Energy band diagrams

In the atoms, the larger the radius, the higher the electron potential energy
Hence, electron position can be described either by radius or by its potential
energy
In the semiconductor crystal: the atom orbits OVERLAP; radius-based
description becomes impractical. Energy-based description works well:
The highest orbit filled with electrons becomes the VALENCE BAND
The higher orbit (nearly empty) becomes the CONDUCTION BAND

Single atom
Excited electrons cannot move

Crystal
Excited electrons can move (free electrons)

Energy band diagrams

Free electron

free electrons

Conductance energy band

Valence energy band

holes

Bandgap (or forbidden energy)

Hole

Optical processes in semiconductors:

radiation and absorption
Related electrical processes:
electron - hole pair generation and recombination

Absorption
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair generation
The photon with the energy exceeding the bandgap energy of
semiconductor can be absorbed.
The photon disappears; the photon energy excites the electron
from the valence band into the conduction band.
As a result, one e-h pair is being created
Photon
absorption
E = h = g

Radiation
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair recombination
When the excited electron meets the hole in the valence band, it
may occupy that place. As a result the e-h pair disappear; this
process is called recombination.
During recombination, the electron energy is released as a
photon with the energy closed to the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor.

Photon
Photon
emission
absorption
E = h = g
E = h = g

Electron and hole concentrations under illumination

We define n0 and p0 as the electron and hole concentrations
in the absence of illumination (dark concentrations).
n and p are the additional concentrations generated by light.

Note that in the equilibrium for ANY semiconductor,

np = ni2
Under illumination:
np (n+n0) (n+ p0) > ni2

Generation rate
When the semiconductor is under CONSTANT illumination,
the photons are being absorbed at a constant rate;
absorbed photons GENERATE electron- hole pairs
Therefore the concentration of e-h pairs
MUST linearly increase with the time.
The GENERATION RATE,
G, is the number of electron-hole pair generated per unit time:
n = p = G t;
How does the semiconductor sample
come to a steady-state condition under illumination?

Recombination rate
The probability of electron and hole "annihilation",
or the RECOMBINATION rate,
is proportional to both electron AND hole concentrations:

R ~ n p = r n p
Therefore, when n and p increase due to illumination,
the RECOMBINATION rate, R, also increases.
The e-h concentration increases
until the increasing recombination rate would compensate it.
Under the steady state condition we have:

G = R;

Steady-state e-h pair concentration

G = R;
R = r n p
The steady-state concentration of photo-electrons (and photo-holes):

G = r n p

n p = G /r

>

np (n+n0) (n+ p0)

Under strong illumination, n>>n0 and n>> p0
np n2 >

G = r n2:

n = (G/ r)1/2

Spontaneous and Excessive

Recombination Rate
In case of direct electron - hole recombination

The spontaneous recombination rate in the equilibrium as

Electron and hole LIFETIME

The recombination rate R is often expressed as R = n

The lifetime, , determines the mean time an electron

spends before recombining with hole.
As follows from
at very high excitation level, n >> n0, p0

At low excitation level, n << n0, p0

Example
Optical beam irradiating an intrinsic semiconductor (GaAs)
produces 0.51023 cm-3/s electron-hole pairs.
The steady state concentration of photoelectrons is n = 1014 cm-3.
1) Find the electron /hole recombination lifetime .
2) Find the radiative recombination coefficient Br

Solution
In steady state,
G=R
The recombination rate,

Therefore,
The lifetime

R=
G=

n
=
G

n
1014 cm3
9
= =
=
2

10
s = 2ns
23
3 1
G 0.5 10 cm s

Solution
In GaAs, ni ~ 105 cm-3, therefore, n >> n0.
In this case,

1
1
6
3 1
Br =
= 14 3
=
5

10
cm
s
9
n r 10 cm 2 10 s

Radiative and nonradiative recombination

Nonradiative recombination
typically does not produce
photons;
The electron energy is being
transferred to phonons, i.e.
into the heat.

Radiative and nonradiative recombination

When both radiative and nonradiative recombination processes
take place in semiconductor,