THREADEDFASTENERS

Thefundamentaloperationinmanufactureisthecreationofshapethis
includesassembly,whereanumberofcomponentsarefastenedorjoined
togethereitherpermanentlybyweldingforexampleordetachablyby
screws,nutsandboltsandsoon.Sincethereissuchavarietyofshapesin
engineeringtobeassembled,itishardlysurprisingthatthereismorevariety
indemountablefastenersthaninanyothermachineelement.Fastenersbased
uponscrewthreadsarethemostcommon,soitisimportantthattheir
performanceisunderstood,andthelimitationsofthefastenedassemblies
appreciated.
Therearetwodistinctusesforscrewthreadsandtheyusuallydemand
differentbehaviourfromthethreads:

apowerscrewsuchasalatheleadscreworthescrewinacarlifting
jackwhichtransformsrotarymotionintosubstantiallinearmotion(or
viceversaincertainapplications),and
athreadedfastenersimilartoanutandboltwhichjoinsanumberof
componentstogetheragainbytransformingrotarymotionintolinear
motion,thoughinthiscasethetranslationissmall.

Atypicalhexagonheadedboltandnutareshownat(i).Thediameterofthe
boltshankisusuallythesameastheoutsidediameterthemajordiameter
orbrieflysizeofthethread.Theradiusedfilletatthejunctionofshank
andheadreducesstressconcentration.
Theshankdiameterofa'waisted'bolt(ii)islessthanthethreaddiameter
thusallowingaradiusedthreadrunoutwhichreducesstressconcentration
beneficialinfatigueapplications.Theassemblyillustratedincorporatesa
washerunderthenutwhichpromotesuniformityofcontactminimising
damagetotheunderlyingpartsandagainlesseningstressconcentration.The

boltheadmaybeequippedwithanoptionalwasherface.Abolt's'grip'is
thecombinedthicknessofthefastenedparts.
Ascrew(iii)issimilartoaboltthenamesareoftenlooselyinterchanged
thoughstrictlyaboltisequippedwithanutwhichisrotatedtotightenthe
assembly,whereasascrewisitselfrotatedandengageswithathreaded(or
'tapped')holeinastationarycomponentsuchasanengineblockcasting.
Thescrewillustratedhasnoshank,beingthreadedrightup
tothehead.Thereisagreatvarietyofscrewheadforms
available.
Theubiquitoussocketheadedsetscrewshownhereis
tightenedbyahexagonwrenchratherthanbyaspanner.
Astud(iv)hasnoheadandisthreadedatbothends.Theendsarenot
necessarilythesame.Oneendisscrewedintooneofthecomponentsusually
beforethesecondcomponentisassembled.Thesketchillustratesalso:
o

o
o
o

aclearanceholethroughacomponent,typically1520%largerthan
thebolt/studsizetofacilitateassemblyandtoclearanyshank/head
fillet;
atappedholewhichisdrilledsmallerthantherootorminor
diameterofthethreadseetheenlargement(v)below;
theillustratedtappedholeisblind,extendsdeeperthanthestudand
endsinaconicalpointof120oapproximately;
astud'sdepthofengagementistypically11/4to11/2timesitssize;
athreadedlengthsufficientforthenuttobetightenedwhilstleavinga
coupleofthreads'exposed'(ie.notengaged)tocaterforvariationsin
thicknessoftheassembledcomponentsthoughtoomuchexposed
threadshouldbe
avoided;
athin'locknut'may
bejammedagainst
theordinarynutto
assistassemblyor
toprevent

looseningunderseverevibration,
thoughresistancetoinadvertent
looseningisusuallyeffectedbya
threadlockingfluid,alockwasheroralocknutsuchasshownhere:
Screwsmaybesuppliedcompletewithcaptivelockwashertoease
assemblytheyarethenknownas'sems'andtheycomeinmany
forms,includingselftappingscrewsforjoiningsheetmetal.

Salientgeometricfeaturesofthethreadareillustratedin(v).Thedistance
betweensimilarpointsonadjacentthreadsisthethread'spitch.
TheloadontheboltFbpassesfromthenutgraduallythroughtheengaged
threadsintothebolt,howeverthewholeloadmustpassthroughtransverse
crosssectionsXXattheexposedthreadsoutsidethenut.Neglectingstress
concentration,thetensilestressinwayoftheexposedthreadsistherefore:
(1)=Fb/AswhereAsisthestressareaafunctionofthread
sizeandgeometry.
Sincethestressareaislessthanthecrosssectionalareaofanormal(non
reduced)shank,theexposedthreadsareusuallythemostcriticallyloaded
partoftheassemblythisiswhyfailureofthreadedjointsoccursmost
commonlyclosetothenutface.
Athreadcanbelikenedtoapieceofstringwoundinatighthelixarounda
cylinderoraroundaconicalfrustuminthecaseofpipethreaddesignedto
eliminateleakage.
Whenanutonascrewisrotatedbyoneturn,ittravelsalongthescrewa
distanceknownastheleadL.Developingoneturnofthethreadatthe
meandiameterdm(theaverageofmajorandminordiameters)givesthe
leadangle(orhelixangle)astan=L/dm.
Powerscrewsmayemploymultiplethreads,orstarts,soL=p number
ofstartsasillustrated.Fastenersontheotherhandarealmostinvariably
singlestart(L=p).Theyarealsorighthandedtoavoidconfusionin

tightening,thoughLHscrewsappearin
turnbucklesandincertainbicyclepartswheretheprevailingtorquewould
tendtoloosenRHfasteners.

Threadgeometry
Athread'system'isasetofbasicthreadproportionswhichisscaledto
differentscrewsizestodefinethethreadgeometry.Whitworth,Sellers,
BritishStandardPipe(BSP)arejustthreeofthemanysystemswhich
proliferatedbeforetheadoptionoftheISOMetricthreadsystem.Sincethis
lastisnowuniversal,italoneisexaminedhere.
ThebasicprofileofISOMetricthreadsisbuiltupfromcontiguous
equiangulartrianglesofheighthdisposedsymmetricallyaboutapitchline
whichbecomesthepitchcylinderofdiameterd2whentheprofileis
rotatedabouttheaxistoformthethread.Thedistancebetweenadjacent
trianglesthepitchisp=2h/3.Thetipsofthetrianglesaretruncated
byh/8toformthemajordiameter(size)dofthethread,andthebases
aretruncatedbyh/4toformtheminordiameterd1.Itfollowsthatd1=
d5h/4=d1.08p.Thisleadstotheruleofthumbforsuitabletapping
sizedrillsinnormalmaterials:dtapping=dp.
Thebasicprofilebecomesamaximummaterialprofileforexternalthreads
(onscrews)andinternalthreads(innuts)throughtheuseofsuitableradii
andtolerances,sothatthereisadequateclearancewheninternalandexternal
threadsengage.Therelativelylargeradiusattheminordiameterofexternal
threadstendstoequalisethestrengthsofexternalandinternalthreads.AS
1721setsoutcomprehensivegeometricdataincludingfitsandtolerances,
howeverknowledgeofthesemanydetailsisnotrequiredhere.
Atitsmostbasic,athreaddefinitioncomprisesacombinationofsizeand
correspondingpitch.ThusM14x1.25referstoaMetricthreadwhose
majordiameterdis14mmandwhosepitchpis1.25mm.Thestressarea
ofanexternalthreadcorrespondstoadiameterds=d13/12h,thatisAs=

/4(d0.9382p)2.Othersalientfeaturesfollowfromtheunderlying
geometry.

MostthreadedfastenersingeneralengineeringaremanufacturedtotheISO
MetricCoarsePitch(FirstPreference)SeriesoutlinedinTable1.Fine
pitchandconstantpitchseriesareusedforspecialpurposessuchasIC
enginesparkplugsandexternallythreadedthinwalledpipes.
The60othreadformisnotsuitableforpowerscrewswhichtransformmotion
andwhichthereforemusthavehighefficiency.The'square'threadoffersthe
bestefficiencybutisgenerallyimpractical.The'Acme'threadformoffers
thebestcompromisebetweenefficiency,easeofmanufacture,assemblyand
weartakeupusingsplitnuts.ThestressareaofAcmethreadsisbasedupon
theaverageoftheminorandmeandiameters:ds=d3/4p.
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last updated January 2001

doug@mech.uwa.edu.au

Loadsinanelasticboltedassembly
Thesafetyofathreadedfastenerdependsupontheactualloadonitandthe
maximumloaditcanwithstand.Thelatterhasbeenconsideredabove.Since
thefastenerispartofanindeterminateassemblyitisnownecessaryto
analysesuchanassemblytofindoutjustwhatistheactualloadonthe
fasteneritself.
Theanalysisisverysimilartothatcarriedoutinanearlierchapterinthe
contextofindeterminateassemblies.

Thenutandboltb(i)areusedtoconnecttogetherthreejointmembersj1,
j2andj3(ii).Aftertighteningthenutbyaknownamount,theexternal
loadPisappliedaxiallytoj1andj2,andtendstoseparatethejoint
members.Jointseparationmustusuallybeavoided,soexaminationofthe
assemblyhastwomajorgoals:

todeterminetheassembly'stendencytowardsseparation,and
toascertainthesafetyofallcomponentsoftheassembly.

Theloadoneachcomponentisafunctionoftheinitialtighteningandthe
externalload,butthecomponentloadscannotbefoundimmediatelybecause
theassemblyisstaticallyindeterminatethisindeterminacymustfirstbe
resolvedbeforeseparationorsafetycanbeaddressed.Resolutionrequires

considerationofcompatibility,equilibriumandtheconstitutivelawsof
alldeformablecomponents,whosebehaviourhereisassumedtobeelastic,
frictionlessandisothermal.
Compatibility
Showninsection(iii)istheunloadedfreeassemblywiththenut
'snubbed'(fingertight)thatisthenuthasbeentightenedtocloseup
allgapsintheassemblywithoutinducingappreciableloads.An
imaginarymarkissituatedonthethreadadistancefromthenut
underside.Aftertightening,thismarkwillcoincidewiththenutface,
sorepresentsthedistancemovedbythenutalongtheboltthread
duringthetighteningoperation.Aftertighteningandloadingbythe
externalforce,thedispositionoftheassemblyelementsisshown
muchexaggeratedin(iv).Theextensionoftheboltisbwhilethe
compressionofthejointjisthesumofitselements'contractions,ie.
j=j1+j2+j3.
Fromthegeometryof(iii)and(iv),compatibilitynecessitates:
=b+j
Equilibrium
Thefreebodyoftheboltandnut(v)illustratestheunknownforcesat
thebolt'stwocontacts.TheupperFbistheaxialresultantofthe
uniformlydistributedpressureexertedbythetopsurfaceofj1over
theannularareaunderthebolthead.Theothercontacttheupper
surfaceofthenutbearingontheundersideofj2yieldsasimilar
pressureresultantwhosemagnitudemustalsobeFbforequilibrium
ofthebolt.
Thefreebodyofthejointelementj3in(vi)showstheunknown
pressureresultantFjduetoannularcontactwithitsneighbours.The
reactionstotheaforementionedFbandFjappearontheremaining
freebodiesj1andj2in(vi)fromeitherofwhichresults:
P=FbFj
EvidentlytheboltisundertensionFb.
Partsofthejointcomponentsj1andj2incontactwiththenutandbolt
arealsosubjectedtotheboltloadFb,howeverforthecase
considered,themajorityofthesecomponents,andallintermediate

componentssuchasj3,aresubjectedtothecompressiveload
Fjonly.Weshallhereassumethatalljointcomponentsare
whollycompressedbyFjthisapproximationshouldbe
reviewedforotherarrangements.
Constitutivelaws
BoltSinceinthepreviousstepstheboltisloadedbythetensileforce
Fbandundergoesthetensiledeformationb,then,ifkbistheaxial
stiffnessofthebolt:
Fb=kbb
JointSinceinthepreviousstepsthejointisloadedbythe
compressiveforceFjandundergoesthecompressivedeformationj,
then,ifkjisthestiffnessofthejointthatisofthethreejoint
elementsinseries1/kj=1/kj1+1/kj2+1/kj3:
Fj=kjj
Solvingthesefourequationsresolvestheindeterminacy,givingthe
componentloads:
(3a)Fb=Fi+Pke/kjwhere1/ke=1/kb+1/kj;Fi=ke
Fj=FiPke/kb
keistheequivalentstiffnessoftheassembly(ke<kb&kj).Evidentlythe
boltisinserieswiththejoint,ie.allfourcomponentsareinseries.Fiisthe
initialload(orpreload)intheassemblyduetotighteningthenutbyan
amount.
TheboltloadFbandthejointloadFjfrom(3a)areplottedin(vii)versus
theexternalloadP,withke<kb<kj.
WhentheexternalloadiszerothenFb=Fj=Fiandtheloadpathisaclosed
loopthroughallelementsinseries.Astheexternalloadincreasesthenthe
jointelementsbecomelesstightlycompressedFjdecreaseswhilethe
boltloadincreases.Forthecaseconsidered,therateofboltloadincreaseke
/kjislessthantherateofjointloaddecreaseke/kb,becausekb<kj.
Thegraphindicatesthatthejointforcebecomeszerowhentheexternalload
reachessomecriticalvalueP*.SinceFjcannotbetensile(negativebythe

presentconvention)itfollowsthatj3
mustlosecontactwiththeothertwo
jointcomponents.Thusjointseparation
occursandthebolttakesalltheexternalload,asmaybeconfirmedbyfree
bodies.So,afterseparation,Fj=0andFb=P.
Inthearrangementof(viii)theassemblyisrequiredtosustaintheexternal
loadPowithoutseparation,butthepreloadandstiffnessesaresuchthatPo
exceedstheseparationloadP*sotherequirementscannotbemetalarger
separationloadisnecessary.
OnewayofincreasingtheseparationloadistoincreasethepreloadFiasin
(ix).Theslopesoftheboltandjointloadcharacteristicsarenotalteredby
thisextratightening.Anotherapproach(x)usesthesamepreloadas(viii)
butwithanincreasedstiffnessratiokb/kj.Clearlyitiseasiertoalterthe
preload(withinthestrengthcapabilitiesoftheboltandjointcomponents)
thanitistoalterstiffnesses.
Inafatiguesituationwithgivenalternatingloadontheassembly,P,the
amplitudeofthedamagingfatigueloadontheboltFbisreducedasthe
slopeoftheFbPcharacteristicisdecreased(xi).Comparingthe
arrangement(ix)with(x)itisapparentthatwhendesigningforboltfatigue,
thelowslopearrangement(ix)ispreferablethatisarelativelylowbolt
stiffnesskbandhighpreloadFiaredesirable.
Thestiffnessofanelasticcomponentwhichissubjecteduniformlyto
tensionorcompressionis
k=F/=AE/L
Aboltmaybereckonedastwoelementsinseries,eachwithaconstant
crosssectionalareatheshank,andtheexposedthreadwhoseareaisthe
stressareaAs.Thelengthsoftheseshouldincludehalftheheadandnut
thicknessesrespectively,toallowforlocaldeformation.Thestiffnessof
shortboltsislesspredictablethanthatoflongbolts.
Agasketisathincompliantsheetrathersimilartoj3above,whichis
sandwichedbetweenotherjointcomponentstofillupmicroscopic
irregularitiesthuspreventingfluidleakage.Ifthefastenedcomponents

includeagasket,thendeterminationoftheirstiffnesscanpose
problemsweshallconsidergasketedjointsseparately
below.
Inametaltometal(nongasketed)joint,calculationofafastened
component'sstiffnessisstraightforwardifitisathintubeandtheexternal
loadisapplieduniformlyovertheannularendareaAasat(xii)butthis
isunusual.Morecommonlythecomponentissimilarto(xiii).Knownare
itsthicknessLandthefactthatthereisextendedreactivecontactoverthe
facewhichisnotincontactwiththeboltheadornutface.Thecomponent
maybemodelledasaconicalfrustum(xiv)ofdiameterDoatthesmallend
andconeangle,boredcylindricallywithdiameterDitoclearthebolt.
Thedeformationdofasmallelement,thicknessdx,willbe:
d=Fj/kx=Fj(L/EA)x=Fjdx/E/4[(Do+2x.tan)2Di2]
Integrating,thetotalcompressivedeformationoverlengthLisfoundto
be:
=(Fj/EDitan)ln[(DoDi+2Ltan)(Do+Di)/(Do+Di+2L
tan)(DoDi)]
Itisusualtoparticularisethisforsomeassumedconeanglesuchas30o,but
ageneralresulthasbeenobtainedbyWilemanopcitusingfiniteelements
onthebasisofDid(smallclearances)andDo1.5die.theouter
diameteroftheannularbearingareaunderthehexagonequalsthestandard
widthacrossflats,Table1.Wileman'sresultsmaybecorrelatedforsteelby:
(4)k=Fj/Ed(0.702+0.654d/L)/(10.12d/L);d/L2
Useof(4)presumesthatthereissufficientmaterialpresenttoallowthe
linesofforcetodevelopunfetteredbyfiniteboundaries.
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Copyright 1999-2000 Douglas Wright,

last updated 24 June 2000

doug@mech.uwa.edu.au

Screwthreadmechanics
Therearealwaysthreemajorcomponentsinpracticalapplicationsof
thescrewthreadmechanism:

thescrewagenericnameappliedtoasetscrew,leadscrew,
bolt,studorothercomponentequippedwithanexternalthread,
thenutreferstoanycomponentwhoseinternalthread
engagesthescrew,suchasthenutofanut&boltoralarge
stationarycastingwithatappedholeintowhichastudisscrewed,
and
thethrustbearingthatisthecontactsurfacebetweentwo
componentswhichrotatewithrespecttooneanother.Examples
ofthrustbearingsinclude:
a. theundersurfaceofascrewheadwhichisbeingtightened
byaspanner;
b. thesphericalseatingofaGclampscrewinthestationary
selfaligninganvil.

Anutcanspinandmovefreelyalongascrewwithoutcontactinganother
component,ie.withouttheneedforanythrustbearing,butathrustbearing
comesintoexistenceimmediatelycontactoccursandthemechanismisput
topracticaluse.
Clearlythereisrelativemotioninthethrustbearing,andalsobetweenthe
nutandthescrewandwherethereisrelativemotionthereisfriction.We
nowexaminetheroleoffrictionsinceitdominatesthebehaviourofthe
mechanismunlessspecial(read'expensive')meansaretakentominimise
itseffects.Whenconsideringfrictionitdoesn'tmatterwhichcomponent
rotatesandwhichisstationaryit'stherelativemotionwhichisimportant.
Weshallthereforeanalysethejackshownheretodeducethegeneraleffect
offrictiononscrewthreadbehaviour.

Thejack'sscrewisfixed;thenutisrotatedbyaspannerandtranslates
vertically.Thethrustcollar'sonlymotionisverticaltranslationasitis
preventedfromrotatingbycontactwiththeload,onecorneronlyofwhich
ispictured.Sincethereisrelativerotationbetweencontactingnutandcollar,
thecontactingsurfaceassumestheroleofthrustbearing.
Thenutshownhereinplanisincontactwiththreebodies:

thespannerexertsthetorqueTwhichtendstoraisetheload
(analogoustotighteninganutandbolt)
thescrewthreadwhichexertsthefrictionaltorqueTt,and
thethrustbearingwhichexertsthefrictionaltorqueTb.

WeareinterestedinthetighteningtorqueT,and,ifthenutisin
equilibriumthen
(i)T=Tt+Tb
fromwhichwecanevaluateTonceTtandTb
arefoundindividually.
Considerthethrustbearingfirst.Weshallassumethatthecontactsurfaceof
areaAisintheformofanarrowannulusofmeanradiusrbonwhichthe
uniformpressureisW/A,whereWistheloadsupportedbythe
mechanism.Ifthecoefficientoffrictioninthebearingisbthenthetorque
exertedbythefrictionalforceonanareaelementAisTb=bNrb=
brb(W/A)A.Integratingoverallthecontactarea
(ii)Tb=Wbrb
Considernowthethreadwhichissquare,ofmeanradiusrmandleadangle
.Thenutengagesthescrewwithfrictioncoefficientcorrespondingtoa
frictionangle=arctan.Thestaticandkineticcoefficientsoffriction
aretakentobeessentiallyequalforthispreliminaryanalysis.
WewishtofindthetorqueTtwhichmustbeexertedonthenuttooffset
threadfrictionandmaintaintheloadWinequilibriumthatiseitherstatic
ormovingatconstantspeed.Atorquewhichtendstoraisetheloadis
reckonedpositive;anegativetorqueisonewhichtendstolowertheload.

Asmallelementofthenutisshownbelowslidingorabouttoslideonthe
inclinedrampofthethread,thismotionbeingeitherupordownthethread.
Bothmotiondirectionsaresketched.Pisthesmallforceontheelement
duetothetorque,andtheelementsupportsasmallpartoftheloadW.
Thecontactforcecomponentsarethenormalandfrictionforces,Nand
Fthelatteropposingmotionormotiontendency.

Thenutelement
freebody

requiresfor
equilibrium...

N=Psin+Wcos

normaltoplane:

F=PcosW
F=Pcos+W

paralleltoplane:

sin
sin
Iftheelementismoving,oronthepointofmotion,thenF=N

andso
eliminatingF,
P=Wtan(+) P=Wtan()

N:
ThetotaltorqueTtisthesumrmPoveralltheidenticalnut

elements,ie.
(iii) ....ifmotion Tt=Wrmtan(+) Tt=Wrmtan()

(tendency)is
upwards
downwards
Whenraisingaloadthethreadinclinationisthuseffectivelysteepened
bythethreadfrictionangle.
Theupwardtighteningtorquefrom(iii)
isplottedhereagainstfrictioncoeffficient
foraleadangle,=0.25(14.3o).
Whenthereisnegligiblethreadfriction(
=0)thenTt/Wrm=tan=0.255,the
pointa.
Theequilibriumlineadcorrespondsto

incipientmotionupthethread;theequilibriumlineabecorrespondsto
incipientmotiondownthethread.Theareabetweentheselinesrepresents
stasis(F<N);theareasbeyondthelinescorrespondtonon
equilibrium,ie.toaccelerationthoughitshouldberealisedthatonlythread
frictionisbeingconsideredatthispoint.
Considerwhathappensifthecoefficientoffrictionis0.5forexample.
Beforeanytorqueisapplied(Tt=0)thenutisatrest,pointc.Thetorqueis
thereafterincreaseduntilatdthenutbreaksawayandrotatesupthethread
atconstantvelocity.Ifthetorqueweretoincreasefurtherthenthenutwould
accelerate.
Ifhoweveratcthetorqueweretoincreaseinanegativesenseto'undo'the
nut,assistedbytheloadthenwhenpointewasreachedthenutwould
breakawayandmovedownthethreadatuniformspeed.Anyfurther
increaseoftorqueinthenegativesensewouldleadtodownward
acceleration.
Thepointbissignificant.Itcorrespondstothecriticalcoefficientoffriction
fortheleadconcerned,c=tan,atwhichthenutisonthepointof
movingdownthethreadofitsownvolitionwithoutanytorqueapplied(Tt=
0).Further,if...
>cthenthethreadisselflockinginthatthenutcannotundobyitself,it
needstobeunscrewedbyadefinitenegativetorque;or
<cthenthethreadisoverhaulinginthatthenutwillunscrewbyitself
undertheactionoftheloadunlesspreventedbyapositivetightening
torque.
Clearlyselflockingbehaviourisessentialforthreadedfasteners.Carlifting
jackswouldnotbeofmuchuseiftheloadfellassoonastheoperating
handlewasreleasedso
theytoodemandself
lockingcharacteristics.
Someapplicationsofpower
screwsrequireoverhauling

behaviour.TheArchimedeandrill(above)andpump
actionscrewdrivers(below)incorporate
verylargeleadangleswhichguarantee
thatthecriticalfrictioncoefficientsare
largerthananyactualcoefficientlikelyto
beencountered.Sensitivelinearactuators
mayincorporaterecirculatingballscrewssuchasthat
illustratedonthelefttoreducethreadfrictiontolevelswhichgohandin
handwithoverhauling.
Efficiencyisimportantinrotary/linearmotiontransformationsuchas
providedbypowerscrews.Whilstactingagainstaload,theefficiencyofa
screwthreadalone(ie.neglectingthethrustbearing)is:
=WforagivenTt/WforthesameTtwithoutfriction
=tan/tan(+)from(iii)
Theeffectofleadandfrictiononthreadefficiencyisplottedhereas
expected,highefficienciesdemandverylowfriction.Alsoshownistheline
ofcriticalfriction.
Coefficientsoffrictionaround0.1to0.2maybeexpectedforcommon
materialsunderconditionsofordinaryserviceandlubricationsteelonsteel
forfasteners,andsteelonbronzeorcastironinthecaseofpowerscrews.
Specialcoatingsandsurfacetreatmentscanreducefrictionsignificantly.
Vibrationalsoreducesfrictionandcancausefastenerstounloosenunless
lockedasmentionedabove.
Leadanglesaround3oaretypicalofsinglestartpowerscrewswhichare
thereforesomewhatinefficientthisisonereasonformultiplestartscrews
withtheirassociatedlargeleads.

From(i),(ii)and(iii)thetotaltorquenecessarytoraisealoadWwhilst
overcomingthreadandthrustbearingfrictionis:
(2)T=W[rmtan(+)+brb]

Theforegoinganalysishasbeendevelopedforsquarethreads(=0),but(
iii)and(2)maybeappliedwithlittleerrortoAcmethreads(=29o),and
alsotoISOMetricfasteners(=60o)providedtheeffectofwedging
(analogoustoVbelts)isincludedthustheeffectivecoefficientofthread
frictiontobeusedin(2)issec(arctan(costan/2)),whichtendsto
sec/2forsmallleadangles.

Ajacksimilartotheaboveisanalysedinthisexample.

Staticfailure

TABLE2. STRENGTHOFSTEELBOLTS
4.6 5.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9
Weshallconcentrateon classno.
SuMPa
400 500 800 900 1000 1200
steelfasteners,which,
240 400 640 720 900 1080
becauseoftheirstrength SyMPa
225 380 590 650 830 970
andcheapness,constitute SpMPa
22 20 12 10 9
8
over90%ofallfasteners elong'n%
used.Steelsforcommercialfastenersaregradedintopropertyclassesasin
Table2.Eachclassnumberconsistsoftwofigures
o thefirstfigureisSu/100whereSuisthesteel'snominaltensile
ultimate(MPa)
o thesecondfigureistheratioSy/SuwhereSyisthenominal
0.2%offsetyieldstrength.
Minimummaterialstrengthsarenotlessthannominalvalues.
Itisdifficulttodeterminetheyieldofafullsizethreadedconnector(as
opposedtoacylindricaltestpiece)becauseofthedifferentstrainratesof
shank,threadandrunout.Forthisreasontheproofstressratherthanthe

yieldstressisusedasacriterionforfailureassessmentthe
proofstressSpisthelargeststresswhichdoesnotleadtoany
permanentset.Theproofloadofascrewmadefromaparticularmaterialis
themaximumloadthescrewcanwithstandwithoutpermanentdeformation,
andisgivenby(1)astheproductofstressarea(Table1)andproofstress
(Table2).Selectionofclass12.9shouldnotbeundertakenlightlyitshigh
strengthbegetsotherpotentialproblems.
Wehavenotedthattheelasticbehaviourofconnectedmembershasa
significanteffectuponthedistributionofloadbetweentheirconnectors.In
anelasticboltandnutconnectedbyanumberofthreadturns,thefirst
'thread'takesadisproportionatefractionofthetotaltensileloadCraddock
opcitreportstheloaddistributedamongthethreadsassketchedhere.Itis
clearthatthereislittlebenefitfromanengagementlengthexceedinghalfa
dozenthreads.Specialnutswhichalleviatenonuniformloaddistributionare
available.Thevariationofnormalstressoveracrosssectionadjacentto
thenutface(assketched)isdominatedbystressconcentrationinducedby
thethreadroot,soitishardlysurprisingthatboltfracturesusuallyoccurin
theexposedthreadsclosetothenutface.
Anotherfailuremechanismisstrippingofthenutthreads,whichis
essentiallyshearfailureofthenutmaterialonthecylindricalsurfaceatthe
threadmajordiameter.Strippingoftheboltthreadsisasimilarshearofthe
boltmaterialattheminordiameterbutthisisrare.Otherpossiblefailure
mechanisms,suchascrushingofthenutbearingsurfaceanddilationofa
thinnutduetoitsridingupthethreadflanks,arenotcriticalinthemselves,
butcontributetoothermodes.
Ifanyfailureistooccur,thenboltfractureisthepreferredmode.Bolt
fractureisclearlydiscernableandoftenoccurswhilsttightening,when
torsionalshearstresses(whichdissipatequicklyaftertightening)are
superimposedupontensilestresses.Sotheoperatorreplacestheboltand
learnstoexercisecareinsubsequenttightening.Threadstrippingonthe
otherhandisinsidiousandprogressivethefirstthreadfailsputtingmore
loadontotheremainingthreads,hencethesecondsuccumbs...andsoon.

Whenthreadsstripitisoftendifficulttoseparatecomponentsforfastener
replacement,whereasabrokenboltrequiresnofurtherseparation.The
consequencesofatappedholeinacarengineblockbeingstrippedbyover
zealousspannerwieldingisacaseinpoint.
Foragivenload,boltfracturetendencywillclearlybereducedbyalarger
stressarea(ie.alargerboltsize)and/orahigherclassofmaterial.Given
theseparameters(load,sizeandboltclass),nutstrippingwillbereducedby
alongernutandhenceanincreasedcylindricalsheararea,byathicker
wallednuttodecreasedilation,and/orbyasuperiornut(property)class.
Thefirststageoffastenerdesignisboltselectionsize,classandother
geometricattributes.ISOMetricnutshavebeendimensionedtobiasany
failuretowardsboltfractureratherthannutstripping,onthetacit
presumptionthatthenutclassisequaltoorgreaterthantheboltclassie.
thematerialofthechosennutisatleastasstrongasthepreselectedbolt's
material.Itisforsuchreasonsthatregularnutlengthsareabout80%ofbolt
size,andofthehexagonaldimensionsshowninTable1thoughthereare
variousstylesofnutwhichdifferfromthesefigures.
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Copyright 1999-2001 Douglas Wright,

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Screwthreadmechanics
Therearealwaysthreemajorcomponentsinpracticalapplicationsof
thescrewthreadmechanism:

thescrewagenericnameappliedtoasetscrew,leadscrew,
bolt,studorothercomponentequippedwithanexternalthread,
thenutreferstoanycomponentwhoseinternalthread
engagesthescrew,suchasthenutofanut&boltoralarge
stationarycastingwithatappedholeintowhichastudisscrewed,
and
thethrustbearingthatisthecontactsurfacebetweentwo
componentswhichrotatewithrespecttooneanother.Examples
ofthrustbearingsinclude:
a. theundersurfaceofascrewheadwhichisbeingtightened
byaspanner;
b. thesphericalseatingofaGclampscrewinthestationary
selfaligninganvil.

Anutcanspinandmovefreelyalongascrewwithoutcontactinganother
component,ie.withouttheneedforanythrustbearing,butathrustbearing
comesintoexistenceimmediatelycontactoccursandthemechanismisput
topracticaluse.
Clearlythereisrelativemotioninthethrustbearing,andalsobetweenthe
nutandthescrewandwherethereisrelativemotionthereisfriction.We
nowexaminetheroleoffrictionsinceitdominatesthebehaviourofthe
mechanismunlessspecial(read'expensive')meansaretakentominimise
itseffects.Whenconsideringfrictionitdoesn'tmatterwhichcomponent
rotatesandwhichisstationaryit'stherelativemotionwhichisimportant.
Weshallthereforeanalysethejackshownheretodeducethegeneraleffect
offrictiononscrewthreadbehaviour.

Thejack'sscrewisfixed;thenutisrotatedbyaspannerandtranslates
vertically.Thethrustcollar'sonlymotionisverticaltranslationasitis
preventedfromrotatingbycontactwiththeload,onecorneronlyofwhich
ispictured.Sincethereisrelativerotationbetweencontactingnutandcollar,
thecontactingsurfaceassumestheroleofthrustbearing.
Thenutshownhereinplanisincontactwiththreebodies:

thespannerexertsthetorqueTwhichtendstoraisetheload
(analogoustotighteninganutandbolt)
thescrewthreadwhichexertsthefrictionaltorqueTt,and
thethrustbearingwhichexertsthefrictionaltorqueTb.

WeareinterestedinthetighteningtorqueT,and,ifthenutisin
equilibriumthen
(i)T=Tt+Tb
fromwhichwecanevaluateTonceTtandTb
arefoundindividually.
Considerthethrustbearingfirst.Weshallassumethatthecontactsurfaceof
areaAisintheformofanarrowannulusofmeanradiusrbonwhichthe
uniformpressureisW/A,whereWistheloadsupportedbythe
mechanism.Ifthecoefficientoffrictioninthebearingisbthenthetorque
exertedbythefrictionalforceonanareaelementAisTb=bNrb=
brb(W/A)A.Integratingoverallthecontactarea
(ii)Tb=Wbrb
Considernowthethreadwhichissquare,ofmeanradiusrmandleadangle
.Thenutengagesthescrewwithfrictioncoefficientcorrespondingtoa
frictionangle=arctan.Thestaticandkineticcoefficientsoffriction
aretakentobeessentiallyequalforthispreliminaryanalysis.
WewishtofindthetorqueTtwhichmustbeexertedonthenuttooffset
threadfrictionandmaintaintheloadWinequilibriumthatiseitherstatic
ormovingatconstantspeed.Atorquewhichtendstoraisetheloadis
reckonedpositive;anegativetorqueisonewhichtendstolowertheload.

Asmallelementofthenutisshownbelowslidingorabouttoslideonthe
inclinedrampofthethread,thismotionbeingeitherupordownthethread.
Bothmotiondirectionsaresketched.Pisthesmallforceontheelement
duetothetorque,andtheelementsupportsasmallpartoftheloadW.
Thecontactforcecomponentsarethenormalandfrictionforces,Nand
Fthelatteropposingmotionormotiontendency.

Thenutelement
freebody

requiresfor
equilibrium...

N=Psin+Wcos

normaltoplane:

F=PcosW
F=Pcos+W

paralleltoplane:

sin
sin
Iftheelementismoving,oronthepointofmotion,thenF=N

andso
eliminatingF,
P=Wtan(+) P=Wtan()

N:
ThetotaltorqueTtisthesumrmPoveralltheidenticalnut

elements,ie.
(iii) ....ifmotion Tt=Wrmtan(+) Tt=Wrmtan()

(tendency)is
upwards
downwards
Whenraisingaloadthethreadinclinationisthuseffectivelysteepened
bythethreadfrictionangle.
Theupwardtighteningtorquefrom(iii)
isplottedhereagainstfrictioncoeffficient
foraleadangle,=0.25(14.3o).
Whenthereisnegligiblethreadfriction(
=0)thenTt/Wrm=tan=0.255,the
pointa.
Theequilibriumlineadcorrespondsto

incipientmotionupthethread;theequilibriumlineabecorrespondsto
incipientmotiondownthethread.Theareabetweentheselinesrepresents
stasis(F<N);theareasbeyondthelinescorrespondtonon
equilibrium,ie.toaccelerationthoughitshouldberealisedthatonlythread
frictionisbeingconsideredatthispoint.
Considerwhathappensifthecoefficientoffrictionis0.5forexample.
Beforeanytorqueisapplied(Tt=0)thenutisatrest,pointc.Thetorqueis
thereafterincreaseduntilatdthenutbreaksawayandrotatesupthethread
atconstantvelocity.Ifthetorqueweretoincreasefurtherthenthenutwould
accelerate.
Ifhoweveratcthetorqueweretoincreaseinanegativesenseto'undo'the
nut,assistedbytheloadthenwhenpointewasreachedthenutwould
breakawayandmovedownthethreadatuniformspeed.Anyfurther
increaseoftorqueinthenegativesensewouldleadtodownward
acceleration.
Thepointbissignificant.Itcorrespondstothecriticalcoefficientoffriction
fortheleadconcerned,c=tan,atwhichthenutisonthepointof
movingdownthethreadofitsownvolitionwithoutanytorqueapplied(Tt=
0).Further,if...
>cthenthethreadisselflockinginthatthenutcannotundobyitself,it
needstobeunscrewedbyadefinitenegativetorque;or
<cthenthethreadisoverhaulinginthatthenutwillunscrewbyitself
undertheactionoftheloadunlesspreventedbyapositivetightening
torque.
Clearlyselflockingbehaviourisessentialforthreadedfasteners.Carlifting
jackswouldnotbeofmuchuseiftheloadfellassoonastheoperating
handlewasreleasedsotheytoodemandselflockingcharacteristics.

Someapplicationsofpowerscrewsrequireoverhauling
behaviour.TheArchimedeandrill(above)andpump
actionscrewdrivers(below)incorporate
verylargeleadangleswhichguarantee
thatthecriticalfrictioncoefficientsare
largerthananyactualcoefficientlikelyto
beencountered.Sensitivelinearactuators
mayincorporaterecirculatingballscrewssuchasthatillustratedontheleft
toreducethreadfrictiontolevelswhichgohandinhandwithoverhauling.
Efficiencyisimportantinrotary/linearmotiontransformationsuchas
providedbypowerscrews.Whilstactingagainstaload,theefficiencyofa
screwthreadalone(ie.neglectingthethrustbearing)is:
=WforagivenTt/WforthesameTtwithoutfriction
=tan/tan(+)from(iii)
Theeffectofleadandfrictiononthreadefficiencyisplottedhereas
expected,highefficienciesdemandverylowfriction.Alsoshownistheline
ofcriticalfriction.
Coefficientsoffrictionaround0.1to0.2maybeexpectedforcommon
materialsunderconditionsofordinaryserviceandlubricationsteelonsteel
forfasteners,andsteelonbronzeorcastironinthecaseofpowerscrews.
Specialcoatingsandsurfacetreatmentscanreducefrictionsignificantly.
Vibrationalsoreducesfrictionandcancausefastenerstounloosenunless
lockedasmentionedabove.
Leadanglesaround3oaretypicalofsinglestartpowerscrewswhichare

thereforesomewhatinefficientthisisonereasonformultiplestartscrews
withtheirassociatedlargeleads.

From(i),(ii)and(iii)thetotaltorquenecessarytoraisealoadWwhilst
overcomingthreadandthrustbearingfrictionis:
(2)T=W[rmtan(+)+brb]
Theforegoinganalysishasbeendevelopedforsquarethreads(=0),but(
iii)and(2)maybeappliedwithlittleerrortoAcmethreads(=29o),and
alsotoISOMetricfasteners(=60o)providedtheeffectofwedging
(analogoustoVbelts)isincludedthustheeffectivecoefficientofthread
frictiontobeusedin(2)issec(arctan(costan/2)),whichtendsto
sec/2forsmallleadangles.

Ajacksimilartotheaboveisanalysedinthisexample.

Staticfailure

TABLE2. STRENGTHOFSTEELBOLTS
4.6 5.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9
Weshallconcentrateon classno.
SuMPa
400 500 800 900 1000 1200
steelfasteners,which,
240 400 640 720 900 1080
becauseoftheirstrength SyMPa
225 380 590 650 830 970
andcheapness,constitute SpMPa
22 20 12 10 9
8
over90%ofallfasteners elong'n%
used.Steelsforcommercialfastenersaregradedintopropertyclassesasin
Table2.Eachclassnumberconsistsoftwofigures

thefirstfigureisSu/100whereSuisthesteel's
nominaltensileultimate(MPa)
thesecondfigureistheratioSy/SuwhereSyisthenominal
0.2%offsetyieldstrength.
o

Minimummaterialstrengthsarenotlessthannominalvalues.
Itisdifficulttodeterminetheyieldofafullsizethreadedconnector(as
opposedtoacylindricaltestpiece)becauseofthedifferentstrainratesof
shank,threadandrunout.Forthisreasontheproofstressratherthanthe
yieldstressisusedasacriterionforfailureassessmenttheproofstress
Spisthelargeststresswhichdoesnotleadtoanypermanentset.Theproof
loadofascrewmadefromaparticularmaterialisthemaximumloadthe
screwcanwithstandwithoutpermanentdeformation,andisgivenby(1)as
theproductofstressarea(Table1)andproofstress(Table2).Selection
ofclass12.9shouldnotbeundertakenlightlyitshighstrengthbegetsother
potentialproblems.
Wehavenotedthattheelasticbehaviourofconnectedmembershasa
significanteffectuponthedistributionofloadbetweentheirconnectors.In
anelasticboltandnutconnectedbyanumberofthreadturns,thefirst
'thread'takesadisproportionatefractionofthetotaltensileloadCraddock
opcitreportstheloaddistributedamongthethreadsassketchedhere.Itis
clearthatthereislittlebenefitfromanengagementlengthexceedinghalfa
dozenthreads.Specialnutswhichalleviatenonuniformloaddistributionare
available.Thevariationofnormalstressoveracrosssectionadjacentto
thenutface(assketched)isdominatedbystressconcentrationinducedby
thethreadroot,soitishardlysurprisingthatboltfracturesusuallyoccurin
theexposedthreadsclosetothenutface.
Anotherfailuremechanismisstrippingofthenutthreads,whichis
essentiallyshearfailureofthenutmaterialonthecylindricalsurfaceatthe
threadmajordiameter.Strippingoftheboltthreadsisasimilarshearofthe
boltmaterialattheminordiameterbutthisisrare.Otherpossiblefailure
mechanisms,suchascrushingofthenutbearingsurfaceanddilationofa

thinnutduetoitsridingupthethreadflanks,arenotcriticalinthemselves,
butcontributetoothermodes.
Ifanyfailureistooccur,thenboltfractureisthepreferredmode.Bolt
fractureisclearlydiscernableandoftenoccurswhilsttightening,when
torsionalshearstresses(whichdissipatequicklyaftertightening)are
superimposedupontensilestresses.Sotheoperatorreplacestheboltand
learnstoexercisecareinsubsequenttightening.Threadstrippingonthe
otherhandisinsidiousandprogressivethefirstthreadfailsputtingmore
loadontotheremainingthreads,hencethesecondsuccumbs...andsoon.
Whenthreadsstripitisoftendifficulttoseparatecomponentsforfastener
replacement,whereasabrokenboltrequiresnofurtherseparation.The
consequencesofatappedholeinacarengineblockbeingstrippedbyover
zealousspannerwieldingisacaseinpoint.
Foragivenload,boltfracturetendencywillclearlybereducedbyalarger
stressarea(ie.alargerboltsize)and/orahigherclassofmaterial.Given
theseparameters(load,sizeandboltclass),nutstrippingwillbereducedby
alongernutandhenceanincreasedcylindricalsheararea,byathicker
wallednuttodecreasedilation,and/orbyasuperiornut(property)class.
Thefirststageoffastenerdesignisboltselectionsize,classandother
geometricattributes.ISOMetricnutshavebeendimensionedtobiasany
failuretowardsboltfractureratherthannutstripping,onthetacit
presumptionthatthenutclassisequaltoorgreaterthantheboltclassie.
thematerialofthechosennutisatleastasstrongasthepreselectedbolt's
material.Itisforsuchreasonsthatregularnutlengthsareabout80%ofbolt
size,andofthehexagonaldimensionsshowninTable1thoughthereare
variousstylesofnutwhichdifferfromthesefigures.
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|

Copyright 1999-2001 Douglas Wright,

last updated January 2001

doug@mech.uwa.edu.au

Boltfatigue
Theexternalloadonajointassemblymayvaryovermanycyclesduringthe
joint'slifethecylinderheadjointofani.c.engineisatypicalcase.The
boltsofsuchanassemblyundergofluctuatingtensionandsomayfailin
fatigue.
ThetraditionalGoodmananalysismaybe
employedtoassessboltsafetyinaparticular
TABLE6. Stress
concentrationfactor,Kf
jointassembly.Failureismostlikelyinthe
materialclass rolled cut
exposedthreadsclosetothenutfacewherea
5.8andbelow 2.2 2.8
stressconcentrationfactorKfmodelsthe
8.8andabove 3.0 3.8
damagingeffectofthethreadrootnotch.A
rolledthreadislesspronethanacutthreadtofatiguedamage,duetobetter
grainorientationandsurfaceworkhardeningconferredbymanufacture.
RepresentativevaluesofKfaregiveninTable6.

Shigleyopcitreportsthecorrelationbetweensteels'tensileendurance
limitsS'eandtensileultimatesplottedherethefluctuatingtensionvarying
betweenzeroandthemaximumplotted.TheendurancelimitinthreadsSe
islittleaffectedbysurfacefinishorsize,so,employingKfasafatigue
strengthreductionfactor,Se=S'e/Kf.
Inatypicaljointassembly,theinitialloadisFiandtheexternalloadvaries
betweenzeroandPasshowninfigure(xi)above.Theboltloadtherefore
variesbetweenaminimumofFiandamaximumof(Fi+CP)wherethe
jointfactorCsubscribeseithertothestiffnessratioin(3a),ifthe
stiffnessesareknownaccurately,ortoTable5.Thecorresponding
alternatingandmeanstresscomponentsaretherefore:
(5)a=CP/2As;m=i+a;wherei=Fi/As,
notingthataisproportionaltotheexternalloadP,andi
reflectstheinitialloadFi.

AGoodmananalysisisthereafterstraightforward;
thestresscomponents(5)appearingontheload
lineemanatingat45ofromtheinitialstressonthe
meanstressaxis.
The'load'uponwhichthesafetyfactorisbasedmaybeinterpretedinoneof
twoways,either
theloadmayrefertotheloadontheboltitself,Fb,theGoodman
diagram(i)thengives
(6a)ni/Su+na(1/Su+1/Se)=1or
theloadmaybetheexternalloadontheassembly,P,theGoodman
diagram(ii)yielding
(6b)i/Su+na(1/Su+1/Se)=1
Itcanbeseenthattheessentialdifferencebetweentheseinterpretationslies
intheinclusionorexclusionoftheinitialloadintosafetyconsiderations.
Althoughthesecondinterpretationisperhapsthemorecorrect,the
imprecisionwithwhichtheinitialloadisknownmaycallforthe
conservatismofthefirstinterpretation.Areliabilityorfatiguelifeanalysisis
reallypreferabletothistraditionalsafetyfactorapproach.
Theimportanceindesignofassessingthejointfactorasaccuratelyas
possibleisbroughtoutbytheplotbelowwhichcorrespondstoaparticular
jointwithasinglebolt.Forthisboltmaterial,initialtightening,and
magnitudeofexternalloadfluctuation,thefatiguesafetyfactorisgivenby(
6b)as:nC=As(mm)/127.Itisapparentthatforagivenboltsize,the
safetyfactorisinverselyproportionaltothejointfactor.
ThusforanM8x1.25bolthere,ifthejointfactorisassessedfordesign
purposesas0.1,thenthedesignwouldbereckonedperfectlyacceptablewith
asafetyfactorof3.Butif,duetosomeoverlookeddetail,thejointfactoris
infact0.3,thenthereisnomarginforerrorasthesafetyfactorwouldonly
be1.Theimplicationsofapoorlyassessedjointfactoronaspectsotherthan
boltfatigueeg.leakagemustalsobeborneinmind.

Thisexampledemonstratesatypicalfatigueanalysis.

Nonuniformlyloadedboltgroups
Sofarwehavelookedatgroupsofthreadedfastenersinwhichthefasteners'
loadsaretensileandapproximatelythesame.Wenowconsiderbrieflyjoints
inwhichtheloadsonindividualfastenersdifferandinwhichshearand
frictioncanbesignificant.
Shownat(a)isasingleboltedlapjointinwhichtheboltismoreorless
centrallylocatedintheclearanceholesinthetwocomponents.Provideditis
nottoolarge,theexternalloadPistransmittedbyfrictionduetopressure
betweenthecomponents,causedinturnbythebolt'sinitialtighteningload.
IfPissuchastocausethecomponentstoslipthenthecomponentsbear
againsttheboltshank(b).Furtherincreaseoftheexternalloadcouldleadto
shearfailureacrosstheboltshank(c),howeverfailureinothermodesmight
haveoccurredbeforePreachedthislevelfailureanalysisissimilartothat
ofthecotterjointexaminedinanearlierchapter.Itshouldbenotedthatthe
bolt'sshearplane(c)shouldlieintheshankandnotinwayoftheexposed
threadsbearingonanexcessivelengthofexposedthreadmustbeavoided
too.

Thisexampleillustratestheapproachesapplicabletoatypicalnon
uniformlyloadedboltgroupinwhichtensionandshearbothplayapart.

ManyoftheconnectionswhichfallintothiscategoryarecoveredbyCodes,
whichobviouslymustbefollowedifrelevant.Gorencopcitprovides
usefulinformationwithregardtosteelstructures,whichisapplicableto
manymechanicalsituations.Shearisoftenbestresistedbydowelsrather
thanbythreadedfasteners.Dowelsarepins(oftentapered)insertedinto
closefittingholeswhicharedrilledandreamedthroughthecomponents
afterassemblytoensureaccurateregistration.
|Notescontents|chapterindex|previous|topofpage|

Copyright 1999-2000 Douglas Wright,

last updated 30 June 2000

doug@mech.uwa.edu.au

Fluidpressurisedjoints
Acommonapplicationofboltedjointsisfordetachableconnectionswhich
containpressurisedfluid.ThesemayberenderedleakproofeitherbyOrings
orbygaskets.AnOringisanendlessringofcircularcrosssection,which
isrelativelycompliantandusuallyelastomeric.Itislightlynippedwhen
assembled,subsequentapplicationoffluidpressureextrudestheringtoplug
allpotentialleakagepaths.Suchjointsarecalledselfenergisingastheydo
notrelyonpreloadfortheireffectiveness.

Thisexampledemonstratesthestaticanalysisofaselfenergisingjoint.

Oringsaresuitablewheretheenvironmentisnonaggresssive,temperatures
aresensiblyambient,andrelativelyhighmanufacturing/assemblycostscan
betoleratedotherwisegasketsareused.Pipesarefrequentlyconnectedby
weldingsimilarflangestoeachandboltingtheflangestogetherwitha
gasketandmultipleboltsasshownbelow.Gasketsarecommonalsoinheat
exchangertubeplatesandthecylinderheadsofi/cengines,howeverwe
shallexplaingasketsinthecontextofflangedpipejoints.Dimensionsof
flangessuitableforvariouscombinationsofpipesize,fluidpressureand
temperaturearestandardised(AS2129).

Gasketmaterialsrangefromcorktocoppereachmaterialbestsuitinga
particularcombinationoffluidcorrosiveness,pressure,temperature,leakage
implications,cost,andsoon.Mostgasketsarenonmetallic,highly

compliantcomparedtootherjointcomponents,andnonlinear.Theirlow
stiffnessmeansthatotherjointcomponentsmayusuallybeneglectedwhen
figuringjointoverallstiffness:1/kj=1/kgasket+1/kotherlargethatisthejoint
overallstiffnessisessentiallythesameasthegasketstiffness,whichhasfar
reachingimplicationsinfatiguesinceitmaynotbepossibletoensurethat
kb<<kjasdesiredforlowboltloadamplitude.
Softgasketsusuallyextendoverthewholeflange(fullface),whereas
gasketsmadeofstiffermaterialsarenarrowandextendoutonlytothebolt
holes.Itisassumedthatmultipleboltsareloadedequally,andthatthe
gasketstressie.theaveragecontactpressurebetweengasketandflangeis
uniformoverthegasketareaAg.Clearlythegasketstressmustbehigher
thanfluidpressureifleakageistobeavoided,and,foragivengasketstress,
araisedfaceflangewithanarrowgasketwillrequirelesspreloadandhence
lessflangestrengththanafull
facegasket.Sothetendencyis TABLE3. Gasketmaterialproperties
forhighpressuregasketstobe (fromAS1210) thcknss y m
narrow.
gasketmaterial
mm MPa
asbestoswithbinder
1
45 3.5
Inservice,thepipeactsasa
ditto.
1.5 25 2.75
closedcylinderwithaxialload ditto.
3
11 2.0
Pinthewallduetofluid
vegetablefibre
7.5 1.75
pressureactingovertheinternal spiralwound,asbestosfilled 69 3.0
area.Thisloadingapreload
duetoinitialtightening,togetherwithanexternalserviceloadistypicalof
jointsingeneral.

Codestraditionallyclassifygasketmaterialsbytwopropertyvaluesthe'y'
factorandthe'm'factor,eg.Table3.Thesearenecessaryminimumvalues
fortheavoidanceofleaks:
ytheinitialgasketstress(ie.preloadedpriortopressurisation),
and
m
theratioofgasketstresstofluidpressure(afterpressurisation)

Theseslimitsaresketchedonthejoint
characteristic,inwhichtheexternal
axialloadPequalsthefluidpressure
ptimestheinternaltransversearea
Ai.TheinitialgasketstressinducedbythetighteningloadFimustbeless
thanthegasketcrushingstresspcrushandgreaterthanthe'y'appropriateto
thegasketmaterial.Initialloadingisthemostseveresincethejointload
decreasesthereafterastheexternalloadisappliedbuttheexternalload
shouldnotbesolargethatthegasketstressbecomeslessthan'm'timesthe
fluidpressure.Failureofajointasopposedtoleakagewillbemostlikely
atinitialtightening,sojointdesign(selectionofbolting,flangethickness
etc.)isbaseduponthatstate.
Therehasbeenadealofdebateonthesuggestedvaluesof'm'and'y'which
appearinthePressureVesselCodes.Whilethevalueshavebeenfound
satisfactorybasesforsafejointdesign,theyarebutpoorindicatorsof
leakproofoperation.ThePressureVesselResearchCommittee(PVRC)of
theWeldingResearchCouncilhasinstitutedcomprehensivenewteststo
clarifythebehaviourofgaskets,withresultsshownontheleftbelow.Initial
tighteningproceedsalongab;astheexternalloadisappliedthegasket
unloadsalongbc.Furthercyclingoftheexternalloadleadstothegasket
loading/unloadingalongthesamebcbtrajectory.Iftheboltsarefurther
tightenedthenthegasket(un)loadsalongthededlocus.
Gasketscannotbeabsolutelyleakfreewhencontaininggas;lociiofconstant
leakageratesareshownsuperimposeduponthecharacteristic.Behaviour
maybedescribedmostconvenientlybygraphssimilartotheoneonthe
right,inwhichaleakageparameterreplacesdeflection.Amaterialcanbe
characterisedbythreeconstantpropertiestheslopeandinterceptofthe
initialloadingregressionline(loglog),togetherwiththepointthrough
whichallsubsequentlinear(un)loadingtrajectoriespass.Theseresults
haveyettobeincorporatedintoCodes.

TABLE4. Gasketmaterialstiffnesses

width thick stiffness

Itisclearfromthe

mm
MPa/mm
PVRCfindingsthat gasketmaterial
ness
nonmetallicgaskets compressedasbestos
12 3 330950
donotbehave
ditto.
24 1.6 6003260
elastically.Table4
compressedaramidfibre

givestherangeof

12 1.6 220490
(asbestossubstitute)
stiffnessesthatmay spiralwoundasbestosfilled 18 4.6 2701800
beexperienced
nonasbestoslaminatedheadgasket 1.1 11402630
stiffnessbeing
expressedasgasketstress(force/Ag)perunitdeflection,ie.modulus/
thickness.Calculationofloadsharingfrom(3a)isthusfraughtwith
uncertaintyifthegasketstiffnessisnotknownaccurately,howeverload
sharingmaybecharacterisedby:
(3b)Fb=Fi+CP;Fj=Fi(1C)P
inwhichthejointfactorCisatypicalmeasureofthe
fractionofthetotalexternalloadPseenbythebolts.Althoughcomparison
with(3a)indicatesthatC=ke/kj=kb/(kb+kj)1,thejointfactorshould
beregardedmoreasanoverall
approximatefigureofmerit,which TABLE5. Jointfactors
incorporatesallvagariesof
typeofjoint
C
behaviourandwhichis
softgasketheldbystuds
1.00
experimentallydeterminedinits softgasketwiththroughfasteners0.75
ownright,ratherthanasaratioof asbestosgasket
0.60
elasticstiffnesses.
softcopper&longthroughbolts 0.50
metaltometalwithlongbolts 0.00
Experiencesuggeststhevaluesof
Table5.

'Flangerotation'referstotheinitiallydiscshapedflangeassumingaflat
conicalformunderfluidpressureloading,andcanbesignificantwhena
narrowgasketisused.Thecauseofrotationmaybeappreciatedfromthe
sketchesbelowwhichshowrotationgrosslyexaggerated.At(a)isshown
partoftheflangewiththeboltloadFbequilibratingtheexternalloadP

andthejointloadFj,asabove.AccordinglyFbissplitintoits
superimposedcomponents(b),whichareshownseparatelyat(c)and(d).

ItisclearthatboththePandFjcouplestendtorotatetheflangeas
sketched.Thisrotationisexacerbatedbythefluidpressureptendingto
expandthepipeconnectedtotheflange,howevertheflangeisrelatively
rigidradiallyandsopreventspipewalllocalexpansionassuggestedby(e).
Freebodiesoftheseparatepipeandflangeappearat(f)and(g).The
interfaceremainsessentiallyrigidwhilstrotationoccursthatisthe
deformedpipeanddeformedflangeremainperpendiculartooneanother.
Thisrequirestheaction/reactionsketchedtheradialforceFiandthe
bendingmomentMiattheinterface.ClearlyMicontributestotherotation
oftheflange(g).
Itiscommonpracticetoallowforrotationempiricallybyconsideringan
effectivegasketwidthsomewhatlessthantheactualwidth,assuggestedby
(h)furtherdetailsappearinAS1210.
Operationathightemperaturesleadstofurtherdifficultieswithcreep,
ratchetingandsoon.
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Copyright 1999-2000 Douglas Wright,

last updated 29 June 2000

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Preloadanditscontrol
(followingBickfordopcit)
Thebenefitsofhighpreloadwereapparentin(ix)abovetendencytowards
separation(orleakageinapipejoint)isreduced,fastenerlooseningis
minimisedandsoon.Furthermoreitisbettertousehighlystressedsmall
boltsratherthanlightlyloadedlargeboltsbecausethestiffnessofthesmall
boltsisless.Ingeneral,preloadshouldbeashighascomponentscan
withstand.Boltpreloadisusuallyspecifiedbetween75%to100%ofproof,
with90%beingcommon.ThusforanM16x2class8.8screwtheproofload
isAsSp=157x590=93kNandsoasuitablepreloadis0.9x93=83kN.
Whichisallveryeasy....buthowdoweensurethatthenutistightenedto
produce83kNinthefield?Whatmeasuringdevicescanbeusedtocontrol
preload?
Bickfordputsitneatlythus:
'Whenwetightenabolt,
(a)weapplytorquetothenut,
(b)thenutturns,
(c)theboltstretches,
(d)creatingpreload.'

Ideallywewouldliketomeasurepreloaddirectly(d)andadvisethe
spanneroperatorwhentherequiredpreloadisreached.Howeverinpractice,
feedbackisusuallyfromanearlierstep,andsomeofthedifficultieswhich
thiscausesarenowexamined.
Torquewrenchesarecommonlyusedtomonitorthetorqueappliedtoanut
beingtightenedstep(a)ofBickford'ssequence.Wemayemploy(2)to
obtainanindicationofthespannertorqueTnecessarytoinducethepreload
Fi.
ThepitchofISOMetricfastenersinthesizesofmostpracticalinterestlies
between0.12dand0.16d(Table1)andcorrespondtoleadangles

around23o.Thethreadmeandiameterisdm=(d+d1)/2=d5h/8=d
0.5413pso,assumingp0.14dthenthemeanthreadradiusisrm
0.46d.
Theannularcontactareaunderthenuthexagonplaystheroleofthrust
bearing.ItsODisabout1.5dasmaybeinferredfromTable1,sothemean
bearingradiusisrb(d+1.5d)/4=0.63d.Assumingthesamecoefficient
offrictioninnutbearingandinthreads,(2)onexpansionwiththe
neglectofsmallleadanglesbecomes:
(2a)T=Fi(rm(p/dm+sec30o)+rb)=Fid(0.022+0.53+
0.63)=KFid
ThethreetermsinthepenultimateRHShererepresentthreeportionsofthe
tighteningtorque:

thetorqueusefulin'raisingtheload'ie.ingeneratingpreload
(0.022or10%)
thereactiontorquedissipatedinthreadfriction(0.53or40%)
thetorqueusedinovercomingnutbearingfriction(0.63or50%
)

Thepercentagesquotedrefertoanaveragefrictioncoefficientaround0.15.
Onlysome10%oftheappliedtorquegeneratespreloadandhereinlies
thecauseofmostjointproblems.Preloadiswhat'sleftofthetightening
torqueafterfrictionhasabsorbedthelion'sshare,sincepreloadcannotbe
induceduntilmotionhasoccurred.Anticipatedvariationsinthecoefficient
offrictionwillthushaveamarkedeffectuponthepreload,andcareful
calibrationofthetorquewrenchwilldolittletoimprovepreloadaccuracy.
Nutfactors
Meanvaluesofreported
SteelThreadCondition
K
nutfactorsKin(2a)are
asreceived,stainlessonmildoralloy0.30
tabulatedheretogivean
asreceived,mildoralloyonsame
0.20
appreciationofthe
cadmiumplated
0.18
beneficialeffectofproper
molybdenumdisulphidegrease
0.14
lubricationofthreadandnut
PTFElubrication
0.12
faceonpreload.Variations

of25%inKareroutinelyexperienced;largervariationsarenot
unexpected.Ideally,eachapplicationshouldbetestedtodetermineitsown
peculiarnutfactorsincethefactorincludestheeffectsofeverythingthat
affectsthetorquetopreloadtransformation,notjustfrictionbutalsothe
consequencesoflocaldeformations,interruptedtightening,inaccuratethread
form,misalignedcomponents,relaxationduetotighteningotherboltsinthe
joint,whetherthefastenerisneworisbeingreused,initiallybentbolts,
speedoftighteningetc.etc.allofwhichaffectpreloadreproducibility.Itis
concludedthattorquewrenchesmaybequiteadequateforeverydaynon
criticaltighteningoperationssuchasthoseonvehicles,butthemeasurement
oftorque,step(a),isbyitselfinadequatewhenpreloadaccuracyisneeded.
ThemeasurementofnutrotationBickford'ssequencestep(b)
suggestsitselfasanalternativeguidetothepreloadattained,sincethe
distancemovedbyanutalongthe(singlestart)threadispitch nut
rotation,ie.with(3a)Fi=ke=kep.Howeverthisrotationpreload
correlationrequireslinearbehaviourofthejoint(ke)andthisusuallydoes
nothappen.Instead,acharacteristicalongthelinesofthesketchcanbe
expected.AtlowloadsAB,nonlinearitiesarisechieflyfromwarp
straighteningandembedmentofcontactsurfacepeaks.Inthemiddlerange
BC,linearelasticbehaviourpredominates,assuggestedbytheforegoing
theory.Finallyathighloads,progressiveyieldingofthevariouscomponents
producesthenonlinearitiesCD.Itisevidentthereforethatcountingturns
isalsoanunsatisfactorypreloadmonitor,unlessoneknowstheFi
relationshipthemeasurementofwhichratherbegsthequestion.
Measuringboltstretchstep(c)wouldseemtobemoredirectthan
measuringtorqueorturns.Ultrasonicmeasurementofboltlengthchanges
whilsttighteningareroutinelycarriedoutthereaderisreferredtoBrown
opcit.Heatexchangerjointsaretypicalsubjectsforthis,buttheyemploy
manyboltsanditisimpossibletoapportionpreloaduniformlybetweenthe
bolts.Thusoneboltmightbetightenedwiththecorrectstretchandpreload,
buttighteningsubsequentboltscausesthatpreloadtochange.Socomplex
tighteningsequenceshavetoberesortedtoandeventhenpreloadvariation
betweenindividualboltscanbeverylarge.
Industrialbolttightenersmaybecomputercontrolledandoftenmonitorboth

torqueandturn.TheyfirstapplyaspecifiedtorqueTtoovercomeinitial
warpageandembedment,therebyensuringtheboltistakenintotheelastic
zone.Thenutisthenrotatedthroughaspecifiedrotationtoensurethe
boltyieldsthisresultsinapreloadwhichisrelativelypredictable,ie.
insensitivetothevagariesoftightening.Althoughthebolthasyielded,
eventualdissipationoftorsionaltighteningstressestogetherwithbolt
ductilityensuresthatitisstillcapableofsustainingsignificantloads
thoughcarefuljointdesignisrequired.Computercontrolledtighteningusing
thistechniquecanbeprogrammedtoautomaticallysenseandwarnof
strippedorcrossedthreads,holeswhichareblindorinadequatedlytapped
etc.
Themostdirectcontrolofpreloadisofcoursetomeasurepreloaditself,
Bickfordstep(d).Specialcrushwashers(akintowavywashers)maybe
designedtoflattenatthedesiredpreloadsothatcontrolisexercisedby
visualinspection.Butthesealsohavedrawbackswhiletheyindicatewhen
acertainpreloadhasbeenattained,theycannotadvisebyhowmuchithas
beenexceeded.
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Copyright 1999-2001 Douglas Wright,

last updated February 2001

doug@mech.uwa.edu.au