.Beforewestartthepump,thewaterlevelsoutside
andinsidethepipeareequal,andthepressuresonthesurfacesarealsoequal,andequaltotheatmosphericpressure.Nowstartthepump.Whenit
hassuckedalltheairoutabovethewater,thepressureonthesurfaceofthewaterinsidethepipeiszero,andthepressureatthelevelofthewater
ontheoutsideofthepipeisstilltheatmosphericpressure.Ofcourse,thereisthevapourpressureofthewatertoworryaboutifyouwanttobe
precise,butweneglectthiscomplicationinmakingourpoint.Werequireacolumnofwater33.9fthighinsidethepipe,withavacuumaboveit,to
balancetheatmosphericpressure.Nowdothesamethingwithliquidmercury,whosedensityat0Cis13.5951timesthatofwater.Theheightof
thecolumnis2.494ft,29.92in,or760.0mm.ThisdefinitionofthestandardatmosphericpressurewasestablishedbyRegnaultinthemid19th
century.InBritain,30inHg(inchesofmercury)hadbeenusedpreviously.
Asapracticalmatter,itisconvenienttomeasurepressuredifferencesbymeasuringtheheightofliquidcolumns,apracticeknownasmanometry.
Thebarometerisafamiliarexampleofthis,andatmosphericpressuresaretraditionallygivenintermsofthelengthofamercurycolumn.Tomake
abarometer,thebarometrictube,closedatoneend,isfilledwithmercuryandtheninvertedandplacedinamercuryreservoir.Correctionsmustbemadefor
temperature,becausethedensityofmercurydependsonthetemperature,andthebrassscaleexpands,forcapillarityifthetubeislessthanabout1cmin
diameter,andevenslightlyforaltitude,sincethevalueofgchangeswithaltitude.Thevaporpressureofmercuryisonly0.001201mmHgat20C,soacorrection
fromthissourceisnegligible.Fortheusualcaseofamercurycolumn(=0.000181792perC)andabrassscale(&alpha=0.0000184perC)thetemperature
correctionis2.74mmat760mmand20C.Beforereadingthebarometerscale,themercuryreservoirisraisedorlowereduntilthesurfaceofthemercuryjust
touchesareferencepoint,whichismirroredinthesurfacesoitiseasytodeterminetheproperposition.
Ananeroidbarometerusesapartiallyevacuatedchamberofthinmetalthatexpandsandcontractsaccordingtotheexternalpressure.Thismovementis
communicatedtoaneedlethatrevolvesinadial.Thematerialsandconstructionarearrangedtogivealowtemperaturecoefficient.Theinstrumentmustbe
calibratedbeforeuse,andisusuallyarrangedtoreaddirectlyinelevations.Ananeroidbarometerismucheasiertouseinfieldobservations,suchasin
reconnaisancesurveys.Inaparticularcase,itwouldbereadatthestartofthedayatthebasecamp,atvariouspointsinthevicinity,andthenfinallyatthe
startingpoint,todeterminethechangeinpressurewithtime.Theheightdifferencescanbecalculatedfromh=60,360log(P/p)[1+(T+t64)/986)feet,where
Pandpareinthesameunits,andT,tareinF.
Anabsolutepressureisreferredtoavacuum,whileagaugepressureisreferredtotheatmosphericpressureatthemoment.Anegativegaugepressureisa
(partial)vacuum.Whenavacuumisstatedtobesomanyinches,thismeansthepressurebelowtheatmosphericpressureofabout30in.Avacuumof25inches
isthesamethingasanabsolutepressureof5inches(ofmercury).Pressuresareveryfrequentlystatedintermsoftheheightofafluid.Ifitisthesamefluid
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

3/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

whosepressureisbeinggiven,itisusuallycalled"head,"andthefactorconnectingtheheadandthepressureistheweightdensityg.IntheEnglishengineer's
system,weightdensityisinpoundspercubicinchorcubicfoot.Aheadof10ftisequivalenttoapressureof624psf,or4.33psi.Itcanalsobeconsideredan
energyavailabilityofftlbperlb.Waterwithapressureheadof10ftcanfurnishthesameenergyasanequalamountofwaterraisedby10ft.Waterflowingina
pipeissubjecttoheadlossbecauseoffriction.
Takeajarandabasinofwater.Fillthejarwithwaterandinvertitunderthewaterinthebasin.Nowraisethejarasfarasyoucanwithoutallowingitsmouthto
comeabovethewatersurface.Itisalwaysalittlesurprisingtoseethatthejardoesnotemptyitself,butthewaterremainswithnovisiblemeansofsupport.By
blowingthroughastraw,onecanputairintothejar,andasmuchwaterleavesasairenters.Infact,thisisafamousmethodofcollectinginsolublegasesinthe
chemicallaboratory,orforsupplyinghummingbirdfeeders.Itisgoodtoremindoneselfofexactlythebalanceofforcesinvolved.
Anotherapplicationofpressureisthesiphon.ThenameisGreekforthetubethatwasusedfordrawingwinefromacask.Thisisatubefilled
withfluidconnectingtwocontainersoffluid,normallyrisinghigherthanthewaterlevelsinthetwocontainers,atleasttopassovertheirrims.
Inthediagram,thetwowaterlevelsarethesame,sotherewillbenoflow.Whenasiphongoesbelowthefreewaterlevels,itiscalledan
invertedsiphon.Ifthelevelsinthetwobasinsarenotequal,fluidflowsfromthebasinwiththehigherlevelintotheonewiththelowerlevel,
untilthelevelsareequal.Asiphoncanbemadebyfillingthetube,closingtheends,andthenputtingtheendsunderthesurfaceonbothsides.
Alternatively,thetubecanbeplacedinonefluidandfilledbysuckingonit.Whenitisfull,theotherendisputinplace.Theanalysisofthe
siphoniseasy,andshouldbeobvious.Thepressurerisesorfallsasdescribedbythebarometricequationthroughthesiphontube.Thereisobviouslyamaximum
heightforthesiphonwhichisthesameasthelimitofthesuctionpump,about34feet.Invertedsiphons(whicharereallynotsiphonsatall)aresometimesusedin
pipelinestocrossvalleys.Differencesinelevationareusuallytoogreattouseregularsiphonstocrosshills,sothefluidsmustbepressurizedbypumpssothe
pressuredoesnotfalltozeroatthecrests.TheQuabbinAqueduct,whichsupplieswatertoBoston,includespumpedsiphons.
Asthelevelinthesupplycontainerfalls,thepressuredifferencedecreases.Insomecases,onewouldlikeasourcethat
wouldprovideaconstantpressureattheoutletofthesiphon.Aningeniouswaytoarriveatthisisshowninthefigure,
Mariotte'sBottle.Theplugmustsealtheairspaceatthetopverywell.Apartialvacuumiscreatedintheairspacebythefall
ofthewaterlevelexactlyequaltothepressuredifferencebetweenthesurfaceandtheendoftheopentubeconnectingtothe
atmosphere.Thepressureatthispointis,therefore,maintainedatatmosphericwhilewaterisdelivered.Theheadavailableat
thenozzleasshownisequaltoh.ThiswouldmakeagoodexperimenttoverifytherelationV=(2gh)sincehandthe
horizontaldistancereachedbythejetforagivenfallcanbothbemeasuredeasily,orthedischargefromanorifice.
Theterm"siphon"isoftenusedinadifferentsense.Inbiology,asiphonissimplyatubularstructure.Athermalsiphonisa
meanstocirculatealiquidbyconvection.Asodasiphonisasourceofcarbonatedwater,whilesiphoncoffee(orvacuum
coffee)ismadeinanapparatuswherethesteamfromboilingwaterpusheshotwaterupabovethecoffeeandfilter,andthen
thevacuumcausesthewatertodescendagainwhentheheatisremoved(inventedbyLffin1830).Noneofthese
arrangmentsisactuallyasiphoninthephysicist'ssense.Thesiphontubeusedinirrigation,andperhapsThomson'ssiphon
recorderof1858,dousethesiphonprinciple.Theoccasionalspelling"syphon"isnotsupportedbytheGreeksource.
Insomecases,especiallyinplumbing,siphonactionisnotdesired,especiallywhenitmayallowdirtywatertomixwithclean.Inthesecases,vacuumbreakers
maybeusedathighpointstopreventthis.Siphonsworkbecauseofatmosphericpressure,andwouldnotoperateinavacuum.Inthecaseofwater,pressure
reductionwouldeventuallyreachthevaporpressureandthewaterwouldboil.Mercury,whichhasaverylowvaporpressure,wouldsimplyseparateleavinga
Torricellianvacuum.Thesiphonwouldbereestablishedifthepressureisrestored.Aliquidcolumnisunstableunderanegativepressure.
EvangelistaTorricelli(16081647),Galileo'sstudentandsecretary,amemberoftheFlorentineAcademyofExperiments,inventedthemercurybarometerin
1643,andbroughttheweightoftheatmospheretolight.Themercurycolumnwasheldupbythepressureoftheatmosphere,notbyhorrorvacuiasAristotlehad
supposed.Torricelli'searlydeathwasablowtoscience,buthisideaswerefurtheredbyBlaisePascal(16231662).Pascalhadabarometercarriedupthe1465
mhighPuydeDme,anextinctvolcanointheAuvergnejustwestofhishomeofClermontFerrandin1648byPrier,hisbrotherin
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

4/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

mhighPuydeDme,anextinctvolcanointheAuvergnejustwestofhishomeofClermontFerrandin1648byPrier,hisbrotherin
law.Pascal'sexperimentumcrucisisoneofthetriumphsofearlymodernscience.ThePuydeDmeisnotthehighestpeakinthe
MassifCentralthePuydeSancy,at1866mis,butitwastheclosest.ClermontisnowthecentreoftheFrenchpneumaticsindustry.
TheremarkableOttovonGuericke(16021686),BurgomeisterofMagdeburg,Saxony,tookupthecause,makingthefirstvacuum
pump,whichheusedinvividdemonstrationsofthepressureoftheatmospheretotheImperialDietatRegensburgin1654.Famously,
heevacuatedasphereconsistingoftwowellfittinghemispheresaboutafootindiameter,andshowedthat16horses,8oneachside,
couldnotpullthemapart.Anoriginalvacuumpumpandhemispheresfrom1663areshownattheright(photoeditedfromthe
DeutschesMuseumseelinkbelow).Healsoshowedthatairhadweight,andhowmuchforceitdidrequiretoseparateevacuated
hemispheres.Then,inEngland,RobertHooke(16351703)madeavacuumpumpforRobertBoyle(16271691).ChristianHuygens
(16291695)becameinterestedinavisittoLondonin1661andhadavacuumpumpbuiltforhim.Bythistime,Torricelli'sdoctrinehadtriumphedoverthe
Church'ssupportforhorrorvacui.Thiswasoneofthefirstvictoriesforrationalphysicsovertheillusionsofexperience,andiswellworthconsideration.
Pascaldemonstratedthatthesiphonworkedbyatmosphericpressure,notbyhorrorvacui,bymeansoftheapparatusshownattheleft.
Thetwobeakersofmercuryareconnectedbyathreewaytubeasshown,withtheupperbranchopentotheatmosphere.Asthelarge
containerisfilledwithwater,pressureonthefreesurfacesofthemercuryinthebeakerspushesmercuryintothetubes.Whenthestate
shownisreached,thebeakersareconnectedbyamercurycolumn,andthesiphonstarts,emptyingtheupperbeakerandfillingthelower.
Themercuryhasbeenopentotheatmosphereallthistime,soiftherewereanyhorrorvacui,itcouldhaveflowedinatwilltosoothe
itself.
ThemmofmercuryissometimescalledatorrafterTorricelli,andPascalalsohasbeenhonouredbyaunitofpressure,anewtonper
squaremetreor10dyne/cm2.Acubiccentimetreofairweighs1.293mgunderstandardconditions,andacubicmetre1.293kg,soairis
bynomeansevenapproximatelyweightless,thoughitseemsso.Theweightofasphereofairassmallas10cmindiameteris0.68g,easilymeasurablewitha
chemicalbalance.Thepressureoftheatmosphereisalsoconsiderable,likebeing34ftunderwater,butwedonotnoticeit.Abaris106dyne/cm2,verycloseto
astandardatmosphere,whichis1.01325bar.Inmeteorolgy,themillibar,mb,isused.1mb=1.333mmHg=100Pa=1000dyne/cm2.Akilogramforceper
squarecentimeteris981,000dyne/cm2,alsoclosetooneatmosphere.InEurope,ithasbeenconsideredapproximately1atm,asintirepressuresandother
engineeringapplications.Aswehaveseen,inEnglishunitstheatmosphereisabout14.7psi,andthisfigurecanbeusedtofindotherapproximateequivalents.
Forexample,1psi=51.7mmHg.InBritain,tonspersquareinchhasbeenusedforlargepressures.Thetoninthiscaseis2240lb,nottheAmericanshortton.1
tsi=2240psi,1tsf=15.5psi(aboutanatmosphere!).
Thefluidinquestionhereisair,whichisbynomeansincompressible.Asweriseintheatmosphereandthepressuredecreases,theairalsoexpands.Tosee
whathappensinthiscase,wecanmakeuseoftheidealgasequationofstate,p=RT/M,andassumethatthetemperatureTisconstant.Thenthechangeof
pressureinachangeofaltitudedhisdp=gdh=(pM/RT)gdh,ordp/p=(Mg/RT)dh.Thisisalittlehardertointegratethanbefore,buttheresultislnp=
Mgh/RT+C,orln(p/p0)=Mgh/RT,orfinallyp=p0exp(Mgh/RT).Inanisothermalatmosphere,thepressuredecreasesexponentially.ThequantityH=RT/Mg
iscalledthe"heightofthehomogeneousatmosphere"orthescaleheight,andisabout8kmatT=273K.Thisquantitygivestheroughscaleofthedecreaseof
pressurewithheight.Ofcourse,therealatmosphereisbynomeansisothermalclosetotheground,butcoolswithheightnearlylinearlyatabout6.5C/kmupto
analtitudeofabout11kmatmiddlelatitudes,calledthetropopause.Abovethisisaregionofnearlyconstanttemperature,thestratosphere,andthenatsome
higherleveltheatmospherewarmsagaintonearitsvalueatthesurface.Ofcourse,therearevariationsfromtheaveragevalues.Whenthetemperatureprofile
withheightisknown,wecanfindthepressurebynumericalintegrationquiteeasily.
Theatmosphericpressureisofgreatimportanceinmeteorology,sinceitdeterminesthewinds,whichgenerallymoveatrightanglestothedirectionofmostrapid
changeofpressure,thatis,alongtheisobars,whicharecontoursofconstantpressure.Certaintypicalweatherpatternsareassociatedwithrelativelyhighand
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

5/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

relativelylowpressures,andhowtheyvarywithtime.Thebarometricpressuremaybegiveninpopularweatherforecasts,thoughfewpeopleknowwhattodo
withit.Ifyouliveatahighaltitude,yourlocalweatherreportermayreportthepressuretobe,say,29.2inches,butifyouhavearealbarometer,youmaywell
findthatitiscloserto25inches.Atanelevationof1500m(nearDenver,orthetopofthePuydeDme),theatmosphericpressureisabout635mm,andwater
boilsat95C.Infact,altitudeisquiteaprobleminmeteorology,sincepressuresmustbemeasuredatacommonleveltobemeaningful.Thebarometric
pressuresquotedinthenewsarereducedtosealevelbystandardformulas,thatamounttoassumingthatthereisacolumnofairfromyourfeettosealevelwith
acertaintemperaturedistribution,andaddingtheweightofthiscolumntotheactualbarometricpressure.Thisisonlyanarbitrary'fix'andleadstosomestrange
conclusions,suchasthepermanentwinterhighsabovehighplateausthatarereallyimaginary.

TheHydraulicLever
Acylinderandpistonisachamberofvariablevolume,amechanismfortransformingpressuretoforce.IfAistheareaofthe
cylinder,andpthepressureofthefluidinit,thenF=pAistheforceonthepiston.Ifthepistonmovesoutwardsadistancedx,then
thechangeinvolumeisdV=Adx.TheworkdonebythefluidinthisdisplacementisdW=Fdx=pAdx=pdV.Ifthemovement
isslowenoughthatinertiaandviscosityforcesarenegligible,thenhydrostaticswillstillbevalid.Aprocessforwhichthisistrueis
calledquasistatic.Nowconsidertwocylinders,possiblyofdifferentareasAandA',connectedwitheachotherandfilledwith
fluid.Forsimplicity,supposethattherearenogravitationalforces.Thenthepressureisthesame,p,inbothcylinders.Ifthefluidisincompressible,thendV+
dV'=0,sothatdW=pdV+pdV'=Fdx+F'dx'=0.Thissaystheworkdoneononepistonisequaltotheworkdonebytheotherpiston:theconservationof
energy.TheratiooftheforcesonthepistonsisF'/F=A'/A,thesameastheratiooftheareas,andtheratiosofthedisplacementsdx'/dx=F/F'=A/A'isin
theinverseratiooftheareas.Thismechanismisthehydrostaticanalogueofthelever,andisthebasisofhydraulicactivation.
ThemostfamousapplicationofthisprincipleistheBramahhydraulicpress,inventedin1785byJosephBramah(17481814),whoalsoinventedmanyother
usefulmachines,includingalockandatoilet.Now,itwasnotveryremarkabletoseethepossibilityofahydraulicpresswhatwasremarkablewastofinda
waytosealthelargecylinderproperly.ThiswasthecrucialproblemthatBramahsolvedbyhisleathersealthatwasheldagainstthecylinderandthepistonby
thehydraulicpressureitself.
Inthepresenceofgravity,p'=p+gh,wherehisthedifferenceinelevationofthetwocylinders.Now,p'dV'=dV(p+gh)=pdV(dV)gh,orthenet
workdoneintheprocessisp'dV'+pdV=dMgh,wheredMisthemassoffluiddisplacedfromthelowercylindertotheuppercylinder.Again,energyis
conservedifwetakeintoaccountthepotentialenergyofthefluid.Pumpsareseentofallwithintheprovinceofhydrostaticsiftheiroperationisquasistatic,
whichmeansthatdynamicorinertiaforcesarenegligible.

Pumps
Pumpsareusedtomoveorraisefluids.Theyarenotonlyveryuseful,butareexcellentexamplesofhydrostatics.Pumpsareoftwogeneraltypes,hydrostaticor
positivedisplacementpumps,andpumpsdependingondynamicforces,suchascentrifugalpumps.Herewewillonlyconsiderpositivedisplacementpumps,
whichcanbeunderstoodpurelybyhydrostaticconsiderations.Theyhaveapiston(orequivalent)movinginacloselyfittingcylinder,andforcesareexertedon
thefluidbymotionofthepiston.Wehavealreadyseenanimportantexampleofthisinthehydraulicleverorhydraulicpress,whichwehavecalledquasistatic.
Thesimplestpumpisthesyringe,filledbywithdrawingthepistonandemptiedbypressingitbackin,asitsportisimmersedinthefluidorremovedfromit.
Morecomplicatedpumpshavevalvesallowingthemtoworkrepetitively.Theseareusuallycheckvalvesthatopentoallowpassageinonedirection,andclose
automaticallytopreventreverseflow.Therearemanykindsofvalves,andtheyareusuallythemosttroubleproneandcomplicatedpartofapump.Theforce
pumphastwocheckvalvesinthecylinder,oneforsupplyandtheotherfordelivery.Thesupplyvalveopenswhenthecylindervolumeincreases,thedelivery
valvewhenthecylindervolumedecreases.Theliftpumphasasupplyvalve,andavalveinthepistonthatallowstheliquidtopassarounditwhenthevolumeof
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

6/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

thecylinderisreduced.Thedeliveryinthiscaseisfromtheupperpartofthecylinderwhichthepistondoesnotenter.Diaphragmpumpsareforcepumpsin
whichtheoscillatingdiaphragmtakestheplaceofthepiston.Thediaphragmmaybemovedmechanically,orbythepressureofthefluidononesideofthe
diaphragm.
Somepositivedisplacementpumpsareshownattheright.Theforceandliftpumpsaretypically
usedforwater.Theforcepumphastwovalvesinthecylinder,whiletheliftpumphasaonevalve
inthecylinderandoneinthepiston.Themaximumlift,or"suction,"isdeterminedbythe
atmosphericpressure,andeithercylindermustbewithinthisheightofthefreesurface.Theforce
pump,however,cangiveanarbitrarilylargepressuretothedischargedfluid,asinthecaseofa
dieselengineinjector.Anozzlecanbeusedtoconvertthepressuretovelocity,toproduceajet,
asforfirefighting.Firefightingforcepumpsusuallyhadtwocylindersfeedingonereceiver
alternately.Theairspaceinthereceiverhelpedtomakethewaterpressureuniform.
Thethreepumpsontherightaretypicallyusedforair,butwouldbeequallyapplicabletoliquids.
TheRootsblowerhasnovalves,theirplacetakenbytheslidingcontactbetweentherotorsand
thehousing.TheRootsblowercaneitherexhaustareceiverorprovideairundermoderate
pressure,inlargevolumes.Thebellowsisaveryolddevice,requiringnoaccuratemachining.
Thesinglevalveisinoneorbothsidesoftheexpandablechamber.Anothervalvecanbeplacedatthenozzleifrequired.Thevalvecanbeapieceofsoftleather
heldclosetoholesinthechamber.Thebicyclepumpusesthevalveonthevalvestemofthetireorinnertubetoholdpressureinthetire.Thepiston,whichis
attachedtothedischargetube,hasaflexiblesealthatsealswhenthecylinderismovedtocompresstheair,butallowsairtopasswhenthemovementis
reversed.Diaphragmandvanepumpsarenotshown,buttheyactthesamewaybyvaryingthevolumeofachamber,anddirectingtheflowwithcheckvalves.
Pumpswereappliedtothedewateringofmines,averynecessaryprocessasminesbecamedeeper.Newcomen'satmosphericenginewasinventedtosupplythe
powerforpumping.ThefirstenginemayhavebeenerectedinCornwallin1710,buttheDudleyCastleengineof1712ismuchbetterknownandthoroughly
documented.ThefirstpumpsusedinCornwallwerecalledbucketpumps,whichwerecognizeasliftpumps,withthepistonssomewhatmiscalledbuckets.They
pumpedontheupstroke,whenaclackinthebottomofthepipeopenedandallowedwatertoenterbeneaththepiston.Atthesametime,thepistonliftedthe
columnofwateraboveit,whichcouldbeofanylength.Thepistoncouldonly"suck"water33ft,or28ftmorepractically,ofcourse,butthisoccurredatthe
bottomoftheshaft,sothiswasonlyalimitonthepistonstroke.Onthedownstroke,aclackinthebucketopened,allowingittosinkthroughthewatertothe
bottom,whereitwouldbereadytomakeanotherlift.
Moresatisfactoryweretheplungerpumps,alsoplacedatthebottomoftheshaft.Aplungerdisplacedvolumeinachamber,forcingthewaterinitthrougha
checkvalveuptheshaft,whenitdescended.Whenitrose,waterenteredthepumpchamberthroughaclack,asinthebucketpump.Onlythetopoftheplunger
hadtobepackeditwasnotnecessarythatitfitthecylinderaccurately.Inthiscase,theengineatthesurfaceliftedtheheavypumprodsontheupstroke.When
theatmosphericenginepistonreturned,theheavytimberpumprodsdidtheactualpumping,bornedownbytheirweight.
Aspecialapplicationforpumpsistoproduceavacuumbyexhaustingacontainer,calledthereceiver.Hawksbee'sdualcylinderpump,designedinthe18th
century,isthefinalformoftheairpumpinventedbyGuerickeby1654.Agoodpumpcouldprobablyreachabout510mmHg,thelimitsetbythevalves.The
cooperationofthecylindersmadethepumpmucheasiertoworkwhenthepressurewaslow.Inthediagram,pistonAisdescending,helpedbythepartial
vacuumremainingbelowit,whilepistonBisrising,fillingwiththelowpressureairfromthereceiver.Thebelljarreceiver,inventedbyHuygens,isshown
previously,acumbersomeglobewastheusualreceiver.Tate'sairpumpisa19thcenturypumpthatwouldbeusedforsimplevacuumdemonstrationsandfor
utilitypurposesinthelab.Ithasnovalvesonthelowpressureside,jsutexhaustvalvesV,V',soitcouldprobablyreachabout1mmHg.Itisoperatedbypushing
andpullingthehandleH.Atthepresentday,motordrivenrotarysealpumpssealedbyrunninginoilareusedforthesamepurpose.AttherightisSprengel's
pump,withthevalvesreplacedbydropsofmercury.Smallamountsofgasaretrappedatthetopofthefalltubeasthemercurydrops,andmovesslowlydown
thefalltubeasmercuryissteadilyadded,comingoutatthebottomcarryingtheairwithit.Thelengthofthefalltubemustbegreaterthanthebarometricheight,
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

7/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

ofcourse.Theoretically,avacuumofabout1mcanbeobtainedwithaSprengelpump,butitisveryslow
andcanonlyevacuatesmallvolumes.Later,Langmuir'smercurydiffusionpump,whichwasmuchfaster,
replacedSprengelpumps,andledtooildiffusionpumpsthatcanreachveryhighvacua.
Thecolumnofwaterorhydrostaticengineistheinverseoftheforcepump,
usedtoturnalargehead(pressure)ofwaterintorotarymotion.Itlookslikea
steamengine,withvalvesoperatedbyvalvegear,butofcourseisnotaheat
engineandcanbeofhighefficiency.However,itisnotofashighefficiency
asaturbine,andismuchmorecomplicated,buthastheadvantagethatitcan
beoperatedatvariablespeeds,asforlifting.Afewveryimpressivecolumn
ofwaterenginesweremadeinthe19thcentury,buttheywereneverpopular
andremainedrare.RichardTrevithick,famousforhighpressuresteam
engines,alsobuilthydrostaticenginesinCornwall.Thephotographatthe
rightshowsacolumnofwaterenginebuiltbyGeorgvonReichenbach,and
placedinservicein1917.ThisenginewasexhibitedintheDeutsches
MuseuminMnchenaslateas1977.Itwasusedtopumpbrineforthe
Bavarianstatesaltindustry.Asearchofthemuseumwebsitedidnotreveal
anyevidenceofit,butagooddrawingofanotherbrinepump,withfour
cylindersanddrivenbyawaterwheel,alsobuiltbyvonReichenbachwasfound.Thismachine,aSolehebemaschine("brinelifting
machine"),enteredservicein1821.Ithadtwopressureoperatedpoppetvalvesforeachcylinder.Theseenginesarebrasstoresist
corrosionbythesaltwater.Waterpressureenginesmustbedesignedtakingintoaccounttheincompressibilityofwater,soboth
valvesmustnotcloseatthesametime,andabruptchangesofrateofflowmustnotbemade.Airchamberscanbeusedto
eliminateshocks.
GeorgvonReichenbach(17711826)ismuchbetterknownasanopticaldesignerthanasamechanicalengineer.HewasassociatedwithJosephFraunhofer,and
theydiedwithindaysofeachotherin1826.Hewasofanaristocraticfamily,andwasSalinenrat,ormanagerofthestatesaltworks,insoutheasternBavaria,
whichwascentredonthetownofReichenhall,nowBadReichenhall,nearSalzburg.Thenamederivesfrom"richinsalt."Thisfamoussaltregionhadsalt
springsflowingnearlysaturatedbrine,at24%to26%(saturatedis27%)salt,thatfromancienttimeshadbeenevaporatedoverwoodfires.Abrinepipelineto
Traunsteinwasconstructedin16171619,sincewoodfuelforevaporatingthebrinewasexhaustedinReichenhall.Thepipelinewasfurtherextendedto
Rosenheim,wheretherewasturfaswellaswood,in181810.VonReichenbachissaidtohavebuiltthispipeline,forwhichhedesignedawaterwheeldriven,
fourbarrelpump.MaximilianI,KingofBavaria,commissionedvonReichenbachtobringbrinefromBerchtesgaden,elevation530m,toReichenhall,elevation
470m,overasummit943mhigh.Thepumpshowninthephotographpumpedbrineoverthisline,enteringservicein1816.Freshwaterwasalsoallowedtoflow
downtothesaltbeds,andthebrinewasthenpumpedtothesurface.Thiswasamucheasierwaytominesaltthanundergroundmining.ThesaltindustryofBad
Reichenhallstilloperates,butitisnowJapaneseowned.

ForcesonSubmergedSurfaces
Supposewewanttoknowtheforceexertedonaverticalsurfaceofanyshapewithwaterononeside,assuminggravitytoact,andthepressureonthesurfaceof
thewaterzero.Wehavealreadysolvedthisproblembyageometricalargument,butnowweapplycalculus,whichiseasierbutnotasilluminating.Theforceon
asmallareadAadistancexbelowthesurfaceofthewaterisdF=pdA=gxdA,andthemomentofthisforceaboutapointonthesurfaceisdM=pxdA=
gx2dA.Byintegration,wecanfindthetotalforceF,andthedepthatwhichitacts,c=M/F.Ifthesurfaceisnotsymmetrical,thepositionofthetotalforcein
thetransversedirectioncanbeobtainedfromtheintegralofdM'=gxydA,themomentaboutsomeverticallineintheplaneofthesurface.Iftherehappensto
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

8/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

beapressureonthefreesurfaceofthewater,thentheforcesduetothispressurecanbeevaluatedseparatelyandaddedtothisresult.Wemustaddaforceequal
totheareaofthesurfacetimestheadditionalpressure,andamomentequaltotheproductofthisforceandthedistancetothecentroidofthesurface.
Thesimplestcaseisarectangulargateofwidthw,andheighth,whosetopisadistanceHbelowthesurfaceofthewater.Inthiscase,
theintegrationsareveryeasy,andF=gw[(h+H)2h2]/2=gH(H+2h)/2=g(h+H/2)Hw.Thetotalforceonthegateisequaltoits
areatimesthepressureatitscentre.M=gw[(h+H)3h3]/3=g(H2/3+Hh+h2)Hw,sothatc=(H2/3+Hh+h2)/(h+H/2).Inthe
simplecaseofh=0,c=2H/3,ortwothirdsofthewayfromthetoptothebottomofthegate.Ifwetaketheatmosphericpressureto
actnotonlyonthesurfaceofthewater,butalsothedrysideofthegate,thereisnochangetothisresult.Thisisthereasonatmospheric
pressureoftenseemstohavebeenneglectedinsolvingsubhproblems.
Consideracuriousrectangulartank,withonesideverticalbuttheoppositesideinclinedinwardsoroutwards.Thehorizontalforcesexertedby
thewateronthetwosidesmustbeequalandopposite,orthetankwouldscootoff.Ifthesideisinclinedoutwards,thentheremustbea
downwardsverticalforceequaltotheweightofthewateraboveit,andpassingthroughthecentroidofthiswater.Ifthesideisinclined
inwards,theremustbeanupwardsverticalforceequaltotheweightofthe'missing'wateraboveit.Inbothcases,theresultisdemandedby
ordinarystatics.Whatwehaveherehasbeencalledthe'hydrostaticparadox.'ItwasconceivedbythecelebratedFlemishengineerSimonStevin(15481620)of
Brugge,thefirstmodernscientisttoinvestigatethestaticsoffluidsandsolids.Considerthreetankswithbottomsofequalsizesandequalheights,filledwith
water.Thepressuresatthebottomsareequal,sotheverticalforceonthebottomofeachtankisthesame.Butsupposethatonetankhasverticalsides,onehas
sidesinclinedinward,andthirdsidesinclinedoutwards.Thetanksdonotcontainthesameweightofwater,yettheforcesontheirbottomsareequal!Iamsure
thatyoucanspottheresolutionofthisparadox.
Sometimestheforcesarerequiredoncurvedsurfaces.Theverticalandhorizontalcomponentscanbefoundbyconsideringtheequilibriumofvolumeswitha
planesurfaceequaltotheprojectedareaofthecurvedsurfaceinthatdirection.Thegeneralresultisusuallyaforceplusacouple,sincethehorizontaland
verticalforcesarenotnecessarilyinthesameplane.Simplesurfaces,suchascylinders,spheresandcones,mayoftenbeeasytosolve.Ingeneral,however,itis
necessarytosumtheforcesandmomentsnumericallyoneachelementofarea,andonlyinsimplecasescanthisbedoneanalytically.
Ifavolumeoffluidisaccelerateduniformly,theaccelerationcanbeaddedtotheaccelerationofgravity.Afreesurfacenowbecomesperpendiculartothetotal
acceleration,andthepressureisproportionaltothedistancefromthissurface.Thesamecanbedoneforarotatingfluid,wherethecentrifugalaccelerationisthe
importantquantity.Theearth'satmosphereisanexample.Whenairmovesrelativetotherotatingsystem,theCoriolisforcemustalsobetakenintoaccount.
However,thesearedynamiceffectsandarenotstrictlyapartofhydrostatics.

Buoyancy
Archimedes,sothelegendruns,wasaskedtodetermineifthegoldsmithwhomadeagoldencrownforHieron,TyrantofSyracuse,hadsubstitutedcheaper
metalsforgold.ThestoryistoldbyVitruvius.Asubstitutioncouldnotbedetectedbysimplyweighingthecrown,sinceitwascraftilymadetothesameweight
asthegoldsuppliedforitsconstruction.Archimedesrealizedthatfindingthedensityofthecrown,thatis,theweightperunitvolume,wouldgivetheanswer.
Theweightwasknown,ofcourse,andArchimedescunninglymeasureditsvolumebytheamountofwaterthatranoffwhenitwasimmersedinavesselfilledto
thebrim.Bycomparingtheresultsforthecrown,andforpuregold,itwasfoundthatthecrowndisplacedmorewaterthananequalweightofgold,andhad,
therefore,beenadulterated.
Thisstory,typicalofthecharmingwaysciencewasmademoreinterestinginclassicaltimes,mayormaynotactuallyhavetakenplace,butwhetheritdidornot,
Archimedestaughtthatabodyimmersedinafluidlostapparentweightequaltotheweightofthefluiddisplaced,calledArchimedes'Principle.Specificgravity,
theratioofthedensityofasubstancetothedensityofwater,canbedeterminedbyweighingthebodyinair,andtheninwater.Thespecificgravityistheweight
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

9/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

inairdividedbythelossinweightwhenimmersed.Thisavoidsthedifficultdeterminationoftheexactvolumeofthesample.
Toseehowbuoyancyworks,considerasubmergedbrick,ofheighth,widthwandlengthl.Thedifferenceinpressureontopandbottomofthebrickisgh,so
thedifferenceintotalforceontopandbottomofthebrickissimply(gh)(wl)=gV,whereVisthevolumeofthebrick.Theforcesonthesideshavenovertical
components,sotheydonotmatter.ThenetupwardforceistheweightofavolumeVofthefluidofdensity.Anybodycanbeconsideredmadeupofbrick
shapes,assmallasdesired,sotheresultappliesingeneral.Thisisjusttheintegralcalculusinaction,ortheapplicationofProfessorThomson'sanalogy.
Consideramaninarowboatonalake,withalargerockintheboat.Hethrowstherockintothewater.Whatistheeffectonthewaterlevelofthelake?
Supposeyoumakeadrinkoficewaterwithicecubesfloatinginit.Whathappenstothewaterlevelintheglasswhentheicehasmelted?
TheforceexertedbythewateronthebottomofaboatactsthroughthecentreofgravityBofthedisplacedvolume,or
centreofbuoyancy,whiletheforceexertedbygravityontheboatactsthroughitsowncentreofgravityG.Thislooks
badfortheboat,sincetheboat'sc.g.willnaturallybehigherthanthec.g.ofthedisplacedwater,sotheboatwilltendto
capsize.Well,aboardfloats,andcantelluswhy.Shouldtheboardstarttorotatetooneside,orheel,thedisplaced
volumeimmediatelymovestothatside,andthebuoyantforcetendstocorrecttherotation.Afloatingbodywillbestable
providedthelineofactionofthebuoyantforcepassesthroughapointMabovethec.g.ofthebody,calledthe
metacentre,sothatthereisarestoringcouplewhentheboatheels.Ashipwithanimproperlydesignedhullwillnot
float.Itisnotaseasytomakeboatsasitmightappear.
LetBobethecentreofbuoyancywiththeshipuprightthatis,itisthecentreofgravityofthevolumeVofthedisplaced
water.V=W,theweightoftheship.Iftheshipheelsbyanangle,awedgeshapedvolumeofwaterisaddedonthe
right,andanequalvolumeisremovedontheleft,sothatVremainsconstant.Thecentreofbuoyancyisthenmovedto
therighttopointB.WecanfindthexcoordinateofBbytakingmomentsofthevolumesabouttheyaxis.Therefore,V(BoB)=V(0)+momentoftheshaded
volumemomentoftheequalcompensatingvolume.IfdAisanelementofareainthey=0plane,thenthevolumeelementisxdA(thisautomaticallymakes
thevolumetotheleftofx=0negative),andthemomentisthistimesx.Notethatcontributionsfromx>0andx<0arebothpositive,astheyshouldbe.Now,x2dA
isjustthemomentofinertiaofthewaterlevelareaoftheship,I.Therefore,V(BoB)=I.Now,(BoB)/=(MBo),sinceforsmallthetangentisequalto
theangle.Finally,then,(MG)=(I/V)(BoG).
ThemomenttendingtorestoretheshiptouprightisWtimestherightingarmGZ=MGx.Therefore,theshiptendstorollwithacertainperiod.AsmallGM
meansasmallrestoringtorque,andsoalongrollperiod.AshipwithasmallGMissaidtobetender,whichisdesirableforpassengershipsandforgun
platforms(warships).Apassengershipmayhavearollperiodof28sorso,whileacargoshipmayhaveaperiodof1315s.AshipwithalargeGMandashort
rollperiodiscalledstiff.Metacentricheightsaretypically1to2metres.
ThecombinationofasmallGMandasmallfreeboardwasoriginallyconsidereddesirableforawarship,sinceitmadeastablegunplatformandpresenteda
minimumareathathadtobearmoured.HMSCaptain,anearlyturretironcladlauncedin1869,wassuchaship.TheshipcapsizedoffFinisterrein1870inagale
whenthetopsailswerenottakeninpromptlyenoughandtheshipheeledbeyondits14maximum.HMSSultan,abroadsideironcladlaunchedin1870,had
metacentricheightofonly3feetforstability,butprovedunsafeforAtlanticservice.
Thefreesurfaceeffectcangreatlyreducethestabilityofaship.Forexample,ifthehullhastakenwater,whentheshipheelsthisweightmovestothelowside
andcountersthebuoyancythatshouldgivetheshipstability.Longitudinalbafflesreducetheeffect(divisionintothirdsreducestheeffectbyafactorof9),and
areabsolutelynecessaryforshipsliketankers.In2006,imprudentshiftingofballastwatercausedMVCougarAce,withitscargoofMazdas,tolist80.The
shipwaseventuallyrighted,however,sinceitdidnottakewater.Alist,incidentally,isapermanentheel.
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

10/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

Longitudinalstabilityagainstpitchingisanalyzedsimilarly.
Archimedes'sPrinciplecanalsobeappliedtoballoons.TheMontgolfierbrothers'hotairballoonwithapaperenvelopeascendedfirstin1783(thebrothersgot
PiltredeRozierandChevalierd'Arlandestogoupinit).Such"fireballoons"werethenreplacedwithhydrogenfilledballoons,andthenwithballoonsfilled
withcoalgas,whichwaseasiertoobtainanddidnotdiffusethroughtheenvelopequiteasrapidly.Methanewouldbeagoodfiller,withadensity0.55thatofair.
Slackballoons,likemostlargeones,canbecontrastedwithtautballoonswithanelasticenvelope,suchasweatherballoons.Slackballoonswillnotbefilledfull
ontheground,andwillplumpupataltitude.Balloonsarenaturallystable,sincethecenterofbuoyancyisabovethecenterofgravityinallpracticalballoons.
Submarinesareyetanotherapplicationofbuoyancy,withtheirowncharacteristicproblems.
Smallneopreneornaturalrubberballoonshavebeenusedformeteorologicalobservations,withhydrogenfilling.A10gceilingballoonwasabout17"indiameter
wheninflatedtohaveafreeliftof40g.Itascended480ftthefirstminute,670ftinaminuteandahalf,and360ftperminuteafterwards,tofindcloudceilingsby
timing,upto2500ft,whenitsubtendedabout2'ofarc,easilyseeninbinoculars.Largesoundingballoonswereusedtoliftaradiosondeandaparachuteforits
recovery.AnAN/AMT2radiosondeofthe1950'sweighed1500g,thepaperparachute100g,andtheballoon350g.Theballoonwasinflatedtogive800gfreelift,
soitwouldrise700800ft/mintoanaltitudeofabout50,000ft(15km)beforeitburst.Thisballoonwasabout6ftindiameterwheninflatedatthesurface,3ftin
diameterbeforeinflation.Theinformationwasreturnedbyradiotelemetry,sotheballoondidnothavetobefollowedoptically.Ofintermediatesizewasthepilot
balloon,whichwasfollowedwithatheodolitetodeterminewinddirectionsandspeeds.Atnight,apilotballooncouldcarryalightforceilingdeterminations.
Thegreatestproblemwithusinghydrogenforliftisthatitdiffusesrapidlythroughmanysubstances.Weatherballoonshadtobelaunchedpromptlyafterfilling,
orthedesiredfreeliftwouldnotbeobtained.Heliumisalittlebetterinthisrespect,butitalsodiffusesrapidly.Theliftobtainedwithheliumisalmostthesame
aswithhydrogen(density4comparedto2,whereairis28.97).However,heliumisexceedinglyrare,andonlyitsunusualoccurrenceinnaturalgasfromKansas
makesitavailable.Greatcaremustbetakenwhenfillingballoonswithhydrogentoavoidsparksandtheaccumulationofhydrogeninair,sincehydrogenis
exceedinglyflammableandexplosiveoverawiderangeofconcentrations.Heliumhasthegreatadvantagethatitisnotinflammable.
Thehydrogenforfillingweatherballoonscamefromcompressedgasincylinders,fromthereactionofgranulatedaluminiumwithsodiumhydroxideandwater,
orfromthereactionofcalciumhydroxidewithwater.Thechemicalreactionsare2Al+2NaOH+2H2O2NaAlO2+3H2,orCaH2+2H2OCa(OH)2+
2H2.Inthefirst,siliconorzinccouldbeusedinsteadofaluminium,andinthesecond,anysimilarmetalhydride.Bothareratherexpensivesourcesofhydrogen,
butveryconvenientwhenonlysmallamountsarerequired.Mosthydrogenismadefromthecatalyticdecompositionofhydrocarbons,orthereactionofhotcoke
withsteam.Electrolysisofwaterisanexpensivesource,sincemoreenergyisusedthanisrecoveredwiththehydrogen.Anyenthusiasmfora"hydrogen
economy"shouldbetemperedbythefactthattherearenohydrogenwells,andallthehydrogenmustbemadewithaninputofenergyusuallygreaterthanthat
availablefromthehydrogen,andoftenwiththeappearanceofcarbon.Althoughabout60,000Btu/lbisavailablefromhydrogen,comparedto20,000Btu/lbfrom
gasoline,hydrogencompressedto1000psirequires140timesasmuchvolumeforthesameweightasgasoline.Fortheenergycontentofa13gallongasoline
tank,a600gallonhydrogentankwouldberequired.Thecriticaltemperatureofhydrogenis32K,soliquidstorageisoutofthequestionforgeneraluse.

MeasurementofSpecificGravity
Thespecificgravityofamaterialistheratioofthemass(orweight)ofacertainsampleofittothemass(orweight)ofanequalvolumeofwater,the
conventionalreferencematerial.Inthemetricsystem,thedensityofwateris1g/cc,whichmakesthespecificgravitynumericallyequaltothedensity.Strictly
speaking,densityhasthedimensionsg/cc,whilespecificgravityisadimensionlessratio.However,incasualspeechthetwoareoftenconfounded.InEnglish
units,however,density,perhapsinlb/cuftorpcf,isnumericallydifferentfromthespecificgravity,sincetheweightofwateris62.5lb/cuft.
Thingsarecomplicatedbythevariationofthedensityofwaterwithtemperature,andalsobytheconfusionthatgaveusthedistinctionbetweenccandml.The
milliliteristhevolumeof1.0gofwaterat4C,bydefinition.Theactualvolumeof1.0gofwaterat4Cis0.999973cm3bymeasurement.Sincemostdensities
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

11/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

arenotknown,orneeded,tomorethanthreesignificantfigures,itisclearthatthisdifferenceisofnopracticalimportance,andthemlcanbetakenequaltothe
cc.Thedensityofwaterat0Cis0.99987g/ml,at200.99823,andat100C0.95838.Thetemperaturedependenceofthedensitymayhavetobetakeninto
considerationinaccuratework.Mercury,whileweareatit,hasadensity13.5955at0C,and13.5461at20C.
Thebasicideainfindingspecificgravityistoweighasampleinair,andthenimmersedinwater.ThenthespecificgravityisW/(WW'),ifWistheweightin
air,andW'theweightimmersed.Thedenominatorisjustthebuoyantforce,theweightofavolumeofwaterequaltothevolumeofthesample.Thiscanbe
carriedoutwithanordinarybalance,butspecialbalances,suchastheJollybalance,havebeencreatedspecificallyforthisapplication.Addinganextraweight
tothesampleallowsmeasurementofspecificgravitieslessthan1.
Apycnometerisaflaskwithaclosefittinggroundglassstopperwithafineholethroughit,soagivenvolumecanbeaccuratelyobtained.Thenamecomesfrom
theGreeks,awordmeaning"density."Iftheflaskisweighedempty,fullofwater,andfullofaliquidwhosespecificgravityisdesired,thespecific
gravityoftheliquidcaneasilybecalculated.Asampleintheformofapowder,towhichtheusualmethodofweighingcannotbeused,canbeputintothe
pycnometer.Theweightofthepowderandtheweightofthedisplacedwatercanbedetermined,andfromthemthespecificgravityofthepowder.
Thespecificgravityofaliquidcanbefoundwithacollectionofsmallweighted,hollowspheresthatwilljustfloatincertainspecificgravities.Theclosest
spheresthatwilljustfloatandjustsinkputlimitsonthespecificgravityoftheliquid.ThismethodwasonceusedinScotlandtodeterminetheamountofalcohol
indistilledliquors.Sincethedensityofaliquiddecreasesasthetemperatureincreases,thespheresthatfloatareanindicationofthetemperatureoftheliquid.
Galileo'sthermometerworkedthisway.
Abetterinstrumentisthehydrometer,whichconsistsofaweightedfloatandacalibratedstemthatprotrudesfromtheliquidwhenthefloatisentirelyimmersed.
Ahigherspecificgravitywillresultinagreaterlengthofthestemabovethesurface,whilealowerspecificgravitywillcausethehydrometertofloatlower.The
smallcrosssectionalareaofthestemmakestheinstrumentverysensitive.Ofcourse,itmustbecalibratedagainststandards.Inmostcases,thegraduations
("degrees")arearbitraryandreferenceismadetoatabletodeterminethespecificgravities.Hydrometersareusedtodeterminethespecificgravityofleadacid
batteryelectrolyte,andtheconcentrationofantifreezecompoundsinenginecoolants,aswellasthealcoholcontentofwhiskey.

References
J.T.Bottomley,Hydrostatics(London:WilliamCollins,1882).Foundinausedbookshopfor10p($0.20).For"schoolscience,"withnocalculusbutexcellent,
painstakingexplanationandpracticalapplications.142pp.
S.L.Loney,ElementsofHydrostatics(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,1956)2nded.(1904).Alsoforschools,253pp.Somecalculusinanappendix.
R.L.DaughertyandJ.B.Franzini,FluidMechanics,6thed.(NewYork:McGrawHill,1965).Chapter2.Atypicalengineeringtreatmentinaclassictext,of
coursewithcalculus.
Formoreinformationonthebarometeranddiffusionpump,seethearticleonMercury.
ThewebsiteoftheDeutschesMuseumispositivelyexcellent.Thisisthebestsciencemuseumintheworld.Ithasnotbecomemostlyamediumofentertainment
andadvertising,assomanyothershave,butwhereyoucanstillseeoriginalandunusualartifacts.Thewebsitecontainsactualinformationforothersthan
children,andiswellillustrated.Unfortunately,itdoesnothaveillustrationsofmostoftheexhibits,onlyselectedones,soitdoesnotmakeitpossibletovisitthe
museumfromwhereyouare.Sucharesourcewouldbeverywelcome,andwouldriseaboveinternetshallowness.KnowingGermanhelpsalot,ofcourse,but
thereisrandomEnglishhereandthere.
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

12/13

7/16/2016

Hydrostatics

A.Wolf,AHistoryofScience,TechnologyandPhilosophyinthe16thand17thCenturies,2nded.,Vol.I(Gloucester,MA:PeterSmith,1968).Theindexisin
VolII.
J.C.Poggendorff,GeschichtederPhysik,(1878).FacsimilereprintbyZentralAntiquariatderDDR,1964.

ReturntoTechIndex
ComposedbyJ.B.Calvert
Created11May2000
Lastrevised5January2007

http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm

13/13