Contents

MICRO- HYDRO SYSTEM DESIGN...............................................................................................1

1.1 Power from water........................................................................................................................28
1.2 Classification of hydropower and end uses................................................................................28
1.3 Main component of MHP plant..................................................................................................30
1.3.1 Intake....................................................................................................................................31
1.3.2 Canal....................................................................................................................................31
1.3.3 De-sanding basin..................................................................................................................32
1.3.4 Spillway...............................................................................................................................32
1.3.5 Fore-bay...............................................................................................................................33
1.3.6 Penstock...............................................................................................................................34
1.3.7 Powerhouse..........................................................................................................................34
1.3.8 Tailrace.................................................................................................................................35
1.4 Turbine........................................................................................................................................35
1.4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................35
1.4.2 Types of turbine...................................................................................................................35
1.5 Design Parameter:.......................................................................................................................36
1.5.1 Hydrology and site survey...................................................................................................36
1.6 Layout design of civil components of MHP system...................................................................43
1.6.1 Intake and weir.....................................................................................................................44
1.6.2 Trashracks............................................................................................................................48
1.6.3 Headrace canal.....................................................................................................................49
1.6.4 Spillway...............................................................................................................................55
1.6.5 Settling basins......................................................................................................................57
1.6.6 Fore-bay...............................................................................................................................60
1.6.7 Penstock...............................................................................................................................62
1.6.8 Anchor blocks......................................................................................................................67
1.6.9 Support piers........................................................................................................................68
1.6.10 Expansion joints.................................................................................................................70
1.6.11 Powerhouse........................................................................................................................72
1.6.12 Overview of tailrace...........................................................................................................73
1.7 Selection of mechanical components MHP system....................................................................73
1.7.1 Selection of turbines and its components.............................................................................73
1.7.2 Drive System........................................................................................................................75
1.8 Generators...................................................................................................................................75
1.9 Switching, transmission and distribution....................................................................................76
1.9.1 Switching.............................................................................................................................76
1.9.2 Transmission and distribution..............................................................................................76

MICRO- HYDRO SYSTEM DESIGN

2.1 Power from water
Energy is generated from water since ancient time. In those days water wheels are normally used to
generate energy for grinding agricultural products. The efficiency for the production of energy in
those days were insignificants. Development has been done by many researchers in the generation of
energy from the water. According to the energy equation of Bernoulli, energy in the water is stored in
terms of pressure energy, velocity energy and elevation energy as shown in the equation below,
Power (energy/sec) = pressure energy/sec + velocity energy/sec + elevation energy/sec
P=

p/ g + v 2 /2 g

+z

(1.1)

When there is the difference between the energy of water, the difference in the energy can be
efficiently converted into useable energy by using hydropower plant. The energy at the intake of
HPP will be high and the exist from the HPP will be low thus the energy from the water will be
obtain as follow.
Power (Energy/sec) = (

p/ g + v 2 /2 g

+ z)intake - (

p/ g + v 2 /2 g

+ z)exit

(1.2)

There will be some loss of power during conversion from the available water energy by using
hydropower plant. Those loss are expressed in term of efficiencies. Finally the power that can be
generated by HPP is expressed as follow.
P=gHQ

(1.3)

Where,
P = electrical or mechanical power produced, W
= density of water, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H = elevation head of water, m
Q = flow rate of water, m3/s
= overall efficiency of MHP system
Thus, equation shows that, power generated by the water available depends upon the amount rate
(flow rate of water), elevation head (elevation difference between intake and exist of water),
gravitation force, density of water and efficiency of the HP system. Thus by using HP plant,
available water energy will be converted to the useful mechanical/ electrical energy as an output.
2.2 Classification of hydropower and end uses
Energy available in water will be converted into useful energy like mechanical or electrical energy by
using Hydropower plant. HPP can be classified according the generation of electricity, type of
storage, type of distribution grid system, type of load capacity etc. There are wide variety of HPP it
can be classified in different ways.

According to the electricity generation HPP can be classified according to following table 1.1. there
may be few variation in power generation range according to the useful situation and norms of the
particular country.
Table 1.1 Classification of HPP according to the power generation capacity
Power generation capacity
Less than 100 KW
100KW to 1000KW
1MW to 10MW
10MW to 300MW
300MW to above

Type of hydropower plant

Micro hydropower plant
Mini hydropower plant
Small hydropower plant
Medium hydropower plant
Large hydropower plant

According to the type of storage type HPP can be classified into storage type and run of the river
type. The storage type of HPP consists of dam to stop the flow of water in the river stream. There
will be big reservoir behind the dam to store water. The reservoir stores rain water too. This type of
HPP supplies water continuously to the plant and there will be no flow variation during dry season.
These plant are generally costly, complex to design. This is generally used for small to larger HPP.
For MHP storage type HPP is not used.
Run of the river type HPP does not stops the river stream but it diverts water into the water way of
HPP. There will not be any reservoir in these type of HPP. Flow of water in this type of HPP may
vary according to the seasons. These type of HPP is less costly and environmentally friendly. These
type of HPP is generally used for micro, mini and small HPP.

Diversion weir and intake

Canal for diverted water

Forebay tank
Pressure pipe leading
turbine (Penstock)

Turbine

Stream

Fig. 1.1(a) Run of the river type MHPP

Storage reservoir

Dam with intake

Turbine enclosed

Fig. 1.1(b) Storage type MHPP

According to the distribution of grid system, HPP is classified into local grid and extensive grid. In
the local grid system the electricity generated from HPP will be distributed for the small locality near
by the HPP. Highly sophisticated and costly electro mechanical and distribution systems are not
necessary for local grid system. The generated power from this HPP may not be high grade of
standard.
In extensive grid or national grid system electricity generated by various HPP will be loaded into a
one type of grid system. The load distribution from this type of HPP will be wide . In small country
like Nepal, one National grid is used for all the different parts of the country. The electro mechanical
components for this type of the system are sophisticated and costly. The power generated should be
one of standard type. Generally larger HPP are made under this category.
According to the load capacity HPP is classified into base load plant and peak load plant.
base load plants are those which supply the base load of the distribution system. Such plants are
required to supply constant power when connected to the grid. This type of HPP generally, does not
consists of water storage reservoir system.
Peak load HPP are those which will supply power during peak load condition only. These HPP can
also be used for base load. This HPP generally consists of storage reservoir.
2.3 Main component of MHP plant
MHP plant is designed to generate electrical or mechanical power according to the demand of local
community. Main components of MHP plant are civil component, mechanical component,
electrical/electronic component. Civil components includes diversion, intake, de-sanding basins,
canal, fore-bay, spillway, penstock, power house, tailrace etc. These components are described in
preceding sub titles.

River flow
Tailrace

Flood spillway

Power house
Regulating gates
Intake

Anchor

Spillway drain

Penstock
Penstock support

Wing walls
Sand trap
Channel crossing
Channel

Forebay tank

Fig. 2.1 Components of MHP plant

Diversion structure is a structure designed to raise the water level in the stream in order to enable
water to be diverted off the river. The weir may be of natural or an artificial weir (temporary or
permanent construction). In MHP, generally temporary structures are built for this purpose. These
structures are in most cases simply consists of boulder/mud piling resembling the diversion practiced
in traditional watermills. In some cases gabion weirs are also used for diverting water.
2.3.1 Intake
The receiving a flow from river in required quantity and that directing it towards the waterways of
a hydropower system with minimal structural interventions is called intake. It is the point from
where water flows from the river stream. Therefore intake is the beginning of the conveyance of
water diverted for MHP Types of intake structure are chiefly distinguished by the method used to
divert water from the river. In micro hydropower, mainly two types of intake considered are side
intake and bottom intake. Trashracks are placed at the intake to prevent logs, boulders and other large
water-born objects from entering the waterway.
1.3.2 Canal
The headrace of a micro-hydropower scheme is a canal or a pipe that conveys water from the intake
to the fore-bay. In MHP sometimes pipes substitute canals. Many types of headrace canal made of
different materials and using different methods of construction are used in MHP schemes. The types
and the design depends on site condition (seepage, land slide, crossing) and availability of material
and manpower. The common types of canal used in MHP plant are earth canal, stone masonry in mud
mortar canal, stone masonry in cement mortar canal, concrete canal, covered canals and pipes, Most
headrace pipes used in MHP are HDPE pipes. The length of headrace can be from a few meters to
over a kilometer. Generally small slopes are preferred for designing canals. The slopes are med just
enough for the flow of water in the canal. Higher slope means higher velocity of water in canal. This
not only erode canal surface, it also lose water energy available.

2.3.3 De-sanding basin

Generally rivers carry relatively high amount of sediments owing to high erosion activities taking
place in the hills and mountains. The high sediment density rivers are Koshi in Nepal and Huangho
river in China. The sediment density fluctuates within the year. The sediment density is highest
during the high flow period. Sediments in river water have negative impacts for the MHP:
Sediments get deposited in the canal and fore-bay, which reduces carrying capacity of the canal. The
design canal capacity can be maintained only through frequent clearing, which is very expensive.
Sediment among others consists of hard silica compounds. These compounds erode the penstock and
turbine. This at the one hand increases the operating costs and at the other decreases efficiency of the
MHP.
Inlet

Settling

Outlet

Gate valve for flushing

Top view
Spillway drain

The purpose of desanding basin is to trap sediments so that these do not enter the canal. The de-sanding basin is, as a
rule, built at the head of the canal and it is regarded as a part of the head works. The de-sanding basin
is wide and long pool designed to settle the sediments carried by the diverted water through reduction
in the speed of water. Most de-sanding basins are designed to settle particles above 0.2 0.3 mm.
De-sanding basin is provided with a sediment flush in order to reduce the cost associated with its
cleaning. During the rainy season daily flushing of the de-sanding basin may be required.

Fig. 2.2 De-sanding basin

2.3.4 Spillway
Excess flow that enters into the intake during flood flow needs to be spilled as early as possible to
minimize foundation erosion, channel collapse in headrace canal. This is achieved by incorporating a
spillway close to the intake and easy access distance during flood condition. If the headrace canal is
long, numbers of spillway can be constructed in de-sanding basin and fore-bay. The excess flows
that are discharged via a spillway should be safely diverted into the stream or nearby gully such that
they do not cause any erosion or damage to other structures. Sometimes, this may require the
construction of a canal to the natural water course. Locating spillways close to a gully will save the
cost of canal construction.

Flood flow

hsp

hflood

Design Flow

Longitudinal section

Cross section

Fig. 2.3 Spillway

2.3.5 Fore-bay
A fore-bay is located at the end of headrace. A fore-bay is a wide and deep pool from which the
penstock draws water. The purpose of the fore-bay is to avoid air trapping by the water entering the
penstock, as the entry of air through the penstock may cause cavitation, which is a type of erosion
created by the explosion of trapped air bubbles under the high pressure, of both penstock and turbine.
It has air vet for the release of air. The water level at the fore-bay determines the operational
head of the micro-hydro scheme.
A small overflow is to be maintained from the fore-bay in order to avoid fluctuation of its level and
consequently the possible entry of air to the penstock. At the fore-bay to spill the entire design flow
7

in case of sudden valve closure at the powerhouse Such overflow may continue for long time if the
canal intake is not closed.
Air vent

Fine trashrack
3

300 mm
minimum

Penstock

hs

Spillway

1
Gate

Compact earth

Fig. 2.4 A fore-bay

Sediments get settled down in the fore-bay, as the speed of water is much slower in the fore-bay
compared to that in the headrace. Therefore a sediment flush system is provided in the fore-bay. A
spillway is to be provided from the fore-bay for safe passage of sediment flush and overflow water to
the river. At the outlet of the fore-bay, which is inlet of the penstock a trash rack is provided to
prevent the floating debris from entering the penstock. It has provided with a valve to regulate water
flow into the penstock pipe.

2.3.6 Penstock
A penstock is a close conduct pipe that conveys the flow from the fore-bay to the turbine. Penstock is
made of steel or HDPE, and rarely of timber. Recently PVC penstock has also been introduced. If
HDPE penstock is prevalent at lower heads, steel penstock is prevalent at higher heads. The MHP
head varies from a few meters to over hundred meters. Ghandruk MHP of Nepal, has a head of 220
m, which is the highest in Nepal among MHP. Mild steel and HDPE pipes are the most common
materials used for the penstock in MHP schemes. HDPE pipes are usually economical for low heads
and flows and are easy to join and repair.
The conversion of potential energy of water into kinetic energy takes place in the penstock. The
typical velocity of water in the penstock is around 3 m/sec. In order to reduce the head loss in
penstock it is desirable to make the penstock short and less bends. For this purpose penstock is
located in a steep slope, which is very often over 45 too. Above ground penstock pipes are subjected
to expansion or contraction in length as a result of changes in the ambient temperature. A sliding type
of expansion joint, is commonly used in MHP schemes. It can be placed between two consecutive
pipe lengths and can either be welded or bolted to the pipes.
Anchor blocks are used to holds the penstock to restrain the pipe movement in all directions. It is a
mass of concrete fixed into the ground. Support piers are short columns that are placed between
anchor blocks along straight sections of exposed penstock pipe. Support piers prevent the pipe from
sagging and becoming over stressed.
Penstock gate

Expansion joint
Vent pipe

Power house
Pipe joint
Valve

Side block
Anchor block

Fig 2.5 Components of penstock assembly

2.3.7 Powerhouse
The powerhouse accommodates electro-mechanical equipment such as the turbine, generator, agroprocessing units and control panels. Conversion of mechanical energy of water into electrical energy
takes place in the powerhouse. The main function of the powerhouse is to protect the electromechanical units from rain and other weather effects as well as possible mishandling by unauthorised person.
9

2.3.8 Tailrace
The tailrace is the final civil structure that conveys the design flow from the turbine (after power
generation) back into the stream, generally the same stream from which the water was initially
withdrawn. Similar to the headrace, open channel or pipes can be used for the tailrace section.
2.4 Turbine
2.4.1 Introduction
A hydraulic turbine is a prime mover that uses the energy of flowing water and converts it into the
mechanical energy (in the form of rotation of the runner). Science ancient time turbines are used
under the name of water wheels, made out of wood. The water wheels have very low efficiency and
short life.
There are different types and sizes of turbine available but the particular type and size for the
particular site is determined by,

Designed head and discharge at which the turbine is to operate,

Availability and cost of the turbine
Availability of skill man power after sales services and cost etc.

Particular speed of each turbine rotor at which it performs best is called its optimum speed. The
turbine needs to be operated at this speed at all loading conditions to get the maximum output.
2.4.2 Types of turbine
Principally, according to the working of turbine it can be categorized into two types, as impulse
turbines, and reaction turbines. Under these two main categories there comes many types of impulse
turbines which can be selected for given site.
Impulse Turbine.
There are three types of impulse turbines known as Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine and Cross flow
turbine. In these turbines the rotor rotates freely in atmospheric pressure. The rotor is never be
submerged in water of the tail race. It is kept above the tail race water level and the nozzles of these
turbines are free jet type. In this turbine pressure energy in water is converted into kinetic energy
when water passed through nozzle. Free high velocity water jet impinge on the bucket mounted on
the periphery of the runner. Impulse force on the bucket rotates the runner and shaft of turbine.
Reaction turbine
In reaction turbine s rotor remains immersed in water all the time and water acting on wheel is under
pressure which is greater than atmospheric pressure. Draft tube is an integral part of the reaction
turbine fitted at outlet. It runs by the reaction force of the exiting fluid. Potential energy and kinetic
energy of the fluid come to stationary part of turbine blades and partly changes potential energy and
kinetic energy. Moving part (runner) utilize both potential energy and kinetic energy of water.
2.5 Design Parameter:
2.5.1 Hydrology and site survey
Preparation for site survey
10

MHP plants are designed to produce electrical and mechanical power from water power. The power
is generated according to the demand of the local community. It is necessary to carry out survey to
collect information of power demand and willingness to pay for that. The sight survey should be
done for the MHPP potential to the demanded generation. Proper performance of the survey leads to
the success of the whole MHP schemes.
Adequate and accurate survey work is essential if the MHP project is implemented is to be
successful. Survey should included both technical and socio economical issues of the project.
Demand survey is mainly concerned with the counting of households and other potential consumers
(shops. lodges, offices, temples, schools, industry), who are ready to commit themselves to receive
power and pay for it, and with calculating the total demand for power. The survey can be conducted
before the comprehensive meeting or even before the reconnaissance of survey.
Appropriate time for survey should be selected. It is prepared to perform survey during dry period
with not much rain or cold or hot seasons or according of the specific site conditions. Documented
information about hydrology, geology, social structure of the selected site could be obtained from
different sources previous to the survey. It is very useful to acquire to collect topographical maps for
the project area. It is better to allocate experienced survey persons with helpers from the local
community. Generally the method to be used for survey should be done beforehand and list of
equipments for that should be carried or transported to the project site.
Map study of site
The objective of field survey for MHP project is to obtain necessary data and information of the
identified hydropower site and the electricity supply area to carry out the technical feasibility and
financial viability of the project.
Maps help to develop ideas and methods for the technical survey. It helps to design and locate water
intake, water way, fore-bay, power house and transmission system. Accurately design and locate all
the components of MHP plant will be formed after different stages of survey. Maps, chart or data for
climatic condition, ground condition, plantation, government policies are important tools for the
success of the project.
Meteorological data analysis
Power generated from energy plants mostly depends on flow conditions of the river streams. River
stream condition is affected by the meteorological condition of the site. Data obtained in the survey
is co-related with the previously existing data to develop data bank. More the wider data on the data
bank more will be reliability of the meteorological out put data. It is important to get meteorological
information of many years as possible.
2.5.1.1 Site survey
Site survey includes flow measurement (preferably during dry seasons), determination of head
needed to generate required rated power, land survey (including slopes and distances), location of
different civil components so that rated power could e generated.

Head measurement

11

The head in MHPP is determined by the location of he powerhouse and the fore-bay, which also
determine the route of the canal and intake. The surveyor should first calculate the value of gross
head required from the simplified power equation,
P=gHQ

(1.1)

Where,
P = minimum present power demand plus losses, W
= density of water, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H = elevation head of water, m
Q = flow rate of water, m3/s
= overall efficiency of MHP system
The surveyor then starts by tentatively selecting a suitable site for the powerhouse and the fore-bay
and measuring the height and distance between the two. The process of 'determining the head'
involves a lot of surveying including measurement of distances (both horizontal and along a slope),
heights, and angles and bends. At the same time geological and other conditions of the selected
locations must also be examined and evaluated to ensure that they are fit for constructing such
structures and that no natural or human/animal damage will result
Once suitable locations have been selected for all the civil structures, the available head and the
distances between these structures should be measured. There are different method for head
measurement. The head can be measured using one or two of the following methods. Some common
types generally used for MHP plant are as follows:
(i) Abney level (Clinometers)
Hand-held Abney level (sighting meters) measures angle of inclination of a slope. Since the method
demands that the linear distance along the slope is recorded, it can have the advantage of doubling as
a measure of the length of penstock pipe too.
Height is calculated as,
H = L sine
Where,
H = height, m
L = linear distance, m
= angle of inclination, degree

(1.2)

Other equipment needed are a measuring tape, two graded rods, marking pins pegs etc.

12

H4

L4

H3

L3

L1

H1

H2

L2

Fig. 1.1 Measuring head by Abney level (Clinometers)

ii) Water filled tubes
This method is useful for low head sites, since it is cheap and reasonably accurate. It consists of a
transparent plastic pipe (diameter between 4 and 10 mm is convenient) of both ends open. In this
pipe the water is filled. With the help of water level the height is measured. Other equipment needed
area transparent pipe (20m long and 4 to 10mm diameter), two graded rods, measuring tape marking
pins pegs etc.

Y1

Y3

B1

Y2

A2

Y5

Y4

13

H5

H4

H3

H2

H1

Bubble
error

Fig. 1.2 Measuring head by water filled tubes

(iii) Altimeter
New digital altimeters are easier to use and increasingly safe in inexperienced hands for initial and
rough measurements, specially for high heads. The method of measurement with an altimeter simply
involves taking the readings wherever needed, say at the site of the turbine, the fore-bay, and the
intake, and using the differences in readings to calculate the head, gradient, and other desired
quantities. The principle of the altimeter is that it measures the atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure gives elevation of the corresponding position. The readings of altimeter are affected by
changes of temperature and humidity.

14

Fig. 1.3 Measuring head by Altimeter

(iv) Other methods
There are many other methods that can be used to measure the head. Professional surveyors would
have no problem using them. For example, a simple plank to which a spirit level has been attached
can be used together with two graded rods to measure height differences between two positions.
Similarly, more accurate and expensive levels and theodolites can be used, but these require
considerable practice and skill to master. Consequently, the Abney level and water-filled tube
methods, which are fairly accurate, cheap, and easy to use, are probably the best methods for MHP
schemes with heads of less than 100m.
2.5.1.2 Flow measurement
Amount of water flow in one of the prime factor for generation of power using MHPP. Flow
measurement method for specific size and location of MHPP depends mainly upon the volume rate of
flow and condition of turbulancy. There are different method for flow measurement. Some common
types generally used for MHP plant are as follows:
Table 1.1 Different flow meter and their application:
Different flow meter

Field of application

1 ) The bucket method

For flow up to 20 l/s

2) The velocity-area method using

a) a flow meter

b) a float

For larger flow ( Q 20 l/s) with a depth of at

least 10 cm at deepest point
For larger or smaller flow with turbulence

15

3) The weir method

4) The salt dilution method

For larger flow ( Q 20 l/s) rectangular weir

and smaller flow triangular (vee-notch) weir
For smaller flow stream

(i) Bucket method

This is a very simple and accurate method if the flow is relatively small (Q < 2 0 l/s). A bucket or
other container of known size is used as to measure (Figure 1.4). All the water in the stream is
diverted into the bucket container through a pipe or a trough and the time taken to fill the container is
measured The flow, Q, is given by:
Q(l/s) = volume of container in liters / numbers of seconds to fill it

(1.3)

Fig. 1.4 Measuring flow by bucket method

(ii) Velocity area method
(a) Using a flow meter
This method is quite useful and reasonably accurate if a proper flow measuring instrument is
available. The basic technique is illustrated in Figure 1.5. A suitable point is selected carefully along
the stream; the cross-sectional area at this point is divided into different sections: the width, depth,
and profile are used to calculate the area of each section, and the average velocity of each section is
measured by a current meter (flow meter) held at its centre. The average flow is calculated using the
general formula for flow, Q:
Q= Ai vi

(1.4)

16

d4
V3

d2

d1

d3

V4

V1

V2

Fig. 1.5 Measuring flow by velocity area method (using a flow meter)

(b) Using a float

This method is similar to the above, but the flow is measured using a small floating object rather than
a flow meter. The object chosen should float partially submerged in the water and can be a piece of
light wood or a more elaborate, specially constructed float. The float is placed at the centre of the
stream and the time taken for it to travel a certain distance (or the distance covered in a certain time)
is measured. The surface velocity (vS) of the water at the centre of the stream is given by:
vS (m/s) = Distance travelled by float (m) / Time taken(s)
(1.5)
(iii) Weir method
Many types of weir can be used to measure the flow in streams. The method of measuring by two
different types of weir, and the equations used to calculate the flow Q, are shown in Figure 1.6. The
most convenient weir is the rectangular type, mainly because it can be constructed from wood on site
if an amateur carpenter is available. If the weir has been made properly, the flow measurement can be
accurate within 5 percent which is acceptable for MHP schemes.
.

17

L>3h

L'>2h

L'>2h

L'>2h

L'>2h

L">4h

L>2h

v<0.15 m/s

Fig. 1.6 Measuring flow by weir method

(iv) Salt-Dilution Method
This method of flow measurement is proving to be quite convenient, accurate, and quick for small,
shallow, and turbulent mountain streams. If the conductivity meter is well calibrated and the
measurement is carried out properly, the accuracy should be better than 7 per cent,' which is quite
acceptable for MHP schemes.
A known weight of pure dry salt is completely dissolved in a bucket full of water. The water is pour
to stream water as quickly as possible, but without muddying the water severely, at a pre-selected
location. The probe of the conductivity meter is immersed about 30 - 50m downstream near to the
bed and centre of the stream and conductivity readings are taken every five or 10 seconds. The
readings will rise, reach a peak, and fall back to the base level, over a period of time. Usually two
people are needed to take and record the readings.
The readings are taken continuously until the conductivity values have returned to normal (which
means that all the salt water has passed the probe). A graph of change in conductivity with time is
plotted, and the area under the curves calculated (Figure 1.7). If graph paper is used, the area can be
calculated easily by counting the squares. The temperature of the stream should also be measured.
The flow, Q, is then calculated by using the following equation:
Q (m3/s)= mass of salt in (kg) / [conversion factor (kg/m3/ohm-1) area under the curve (ohm-1s)]
(1.6)
The conversion factor, k, depends on the temperature, and its value is given in the manual for the
conductivity meter.
(v) Propeller device method
18

Often called current meters, consist of a shaft with a propeller or cups connected to the end. Propeller
is free to rotate and the speed of rotation is of course related to stream velocity. A simple mechanical
counter records the number of revolutions of a propeller placed at a desired depth. Main principle is
that current meters will be supplied with a formula relating rotational speed to the speed of the
stream. A simple propeller meter can be constructed & calibrated. Generally these devices are used
to measure velocities from 0.2 to 5 m/s with a probable error of approx. 2 percent.

730
Power house

720

Direction of flow

710

Weir

700
Penstock pipe
Canal with small slope

Forebay tank
Spillway

700
710
720

Contour line

730

2.6 Layout design of civil components of MHP system

Fig.2.1 Typical layout of micro-hydropower system

After receiving survey information like location, size, materials, head, flow and other parameters
leads to design of different civil components. Civil components consist of intake, weir, headrace
canal, settling basin, spillways, fore-bay, penstock, anchor blocks, support piers, expansion joints,
19

powerhouse etc. The ideal layout of a scheme depends on appropriate site selection. Design and
existence of the components are specific to the selected site.
2.6.1 Intake and weir
Weir and intake structure helps in regulating and controlling the water flowing (at fairly constant rate)
in headrace during high river flow and low river flow conditions. The function of the weir is to
maintain a permanent water level above the intake mouth during both high and low flow seasons. A
weir should be constructed to raise the water level in the river upstream if the adequate river flow
cannot be diverted naturally into the intake during the low flow period.
The weir may be of natural or an artificial weir (temporary or permanent construction). There are
two common types of temporary weir, weir across the whole or weir across the part width of river
stream. The length of the weir across the river should be kept to a minimum. The part width weir
can further be extended if more river flow needs to be diverted.

Direction of flow
Diversion dam
Canal

Canal

Other
important design parameter being the height of weir. For both permanent and temporary weirs, the
height should be kept as low as possible but enough to divert the required flow. In order to
determine the height of a temporary or permanent weir the river depth/level during the dry
season must be known together with the upper height of the orifice of the intake mouth.

20

Fig. 2.2 Natural and temporary weir with side intake

The intake height should be such that the water level rises above the upper edge of the orifice.
The height of temporary weirs may have to be increased or decreased during the operation of the
plant. The weir height should be as low as possible. This makes the structure more stable, less
susceptible to flood damage and also minimises sediment deposition. Weir should be designed with
gradual slopes so that boulders can roll over the weir and also discourages sediment deposition
upstream of the weir.
Overview of intake
The receiving a flow from river in required quantity and that directing it towards the waterways of
a hydropower system with minimal structural interventions is called intake. The intake should be
so designed that the head loss is minimal and the entry of excessive flow as well as bed load and
other floating debris are minimised during flood and high-flow season. Design of intake should
be simple, less expensive and stable.

Flow

Flow

Suitable location
for intake
Unsuitable location
for intake

Intake Prepared
by large boulders

Large
boulders

Canal

The
location of an intake structure must be so chosen that the largest possible portion of the bed load
remains in the river and is not diverted into the headrace. It is desirable to locate the intake behind
or under large, permanently placed boulders or rock. This limits the water that can enter the
intake, and deflect flood flows and river borne debris away. Advantage can also be taken of stable
banks and rock outcrops. If we have to design intake in river bend, outer bend is preferable as it
limits sediment deposition and to ensure flow availability during the dry season. In straight
sections the location of the intake is governed by factors such as bank stability and headrace
alignment.

21

Fig. 2.3 Suitable and unsuitable locations for an intake

Types of intake structure are chiefly distinguished by the method used to divert water from the
river. In micro hydropower, mainly two types of intake considered are side intake and bottom
intake.
Side intake
Side intake is designed as an extension of the headrace canal capable of conveying the design
flow and extent it to the side of the river bank. Side intakes are most commonly used in MHP
schemes since they are simple and less expensive than other types and most suitable for run-of-theriver type plants. They are easy to build, operate and maintain. Side intake could be vulnerable to
flood so it normally includes an orifice downstream of the trash rack at the river bank, through
which water is initially drawn in to the headrace to limit excessive flows during floods and to
minimise the amount of sediment.

22

Side intake
Weir

River
Flow direction

Fig. 2.4 Side intake with temporary diversion

i) Design of orifice for side intake
A side intake normally includes an orifice downstream of the trashrack at the riverbank, through
which water is initially drawn into the headrace. It allows the design flow to enter into the
headrace during normal conditions but limits excess flows during floods. It should be sized such
that it is submerged at the time of design flow during the low flow season, and it will also limit
excess flows during floods. It is economic and feasible to construct such an orifice for a MHP
intake. Sometimes, the side intake is just a continuation of the headrace canal up to the riverbank
excess flow cannot be controlled during floods in such design.
1. The discharge through an orifice when submerged is given as
h
h rh
..(2.1)
2g

Q= A x V = A x C

23

Hr-Hh
Orifice

Hh

Hr

River flow level

Datum
A section through submerged
orifice

A section through weir

Fig. 2.5 SectionsWthrough a weir and a submerged orifice

where,
Q = discharge through the orifice in m 3/s
V = velocity through the orifice in m/s
A = area of orifice in m 2
h r -h h = difference between the river and the headrace canal water levels
C = coefficient of discharge of the orifice
2. For a sharp edged and roughly finished, fully submerged concrete or masonry orifice
structure value of C can be as low as 0.6 and for a carefully finished and smooth opening it
can be up to 0.8. The value of C decreases with the amount of turbulence induced by the
intake.
3. The value of (hr - hh) will vary according to the discharge in the river since a higher water
level in the river will produce a greater head at the orifice.
4. The maximum velocity for a well constructed concrete/ masonry orifice is 3 m/s. If the velocity
exceeds this value, the orifice surface will be scoured. For micro-hydro, the recommended
velocity through the orifice during normal flow is 1.0 - 1.5 m/s. However, if the orifice is
24

directly at the river (without a trashrack) the velocity should be less than 1.0 m/s to avoid
drawing bed load into the intake.
5. If a weir is placed across the river, the flood level may be somewhat higher than
before since the weir raises the water level. For temporary weirs this is not a problem
since they normally get washed away during high flow condition. If a permanent weir is used,
allowances should be made for this when calculating h r as by adding the weir height above the
measured food level.
Example: Design of orifice for side intake
Design a suitable size of an orifice for a design flow of 250 l/s. The normal water level in the river is
0.8 m above the bed level. The design flood level is about 0.6 m above the normal water level. What
is the discharge through the orifice during such a flood?
1. Given:
Design flow, Q = 0.250 m3/s
Normal water level in the river, hr = 0.8 m
Design flood level, hf =0.8 m + 0.6 m = 1.4 m
2. Let velocity through the orifice, V = 1.2 m/s
(since for MHP the recommended velocity through the orifice during normal flow is 1.0 - 1.5
m/s.)
Area of orifice, (A) = Q/v = (0.250 m3/) / (1.2 m/s) = 0.21 m2
3. A = Orifice height (H) Width of orifice (B)
Let Orifice height (H) = 0.2 m (consider)
Width of orifice (B) = A / H = (0.21 m2) / (0.2 m) = 1.05 m
4. Let bottom of orifice 0.2 m above the river bed level
(This value is normally taken for MHP this will minimise the bed load. Also, set the datum at
the river bed level.)
5. Let water level at headrace canal, hh = 0.5 m with respect to the datum as shown in Fig.2.6 (i.e.
100 mm above the upper edge of orifice to ensure submerged condition. Later the headrace canal
will have to be designed accordingly.)
h
h rh
6.
2g

Q= A x V = A x C
Let C = 0.6 (for roughly finished masonry orifice)
Q=0.21 x 0.6 [2 x 9.81(0.80.5)]=0.31 m3 /s = 310 l/s
Q required = 250 l/s
7. Therefore orifice design is OK. Since the designed orifice can deliver 310 l/s
8. Discharge through the orifice during flood flow:

25

h
h rh
2g

Q= A x V = A x C
Let C = 0.6 (for roughly finished masonry orifice)
Qflood =0.21 x 0.6 [2 x 9.81(1.40.5)]=0.529 m3 / s = 530 l/s
Q flood = 530 1/s
2.6.2 Trashracks
Trashracks are placed at the intake to prevent logs, boulders and other large water-born objects from
entering the waterway. It is also placed at fore-bay to prevent leaves, twigs and branches from
entering the penstock. The trashrack at the intake is also known as "coarse trashrack" since the bar
spacing is wider here compared to the trashrack at the fore-bay. The spacing, strength, type (flats or
angles) depends on particle size of the sediments carried by the river flow (i.e. bed load), type of
intake and other provision for a settling basin in the canal system. The trashrack for intakes can be
manufactured from flat steel, angles, tees or round bars welded together at fixed intervals. It is also
important to place the trashrack such that the bars are along the direction of flow, this minimises the
risk of clogging.
Trashracks for side intakes are coarse trashrack not designed to exclude gravel and sediment. The size
of the trashrack should be such that the water velocity is approximately 0.6 m/s (a lower velocity is
uneconomic, whereas a high velocity tends to attract bed load and debris, and results in increased
head loss). Since boulders can frequently impact the coarse trashrack, it needs to be robust, i.e. thick
steel sections should be used. Depending on the length and width of the opening, nature of the
sediment load and the required flow, a clear spacing of 50 mm to 200 mm can be used.

Direct intake

Side intake

Shape
of
trashrack of bottom intake is also very important, since this affects the chances of clogging. Round
bars, for example, are more prone to clogging, because the opening in the middle is smaller than on
the top. The section chosen must be strong enough to withstand impact by any bed load moving
during floods. The recommended clear spacing between these flats, angles or bars is 6 to 15 mm and
26

a commonly used spacing is 12 mm. The reason why these bars are closer than those of the side
intake trashrack is that gravel also needs to be excluded from the bottom intake. If the openings are
too narrow, there is a high chance of clogging necessitating frequent cleaning of the trashrack. One of
the drawbacks of the bottom intake is the clogging of trashrack by pebbles and dry leaves. Especially
during the dry season, the river may carry a lot of leaves, which become trapped in the trashrack and
reduce the flow through it. Therefore the trashrack needs to be cleaned periodically during the dry
season. During monsoon, this is not a problem; the river flow sweeps the gravel and leaves before
they can clog the trashrack.

Fig. 2.9 Trashrack

2.6.3 Headrace canal
The headrace of a micro-hydropower scheme is a canal or a pipe that conveys water from the intake
to the fore-bay. The headrace alignment is usually make gently sloping ground and the flow is caused
by gravity. Since canals are generally less expensive than pipes, they are used more often for
headraces in micro-hydro schemes. The general rule is to use canals as often as possible and to use
pipes only for the difficult stretch of the headrace alignment, such as to negotiate cliffs or unstable
areas. A headrace pipe is generally not subjected to significant hydraulic pressure. They are designed
to keep seepage, friction and erosion to a minimum. The velocity in the initial headrace length needs
to be high enough to carry gravel and sediment up to the gravel trap and settling basin respectively.
However, for headrace alignments on stable ground where seepage is not likely to cause instability,
earth canals are the most economic option.
Many types of headrace canal made of different materials and using different methods of construction
are used in MHP schemes. The types and the design depends on site condition (seepage, land slide,
crossing) and availability of material and manpower. The types of canal and methods of designing the
various components are described in the following sections
Earth canal
These are constructed by simply excavating the ground to the required canal shape. Such canals are
used on stable and gently sloping ground where seepage is not likely to cause instability such as
landslides, earth canals are the most economic option. Compaction of the earth and planting
vegetation on the canal banks will increase stability and reduce seepage.
Stone masonry in mud mortar canal
There will be less seepage from this type of canal than from an earthen canal, but the
construction will require more labor, materials, and funds. These canals should be used where a
small amount of seepage will not cause slope instability, or where flow is limited, that is there is
no extra flow that can be diverted into the canal to compensate for seepage. For similar flows,
the cross section of this type of canal can be smaller than the earth canal because a higher
velocity is acceptable without causing erosion.
27

Stone masonry in cement mortar canal

In this type seepage is minimal but more expensive in comparison with earthen or stone-mud canals.
A stone masonry in cement mortar canal should be used at locations where the soil type is porous
(leading to losses of unacceptable amounts of flow) and seepage is likely to cause landslides.
Concrete canal
Most micro-hydro schemes do not have headrace canals constructed of concrete since they are
very expensive. There is virtually no seepage through such canals. Sometimes, reinforced
concrete canals are used for short crossings. Generally, HDPE headrace pipes are more economic
than concrete canals.
Covered canals and pipes
Where stones and other debris are likely to fall from above the headrace route, the canal can either be
covered or pipes may be used. Flat stones are an economical way of covering canals; an expensive
alternative is to use reinforced concrete slabs. Buried pipes made, for example, from HDPE also offer
protection from falling debris. Another advantage of HDPE pipes is that they are flexible and can
adjust to a certain amount of ground movement. Pipes should be used at crossings where the ground
is unstable and/or steep and at other locations where open canals are not possible.
Either an open channel or low-pressure pipes (or a combination of these) should be used as the
headrace. Flow velocity is able to carry gravel and sediment and not to cause erosion to channel wall
and base. It should be unlined or stone masonry in 1:4 cement mortar or reinforced concrete is better.
Sometimes the headrace or the penstock alignment may need to cross gullies and small streams.
Crossings are such structures that convey the flow over streams, gullies or across unstable terrain
subject to landslides and erosion.
Pipes may be required along the headrace alignment where slopes are unstable and where landslides
may occur. The use of flexible pipes is when the entire hillside is slowly sliding (i.e. mass movement
is occurring) and part of the headrace alignment needs to traverse it. HDPE pipes are often used to
address the above problems. These pipes are flexible enough to accommodate some ground movement
and can be joined by heat welding.
Design criteria of the headrace canal
The canal dimensions and cross-section are governed by the following criteria.
-

Capacity
Velocity
Slope of the side
Head loss and seepage
Stability
Economics
Sediment deposition in canal

Table 2.2 Recommended side slopes and maximum headrace canals velocities

28

Maximum recommended
Side slope
velocity for canals (V)
Canal material
(N = h/v)
less than 1 m
less than 0.3m depth
depth
Sandy loam
1.5 to 2 0 0. 4
07
Loam
1.0 to 1.5 0. 5
08
Clay loam
1.25
0.6
0.9
Clay
1.0
0.8
1.0
Stone masonry with mud mortar
0.5 to 1.0 1.0
1.0
Stone masonry with cement mortar 0 to 1.5
1.5
1.5
Concrete
0 to I.5
2.0
3.0

Table 2.3 Roughness Coefficients for Different Canals

Canal type

Description

Roughness
coefficient 'n'

Earthen
canals

Clay, with stones and sand, after ageing

Gravelly or sandy loam, maintained with

minimum vegetation
Lined with coarse stones, maintained with
minimum vegetation
Rock canals Medium coarse rock muck
Rock muck from careful blasting
Very coarse rock muck, large irregularities
Rubble masonry with mud mortar
Masonry
Brickwork, bricks, and/or clinker with wellcanals
pointed cement mortar
Normal masonry with cement mortar
Coarse rubble masonry and coarsely hewn
stones with cement mortar
Concrete
Smooth cement finish
canals
Concrete for which wood formwork was
used, un-plastered
Tamped concrete with smooth surface
Coarse concrete lining
29

0.020
0.030
0.040
0.037
0.045
0.059
0.025
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.010
0.015
0.016
0.018

Irregular concrete surface

0.020

Design for headrace canal

1. Decide the canal type according to the site conditions and stability.
2. Choose a suitable velocity (V) for the type of canal selected by referring to Table 2.2. and find
the roughness coefficient (n) from the same Table 2.2. Note that unacceptable head loss may
result if chosen velocities are close to maximum velocity.
3. Calculate cross-sectional area (A) from the equation A = Q / V
(2.6)
Where Q is the design flow
4. Using Table 2.2, decide on the side slope (N). Note that N is the ratio of the horizontal length
divided by the vertical height of the side wall (i.e. N = h/v as shown in Figure 2.10.
5. Calculate the optimum canal height (H), canal bed width (B), and the canal top width (T) using
the following equations:
= 2 (1+N2)-2N
(2.7)
H = A / ( + N)
(2.8)
B=H
(2.9)
T=B+(2HN)
(2.10)

30

v
h
B
Fig. 2.10 Headrace canal with trapezoidal cross-section
is the factor used to optimise the canal shape, for a rectangular canal N= 0 and
(A / 2), T = B = 2 H

=2, H =

If an optimum canal shape is not possible due to site specific conditions (such as narrow width along
a cliff) then either the width or the height should be selected to suit the site conditions. Then the other
dimension can be calculated.
6. To ensure stable and uniform flow in a long canal, the velocity must be less than 80% of the
"critical velocity, Vc.
Vc = (Ag / T)
(2.11)
For a rectangular canal Vc= (H g )
(2.12)
If the canal velocity is greater than 0.8V then repeat calculations with lower velocity.
7. Calculate the wetted perimeter (P) using the following equation:
P= B + 2 hr (1+N2)
For rectangular canal, P=B+2H

(2.13)
(2.14)

8. Calculate the hydraulic radius (R) as follows: R = A/P

(2.15)

9. The slope (S) can now be found from Manning's equation:

S = [n V / R 0.667]8
(2.16)
Now all dimensions required for the construction of the canal are known.

31

10. Calculate the head loss in canal by: Head loss = L S (2.17)
where L = length of the canal section. If the slope of the canal varies along different sections,
calculate the head loss for each section and add them up. If the loss is too high, or if the actual
ground slope differs from the calculated canal slope, repeat the calculations using different
velocities. Again Manning's equation ca be rewrite for H,
Q = [(BH + NH2) 5/3 S ] / [n { B+2H (1+N2)}2/3]

(2.18)

12. Allow a freeboard of about 300mm for Q 500 l/s and 400m for 500 l/s Q 1000 l/s. Free
board allows for uncertainties in the design (e.g. the value of `n' may differ by 5% to 10% from
estimate), water level being above the design level due to obstruction in the canal or during
emergencies and deterioration of the canal embankment.
13. Calculate the size of the largest particle that will be transported in the canal:
d = 11 RS
(2.19)
If this is less than the possible size in the canal, repeat the design using a higher velocity.
14. Check that possible flood flow in canal can be accommodated without using more than 50% of
the freeboard.
15. Find the total head loss. If this is too high or too small, repeat the calculations with a different
velocity. Consider using different types of canal keeping the overall cost in mind.
16. Avoid a canal width of less than 300 mm as narrow canals can be easily blocked. Also for
stone masonry canals, smaller sizes are difficult to construct.
Example: Design of a headrace canal
Design a headrace canal to convey a flow of 285 1/s. Site conditions indicate that the canal would be
stable if stone masonry in mud mortar is used. The expected flow through the intake during a 20year return flood is about 480 1/s.
1. Canal type: stone masonry in mud mortar Q = 0.285 m 3/s
From Table 2.3 Roughness coefficient n = 0.035
From Table 2.2, for gravelly earth, select side slope, N= 0.5, (lh/2v) and V = 1.0 m/s
Cross sectional area, A = 0.285/1.0 = 0.285 m 2
=2(1+N2) -2N
=2 (1+0.52) -20.5
= 1.236
2.
Calculate the water depth in the canal H
H = [A / ( + N)]
H = [0.285 / (1.236+0.5)]
H = 0.405 m
3. Calculate the bed width, B
B=H
B = 0.405 1.236
B = 0.50m
4. Calculate the top width up to the design water level
T = B + (2HN)
32

T = 0.50 + (2 0.405 0.5)

T = 0.905 m
5. Check if V < 0.8 Vc
Vc= [Ag /T ] = [0.285 9.8/ 0.905]
VC = 1.76 m/s
0.8Vc =1.41m V=1.0 m/s
Hence the design is OK.

0.40 m

0.30 m

0.9 m

2
1
0.50 m
Fig. 2.11 Proposed internal canal dimensions

6. Calculate the wetted perimeter, P

P=B+2H(1+N2)
P=0.5+2 0.405(1+0.52)
P = 1.406 m
7. Calculate the hydraulic radius, R
R = A/P = 0.285 / 1.406
R = 0.203 m
8. Calculate the required canal bed slope, S
33

S = [nV / R 0.667 ] 2 = [0.0351 0.203 0.667 ] 2

S = 0.0103 or 1:97 (i.e. 1 m of drop in 97 m of horizontal canal length)
Finally allow 300 mm of freeboard. The canal dimensions can be seen in Figure
9. Check the flow depth for maximum flood flow in the canal
Q = [(BH + NH2) 5/3 0.0103 ] / [0.035 { B+ 2H (1+N2)}2/3]
0.480= [(0.5 H + 0.5 H2) 5/3 (1 / 975] / [0.02 { 0.5 +2H (1+0.52)}2/3]
By trial and error method, the above equation is balanced when H = 0.55 m. Therefore, the flood flow
occupies 50% of the freeboard (the maximum allowed, as discussed earlier) and the head on the
spillway (h overtop ) will be 100 mm.
11. Check the size of particle that will settle in the canal at a velocity of 1.0 m/s.
D=11RS = 11 x 0.203 x 0.0103 = 23 mm
12. The particles larger than 23 mm would settle in this headrace canal. Therefore, to avoid
deposition upstream of the settling basin, the gravel trap must be designed to remove all
particles greater than 23 mm.
2.6.4 Spillway

Flood flow

hsp

hflood

Design Flow

Longitudinal section

Cross section

Excess
flow that enters into the intake during flood flow needs to be spilled as early as possible to minimize
foundation erosion, channel collapse in headrace canal. This is achieved by incorporating a spillway
close to the intake and easy access distance during flood condition. If the headrace canal is long,
numbers of spillway can be constructed so that the entire design flow can be diverted if the canal is
blocked as a result of falling debris or landslides. It is also constructed in silt basin and fore-bay. At
the fore-bay to spill the entire design flow in case of sudden valve closure at the powerhouse as may
occur during emergencies. Here it consists of a means of canal emptying combined with control
gates. The excess flows that are discharged via a spillway should be safely diverted into the stream
or nearby gully such that they do not cause any erosion or damage to other structures. Sometimes,
this may require the construction of a canal to the natural water course. Locating spillways close to a
gully will save the cost of canal construction.
34

Fig. 2.12 A spillway

Design of spillway
1. The sizing of the spillway is based on
Lspillway = (Qflood Qdesign) / Cw (hflood hsp)1.5
where,
Lspillway, is length of the spillway in m
Qflood is the flood flow that enters the intake in m 3/s
Qdesign is the design flow in the headrace canal in m3/s
hflood is the height of the flood level in the canal in m
hsp is the height of the spillway crest from the canal bed in m
hovertop = hflood hsp is head overtop

(2..20)

2. Cw = a coefficient (similar to weir coefficient) which aries according to the spillway profile. C w
for different weir profiles. Choose a spillway profile and determine C w . For MHP, a broad,
round edged profile (C w = 1.6) is suitable since it is easy to construct.
3. Calculate the flow through the intake during floods . The spillway should be sized such that
the entire flood flow can be diverted away from the canal. This is because the micro-hydro
system could be closed during flood or there could be an obstruction in the canal.

35

4. The design procedure involves first calculating the maximum height of the water level in the
canal during a flood (hflood). Then the height of the spillway crest (h sp) is set such that it is about
50 mm higher than the design water level. This ensues that part of the design flow is not spelled,
which would decrease the power output.
5. A coefficient for a road crested weir of a spillway with round edges and easy to construct is
considered as 1.6 for MHP.
6. Spillway crest level should be 0.05 m above normal canal water level. No more than 50% of
the freeboard should be used. Therefore, with a generally used freeboard of 300 mm, the
available h overtop is 0.5 x 0.30 - 0.05 = 0.10 m. The required length can then be calculated for
the chosen h overtop and flood flow.
7. Where there is no pounding immediately downstream, such as in the headrace canal, the spillway
length calculated above equation should be multiplied by 2. This accounts for the gradual
decrease in head over the spillway, until the required level is reached at the downstream end of
the spillway. In this case only the excess flow (Q flood - Qdesign) should be used. Note that in such
cases, locating the spillway immediately upstream of an orifice will increase the flow through the
weir.
Example: Spillway design
Astone masonry in mud mortar headrace canal convey a design flow of 285 1/s. The expected flow
through the intake during a 20-year return flood is about 480 1/s. Design an adequate spillway.
Let head overtop is 100 mm.
Note that two cases need to be checked as follows:
1. The spillway must be able to convey the entire flood flow of 4801/s in case the headrace canal
downstream gets obstructed (pounding case).
2. The spillway should be able to spill the excess flow (480 l/s - 2851/s) when there is no obstruction
downstream. The calculated maximum spillway length should be used in the design.
Case 1:
1. Choose a broad crested weir with round edges profile, so Cw = 1.6
Qspiilway = 4801/s
Qdesign = 0 1/s
hovertop = 100 mm calculated earlier.
Now calculate the length of the spillway,
Lspillway = (Qflood Qdesign) / Cw (hflood hsp)1.5
= (0.480-0) / 1.6 ( 0.1)1.5
= 9.5 m

36

Case 2:
Qspillway = 4801/s
Qdesign = 285 1/s
hovertop = 100 mm calculated earlier.
Now calculate the length of the spillway,
Lspillway = 2 (Qflood Qdesign) / Cw (hflood hsp)1.5
= 2 (0.480-285) / 1.6 ( 0.1)1.5
= 7.7 m
Therefore a spillway length of 9.5 m is required for the above canal (which solve both Case 1 and
case 2).
2.6.5 Settling basins
Most rivers carry a substantial quantity of sediment of different sizes (in the form of gravel,
sand or finer material) depending on the river characteristics, geology of the catchments area
and the discharge. Also steeper rivers of some types carry cobbles and even move large
boulders during annual floods. Intakes are located and designed to prevent boulders and
cobbles from entering into the system but sediments like gravel, sand or finer material cannot
be entirely eliminated. Large particles can block the headrace and reduce its capacity.
Suspended sediment can cause severe wear on the turbine runner, seals and bearings, since the
flow velocity at runner is high.
A settling basin is to settle the suspended particles present in the diverted river flow. The basic
principle of settling basin is the greater the basin surface area and the lower the through velocity
the smaller the particles that can settle. Settling basin can further divided into sand trap
(commonly known as settling basin) which settle sediment size less than 0.3 mm and gravel trap
for larger sediments. To reduce costs, one settling basin (sand trap) should be combined with the
fore-bay or combined with the gravel trap but with adequate size, if possible according to site
conditions. If flood or excess flows can reach the settling basin, such as when it is combined with
the gravel trap, a spillway should be incorporated and sized adequately. A trashrack could also be
an additive in settling basin.
Settling basin should be located at a safe place but as close to the intake as possible. The settling
capacity should be large enough to reduce the velocity sufficiently to settle the sediments in the basin.
It should be easy to flush the deposited silt. The basin should have a sufficient volume to storage
capacity the settled particles until they are flushed (a flushing frequency of twice a day, i.e. 12 hours
for wet and dry season). It should be possible to lead the discharge and sediments flushed from the
basin safely into the river or a nearby gully without causing erosion or damage to other struc tures. Sharp bends should be avoided just before or within the basin since they cause turbu lent
flows which prevent the settling of particles.
Components of settling basin
Inlet zone
This is the initial zone where the transition from the headrace to the settling basin occurs and
there is a gradual expansion in the basin width. Gradual expansion of the inlet channel about 1:5
(1 = 11) as shown in Figure 2.13. This will allow an even flow distribution at the beginning of the
settling zone. The vertical expansion ratio can be higher at about 1:2 (1= 27).
37

Ystorage

Outlet zone

L
Side view

38

Free board

Settling zone

Inlet zone

Inlet

Settling

Outlet

Top view

Fig.2.13 A settling basin (side and top view)

Settling zone
Particles are settled, stored and flushed in this zone. The length of this zone is longer than the inlet
or the outlet zones. A range of 4 to 10 is recommended for the ratio of the length to width (L/B).
Provision for flushing the stored sediment should be at the end of the settling basin. A floor slope of
1:2 to 1:5 in the settling zone facilitates flushing.
Outlet zone
This forms the transition from the settling zone to the headrace. The transition can be more abrupt
than the inlet expansion (i.e., horizontally 1:2 or 2 = 26.50 and vertically 1:1 as shown in Figure
2.13. Note that if the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay, then this zone is not necessary.
Flushing arrangement
There are various ways of removing the stored sediment from the settling basin. An appropriate
method for micro-hydro settling basins is the "hallow vertical flush pipe". In this system it can spill
some excess flow such as during floods when the water level in the basin is above the normal level.
However, in practice, a larger basin area is required because of the turbulence of the water in the
basin; imperfect flow distribution at the entrance; and the need to converge (sometimes curve) the
39

flow towards the exit.

Design of settling basin
1. Choose a suitable basin width. W, two to five times the width of the headrace canal, depending
upon the available width at the site (the larger the better).
2. Calculate the settling length (Lsettling) using the following equation:
Lsettling = 2Q / (W Vvertical)
(2.21)
where,
Q = design flow in m3/s.
Vvertical = fall velocity, taken as 0.03 m/s for the value for 0.3mm particles.
Normally, the length of the settling basin should be four to 10 times the width.
3. Calculate the expected silt load, Sload in the basin using the following equation:
Sload = Q T C
(2.22)
where,
Sload = silt load in kg stored in the basin
Q = discharge in m3/s
T = silt emptying frequency in seconds Use 12 hours = 12 x 60 x 60 = 43,200 seconds
C = silt concentration of the incoming flow in kg/m 3, use 0.5 kg/m3 in the absence of actual silt
concentration data.
4. Now calculate the volume of the silt load using the following equation:
VOsilt = Sload / (Sdensity Pfactor)
(2.23)
where,
VOsilt = volume of silt stored in the basin in m3.
Sdensity = density of silt, use the value 2.600kg/m3 unless other reliable data are available
Pfactor = packing factor of sediments submerged in water = 0.5 (50%).
5. Calculate the average collection depth required, Dcollection
The settling zone should have the capacity to store the calculated value of VO silt. This storage
space is achieved by increasing the depth of the basin for the area calculated earlier.
Dcollection = VOsilt / (Lsettling W)
(2.24)
6. A tapered entry ensures that the incoming flow is evenly distributed in the basin. The entry
length should have a slope of 1:4. The exit length can be shorter, with a slope of up to 1:2. Note
that no exit length is required if the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay.
Example: Settling basin
Design a settling basin such that canal depth is 0.5m, gross flow rate is 132 l/s and the particles larger
than 0.3 mm are not allowed. The possible emptying frequency (T hours) during most of the year,
when the carrying load (S) is 0.5 kg/m3, be twice daily.
1. Calculate the settling length (Lsettling)
Qgross = 0.132 m3/s
Let W =2 m; Vvertical = 0.03 m/s (from table)
Lsettling = 2Q / (W Vvertical) = (2 0.132) / (2 0.03) = 2.2 m
2. Calculate the expected silt load
T = silt emptying frequency in seconds = 12 hours = 12 x 60 x 60 = 43,200 seconds
Sload = Q T C = 0.132 43200 0.5 = 2851 kg
40

3. Now calculate the volume of the silt load

Let, Sdensity = density of silt, use the value 2600 kg/m3
Pfactor = packing factor of sediments submerged in water = 0.5 (50%).
VOsilt = Sload / (Sdensity Pfactor )= 2851 / (2600 0.5) = 2.2 m3
4. Calculate the average collection depth required, Dcollection
Dcollection = VOsilt / (Lsettling W) = 2.2 / (2.2 2) = 0.5 m
5. In practice, some extra volume is available to tapering which allows a safety factor in this design.
6. Note that Dsettling is equal to the channel depth. In order to avoid turbulence tapered entrance and
exit lengths are needed. The design rule for these is to make them each equivalent in length to one
basin width i.e. 2 m.
2.2 m

2m

0.5 m

2m

Settling

2m

Inlet

41

Outlet

Fig. 2.14 Designed dimension of settling basin

2.6.6 Fore-bay
A fore-bay is a tank located at the end of the headrace and the beginning of the penstock pipe. It is a
structure that allows for the transition from open channel to pressure flow conditions. The water
level at the fore-bay determines the operational head of the micro-hydro scheme. The function
of the fore-bay is to provide adequate submergence for the penstock mouth so that the transition
from an open channel to pressure flow in a pipe can occur smoothly. Here water slows down for
shot time and escape entrapped air and settle silt. It controls the flow into penstock and ensure
smooth and without turbulence. It releases the surge pressure as the wave travels out of the penstock
pipe. It can also serve as a secondary/final settling basin and trap some particles that enter the
headrace downstream of the settling basin. In short headrace fore-bay combines with settling basin.
If the length of the headrace canal between the settling basin and the fore-bay is long, then
sediment can enter the canal, fore-bay should also be designed to serve as a secondary settling
basin. A spillway should be incorporated with it sudden shut down of penstock. Although very rare
in micro-hydro schemes, the fore-bay can also provide water storage for use during peak power
demand period.
Design of fore-bay
Structurally, the forebay tank is similar to the settling basin except that the outlet transition is
replaced by a trashrack and the entrance into the penstock pipe.
1. Submergence head
The position of the submergence head (depth of water above the crown of the penstock pipe) is
shown in figure 2.15. If the head is too small, the pipe will draw in air and the flow in the
penstock will fluctuate. The minimum submergence head required for the penstock pipe can be
calculated as follows.
h s 1.5 V 2 /2g
(2.25)
where, V = velocity in the penstock.
2. Storage depth
Storage depth below the pipe invert should be allowed for. A depth of 300 mm or equal to
the pipe diameter, whichever
is larger is recommended
for this purpose.
Fig. 2.5.1(1)Settling
basin
3. Structure and size
Its shape is similar to settling basin with outlet zone. The minimum size of the fore-bay should
be such that a person can get in and be able to clean it, occasionally, at least during the annual
maintenance period. The minimum clear width required for this is 1 m. If possible, the forebay should also be sized such that 15 seconds of the design flow can be safely stored in the
42

tank above the minimum pipe submergence level. This is more important if the scheme consists
of a headrace pipe instead of a canal. There can be small transient surges in the headrace pipe
which result in uneven flow. The 15 second storage capacity helps to balance such uneven flows.
4. A gate valve
A gate at the entrance of the penstock will make maintenance work on the turbine easier. The
gate can be closed and the penstock emptied so that work can be carried out on the turbine.
Rapid closure of the gate, however, could create negative pressure (i.e., a vacuum) inside the
pipe and even cause it to collapse.
5. An air vent
An air vent should be placed as shown in figure 2.15, prevent such a situation. Air can then be
drawn from the air vent pipe into the penstock
Diameter of air vent, dairvent is given as,
dairvent = Q [(F/E )(D / teffective)3]
where,
dairvent= internal diameter of air vent in mm
Q = maximum flow of water through turbine l/s
E = youngs modulus for the penstock N/mm2
D = penstock diameter mm
teffective = effective penstock wall thickness at upper end mm
F = safety factor, 5 for buried and 10 for exposed pipe
Air vent

300 mm
minimum

hs

Spillway

Fine trashrack
Penstock

(2.26)

1
Gate

Compact earth

43

Fig. 2.15 A fore-bay

6. Trashrack
The trashrack at the fore-bay should be placed at a slope of 1:3 both for efficient hydraulic
perform and ease of cleaning (by raking, for example). To minimise head loss and blockage, the
recommended velocity through the trashrack. 0.6 m/s, but a maximum of 1 m/s could be used.
The spacing between the trashrack bars should be about half the nozzle diameter for Pelton
turbines and half the pacing between blades for crossflow turbines. This prevents the turbines
from being obstructed by sediments and minimises the chances of surge. Cleaning of the
trashrack can be minimised by fixing it such that it is submerged during the design flow or
some additional flow (than the design flow) will be constantly required.
7. Spillway
As discussed earlier, a spillway should also be incorporated at the fore-bay. The spillway should
be sized such that it can release entire design flow when the turbine valve is closed during
emergencies.
2.6.7 Penstock
A penstock is a close conduct pipe that conveys the flow from the fore-bay to the turbine. The penstock
pipe starts where the ground profile is steep. Small portion of water energy is used to convey water
from intake to fore-bay. The penstock alignment should be chosen steep such all the remaining water
energy in the form of elevation is converted into pressure and velocity energy in penstock. The
penstock pipe conveys water under high.
Penstock constitutes major expense in the total micro-hydro construction cost. Therefore it is
worthwhile optimising penstock design. This involves a careful choice of pipe material, an economical diameter such that the head loss is within acceptable limits and wall thickness so the pipe is safe
for the designed head and strong enough to withstand any high pressure (surge) that may result
from sudden blockage of the flow.
An ideal ground slope for the penstock alignment is between 1:1 and 1:2 (V:H). The flatter the ground
slope the less economic is the penstock since a longer pipe length is required for a lower head. But
steeper slop is un favorable due to difficulty in construction. The number of bends (horizontal and
vertical) should be kept to a minimum so that the number of anchor blocks and head loss can be
minimised. Since the penstock alignment is on steep ground slopes and the pipe is under pressure, it is
important for the alignment to be on stable ground. For an exposed (i.e. above-ground) penstock
44

alignment, a clear cover of 300 mm between the pipe and the ground should be provided to facilitate
maintenance and to minimise corrosion. Buried penstock pipe will have better protection
but it is complicate for maintenance.
Design of the penstock pipe
1. Material
Mild steel and HDPE pipes are the most common materials used for the penstock in MHP schemes.
HDPE pipes are usually economical for low heads and flows and are easy to join and repair. They
are light and flexible enough to accommodate small angle bends or radial expansions resulting
from pressure surges. The disadvantage is that these pipes can degrade if exposed to ultra-violet
rays (sunlight) and temperature variations and hence these pipes need to be buried.
Table 2.4 Penstock pipe material
(Note: more the numbers * more will be the favorable condition)
S.N. Material

Friction loss Weight

Corrosion

Cost

Jointing

Pressure

Mild steel

***

***

***

****

****

*****

uPVC

*****

*****

****

****

****

****

Concrete

*****

***

***

Ductile
Iron

****

****

**

*****

****

2. Pipe diameter
A pipe diameter is designed such that the velocity, V, is between 2.5 m/s and 3.5 m/s. In general,
velocity lower than 2.5 m/s results in an uneconomically large diameter. Similarly, if the
velocity exceeds 3.5 m/s, the head loss can be excessive and hence uneconomical in the long
run due to loss in power output. Furthermore, higher velocities in the penstock will result in
high surge pressure as will be discussed later.
dpipe = [ 4Q/V]
where
dpipe is the inside pipe diameter in m
Q is the design flow in m3/s.
V is average velocity inside pipe in m/s

(2.26)

3. Head loss
To calculate the head loss in the pipe length is given as,
Total head loss = major head loss + minor head losses
major head loss h f= fLV2/2g dpipe
minor head losses,h minor= v2 (Kentrance + Kbend + Kcontraction + Kvalve)/2g
45

(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)

where,
F = friction factor for pipe material, dimension less
L = length of pipe in m
V = average velocity inside pipe, m/s
dpipe = the inside pipe diameter, m
Ks = coefficients for pipe shape geometry, dimension less
4. Pipe thickness
The thickness of the pipe depends on the pipe diameter, the material, and the type of turbine
selected. The surge effect is different for different types of turbine and hence the pipe thickness
can differ even when the design flow, static head, and pipe materials are similar. If the pipe is
strong enough to withstand the initial surge effect, the pressure will ultimately dissipate
through friction losses in the water and pipe wall as well as through the fore-bay.
The calculation of the minimum wall thickness of the penstock for Pelton turbine is as follows:
(a) To calculate the surge head. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a
a = 1400 / [1 + {2.1 x 109 d / (E t)} ]
(2.30)
where,
E = the value of Young's Modulus for mild steel is 210 x 10 9 N/m2 and for HDPE is 0.2 to 0.8
x 109 N/m2
d = is the pipe diameter in mm
t = the wall thickness in mm
(b) Calculate velocity V in the penstock,
V=4Q/d2
(2.31)
(c) Calculate the surge head (hsurge),
hsurge= aV/ ng
where,n = the total no. of nozzles in the turbine(s)

(2.32)

(d) Calculate the total head

htotal = hgross + hsurg

(2.33)

(e) As a precaution, calculate the critical time, T, from the following equation:
Tc = (2L)/a
(2.34)
Tc = the critical time in seconds,
where,
L = the length of penstock in m,
a = the wave velocity calculated earlier.
If the turbine valve closure time, T, is less than T c, then the surge pressure wave is significantly
high. Similarly, the longer T is compared to T c, the lower the surge effect. Note that this
calculation is based on the assumption that the penstock diameter, material and wall thickness
are uniform. If any of these parameters vary, then separate calculations should be done for
each section. Closure time of at least twice the critical time (i.e., T > 2Tc) is recommended.
When the operator closes or opens the valve, timing should be such that there is no observable
change in the pressure gauge reading if installed upstream of the valve.
46

(d) Once the surge head has been determined, the nominal wall thickness (t) can be calculated. If
the pipe is made of mild steel, it will be subject to corrosion and welding or rolling defects.
Thus the effective thickness, t effective, will be less than the original thickness. t. For mild steel,
assume an initial thickness, t and calculate teffective,,
using the following guidelines
a) If the pipes are joined by welding divide the initial thickness by 1.1.
b) If the pipe is prepared by rolling flat sheets, divide the initial thickness by 1.2.
c) Since mild steel pipe is subject to corrosion, subtract one mm for every 10 years of plant life.
For example, the effective thickness of a four mm thick flat rolled and welded mild steel pipe
designed for a 10-year life is
teffectiv = 4 / [(1.2 1.2) 1] = 2.03 mm

(2.35)

Note that this does not apply to HDPE pipes where the effective thickness is the same as the original
thickness of the pipe.
5. Calculate the safety factor (SF)
SF = (teffectiv S) / (5 htotal 103 d )

(2.36)

where,
S = the ultimate tensile strength of the pipe material in N/m 2. For mild steel S is usually taken as
350 x 106 N/m2. For HDPE the value is between 6 and 9 x 10 6 N/m2
d = the internal diameter of the pipe, m
For mild steel or PVC pipes, if SF < 3.5, reject this penstock option and repeat the calculation for
a greater thickness. For HDEP pipe SF 1.5 is acceptable.
In order to provide an adequate factor of safety against buckling, the minimum pipe wall
thickness is given by:
teffectiv d[ F P / 2E]0.33
(2.37)
where,
teffectivee = the effective pipe wall thickness, mm
d = the pipe internal diameter, mm
F = factor of safety against buckling (2 for buried penstock and 4 for exposed penstock)
P = the negative pressure, N/mm Z (10 m head = 0.1 N/mmZ)
E = Young's modulus for the pipe material, N/mmZ (from Table 6.2).
Example: Design of penstock pipe diameter
Design a penstock pipe diameter and wall thickness.. Data available are:
Q = 4501/s and hgoss = 180m
Ten vertical bends, = 69, 23, 26, 37, 40, 2, 3, 12, 8 & 3
Penstock material: mild steel, flat rolled and site welded, 550 m long.
High quality steel plates were bought and tested for tensile strength at the laboratory. Minimum
tensile strength, S = 400 N/mm2 was ensured through the tests.
Turbine type: 3 Pelton turbines with 2 nozzles in each turbine, therefore n = 3 x 2 = 6.
47

1. Pipe diameter calculation

Since the pipe is long set, V= 2.5 m/s to minimise head loss.
dpipe = [ 4Q/V] = [ 4 0.450 / 2.5] = 0.479 m
2. Total head loss
To calculate the head loss in the pipe length is given as,
Total head loss = major head loss + minor head losses
f =0 .0014 (from Moody Chart)
Major head loss h f = (fLV2)/ (2g dpipe ) =[0.0014 550 2.52]/ [2 0.47 g] =5.13 m
Minor head losses,h minor= V2 (Kentrance + Kbend + Kcontraction + Kvalve)/2g
From Tables of pipe loss (source: if any book of pipe loss)
Kentrance = 0.2
Kcontraction = 0 (not available in this case)
Kvalve = 0 (not available in this case)
Kbend = 0.34 for = 69
Kbend = 0.11 for = 23
Kbend = 0.13 for = 26
Kbend = 0.18 for = 37
Kbend = 0.20 for = 40
Kbend = 0.02 for = 2
Kbend = 0.02 for = 3
Kbend = 0.06 for = 12
Kbend = 0.04 for = 8
Kbend = 0.02for = 3
Minor head losses, h minor= [V2/2g] (Kentrance + Kbend s+ Kcontraction + Kvalve)
= [2.52 /2g] ( 0.2+0.34+0.11+0.13+0.18+0.20+0.02+0.02+0.06+0.04+0.02)
= 0.42 m
Total head loss = 5.13 m + 0.42 m = 5.52 m
head loss = 5.52 / 180 =3.1 5
Therefore, the diameter can be made little smaller. The adopted diameter of penstock is 450 mm,
which gives 4.1% head loss, through a repeat of the above calculations.
3. Pipe thickness
First calculate the thickness required at the downstream end of the penstock
(hstatic = hgross = 180 m and d = 450 mm. Try for t = 6 mm E= 210 109 N/m2 )
a = 1400 / [1 + (2.1 109 d / E t) ]
a =1058 m/s
V = 4Q / d2 = 4 0.450 / 0.4502 = 2.83 m/s
hsurge= a V / (n g) = 1058 2.83 / 6 9.8 = 51 m
htotal =hgross + hsurge= 180 + 51 = 231 m
teffective = [6/ 1.1 1.2] -1.0 = 3.55 mm
3.

Calculate the safety factor (SF) using the following equation

48

SF = (teffectiv S) / (5 htotal 103 d )

= 3.55 400 106 / 5 231 103 450 = 2.74
2.5 SF(2.74) 3.5
Hence the design will be acceptable for the well trained technician if not redesign for less safety
factor.
2.6.8 Anchor blocks
An anchor block is a mass of concrete fixed into the ground that holds the penstock to restrain the
pipe movement in all directions. Anchor blocks should be placed at all sharp horizontal and vertical
bends, since there are forces at such bends which will tend to move the pipe out of alignment. Anchor
blocks are also required to resist forces in long straight sections of penstock.
Design criteria of anchor blocks
For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head less than 60 m and an installed power capacity less than
or equal to 20 kW, following guidelines is used to design anchor blocks.
1. It is constructed of concrete which is 1:3:6 with about 40 per cent plums (boulders) placed evenly
around the block as shown in Figure 2.16. The boulders add weight to the block and therefore
increase stability while reducing the volume of cement required.

Reinforced bar

Metal tag
Bend angle ( - )

Penstock

3:6 PCC with 40% pulms

Fig. 2.16 An anchor block

2. For straight sections, locate one anchor block every 30m along the length of the penstock. Use
one m3 of plum concrete for a pipe diameter of 300mm. If the pipe diameter is more or less, say
200mm, then adjust the amount proportionately. (200/ 300) x 1 m3=0.67m3
3. Always provide an anchor block at the bends in the penstock keeping a maximum distance of
30m between two blocks. For bends less than 45, use double the concrete volume required for a
straight section. For example, if the pipe diameter is 350mm and the bend is 20, then use
(350/300) x 2 m3= 2.33 m3 of concrete for the anchor block. If the bend angle is larger than 45,
then the required volume of concrete is three times that for a straight section.
49

4. Immediately upstream of the powerhouse. This minimises forces on the turbine housing.
5. For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head more than 60 m and an installed power capacity more
than or equal to 20 kW .The design of anchor blocks and support piers requires resolving common
forces, which applies on it. Then the structures are tentatively sized and the various forces that act on
them are resolved. The minimum calculated block size that is safe against bearing, sliding and
overturning is accepted. It should be noted that the design process involves a few iterations. Once all
of the above relevant forces have been calculated the design procedure for anchor blocks and support
piers requires checking the three conditions of stability as follows: safety against overturning,safety
on baring, safety againsting sliding.
2.6.9 Support piers
Support piers are short columns that are placed between anchor blocks along straight sections of
exposed penstock pipe. These structures prevent the pipe from sagging and becoming over stressed.
Support piers restrain the vertical forces of the penstock resulting from the weight of the pipe and
water. However, they allow axial movement resulting from thermal expansion or contraction.
For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head less than 60 m and an installed power capacity less than
or equal to 20 kW, following guidelines is used to design support piers. Support piers are generally
constructed out of stone masonry in 1:6 cement mortar. Dressed stone should be used for the outside
surfaces of the pier. A 140 bearing area from the centre of the penstock diameter should be provided
to support the penstock pipe as shown in Figure 2.18. Placing a steel saddle plate above the support
pier where the penstock pipe rests along with a 3 mm thick tar paper as shown in Figure 2.18. This
minimises frictional effects and increases the useful life of the pipe. C-clamps may also be provided
to protect the pipe from vandalism and a sideways movement, but there must be a gap between the
surface of the pipe and the C-clamp, so that axial forces are not transferred to the support pier.
Table 2.5 should be used to determine the spacing of support piers for mild steel pipes that are welded
or connected by flanges according to British Standard specifications (minimum flange thickness =
16mm). (Support piers are not required for buried pipes). Note that in Table 2.5, the support pier
spacing is the horizontal (plan) length and not the sloping length of the pipe. For flanged mild steel
pipes that do not meet British Standards, one support per individual pipe length should be used with
the pier placed in the middle.

50

300 mm
Penstock
300 mm

300 mm

Penstock

Stone masonry in 1:6 c/s mortar

Fig. 2.17 A support pier
Figure 2.17 can be used as a guide for the shape of the support pier if the penstock pipe is less than
one meter above the ground. The base of the pier(s) should be at least 1 m x 1 m. The size of the top
piece on which the penstock is supported should be at least 0.5m along the direction of the penstock
and about one meter width at right angles to the penstock. The uphill wall surface should be
perpendicular to the penstock pipe. The required depth of foundation depends on condition of soil but
it should be at least 300 mm.
Steel support piers can also be used as an alternative to stone masonry, especially at sites where
cement is expensive or the soil is weak in bearing. For larger schemes, or if the penstock pipe is
more than one meter above the ground, a more detailed calculation is required.
Table 2.5 Spacing of support piers for mild steel pipe
Pipe diameter (mm)
Pipe thickness (mm)
2
4
6

100

200

300

400

500

Support pier spacing (horizontal), m

2
2
2.5
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4.5
5
6
6

51

2.6.10 Expansion joints

Above ground penstock pipes are subjected to expansion or contraction in length as a result of
changes in the ambient temperature. The change depends on the change in temperature and the type
of material used. Table 2.6 can be used to determine the changes in length for mild steel pipes of
various lengths in different temperature ranges. Note that the maximum expected temperature
variation should be used for the calculation (such as between when the pipe is empty during a midsummer afternoon, and the lowest winter temperature).

Stay ring
Packing
Retainer ring

Penstock pipe wall

Contraction allowance

Weld

Penstock Pipe wall

Expansion gap

Fig. 2.18 A sliding type expansion joint

As long as pipes are free to move at one end, thermal expansion does not cause additional stresses.
However, a penstock pipe section between two anchor blocks is kept fixed at both ends. In such a
case thermal expansion could cause additional stresses and the pipe can even buckle. Therefore,
provision must be made for the penstock pipe to expand and contract, by installing an expansion joint
in a penstock pipe section between two anchor blocks.
A sliding type of expansion joint such as that shown in Figure 2.19, is commonly used in MHP
schemes. It can be placed between two consecutive pipe lengths and can either be welded or bolted
to the pipes. The stay rings are tightened to compress the packing and prevent leaking. Jute, rubber,
or a similar type of fiber is used for packing. When the pipes expand or contract, the change in
lengths is accommodated inside the joint section since there is a gap between the pipes. An
advantage of an expansion joint is that it reduces the size of the anchor blocks since they will not
need to withstand forces due to pipe expansion. Another advantage is that they can accommodate
slight angular pipe misalignment.

52

Table 2.6 Thermal length change of mild steel pipe

Maximum
temperatureLength between anchor blocks, m
variation, C
temperature
10

20

30

40

50

25

12

15

35

13

17

21

45

11

16

22

27

Change in length (mm)

Sizing of expansion joints

The sliding surface of the expansion joints should be machine finished (such as in a lathe machine) to
a tolerance of about 0.1 mm. The recommended thickness of the steel parts (retainer and stay ring)
is about twice the thickness of a well-designed penstock pipe. The gap in the expansion joint should
be about twice the calculated maximum pipe expansion length.
The maximum expansion length is calculated using the following equation:
L = (Thot - Tcold) L
(2.38)
where:
L = pipe expansion length in m as shown in Figure 2.19
= coefficient of linear expansion in m/m C of the pipe
Thot = highest temperature in C that the pipe will experience
Tcold = lowest temperature in C that the pipe will experience
L = pipe length in m.
Since it may be difficult to determine when the expansion joint will be installed at site, the
manufacturer should be asked allow an expansion gap of 2 L. Then, during installation, the
temperature should be noted and the gap left accordingly.
Example: Expansion gap of expansion joint
A mild steel penstock pipe is 45 m long between the fore-bay and the first anchor block. The steel
temperature during installation was 40C, and the expected lowest temperature during the operational
phase is 4C during winter. What expansion gap should be recommended to the manufacturer? Also,
if the temperature during installation is 20C, what gap should be provided?
1. Coefficient of linear expansion of the pipe from thermodynamic tables is,
=12x10-6 m/mC
Thot = 40 C
Tcold = 4 C
L = 45m
L = (Thot - Tcold) L
L. = 12x10-6 (40 - 4) x 45 =0.019m =l9mm
53

Therefore minimum recommended expansion gap = 19 x 2 = 38 mm, say 40 mm.

2

If the temperature during installation is 20C

L = (Thot - Tcold) L
L. = 12x10-6 (40 - 20) x 45 =0.011m =l1mm
Therefore, during installation an expansion gap of 11 mm x 2 = 22 mm should be provided.

2.6.11 Powerhouse
The powerhouse accommodates electro-mechanical equipment such as the turbine, generator, agroprocessing units and control panels. The main function of the powerhouse is to protect the electromechanical units from rain and other weather effects as well as possible mishandling by unauthorised person.
The powerhouse should be big enough that all the electro-mechanical equipment can fit in and be
easily accessible for operation and repair work. If agro-processing units are also installed inside the
powerhouse, additional space should be provided so that it is not overcrowded when people are
working or delivering grain and so on.
Design and requirement of powerhouse
1. The location of the powerhouse is governed by the penstock alignment since this building must be
located at the end of the penstock. The powerhouse should be safe from not only annual floods. It
should also be possible to discharge the tail-water safely from the powerhouse back to the stream.
It is advantage to build on level ground to minimise excavation work. The powerhouse should be
located close to the community.
Grid line

Mechanical
Grinder

Penstock

Generator
Turbine

Belt

54

Main switch Board

Fig. 2.19 A power house with agro-processing units

2. When planning the size of the powerhouse, all electro-mechanical units should be drawn to scale.
Civil design input required is to size the plan area of the building and design the machine
foundation.
3. Adequate space should be provided such that all equipment is easily accessible. There should be a
clear spacing of at least 1 m around each item of equipment that has moving parts (such as the
generator, turbine and the belt drive). It is recommended that such additional space is provided as
a lobby at the entrance and the equipment is placed beyond it
4. Doors and windows should open outwards for safety in case of fire or flooding.
5. The area inside the powerhouse should be well lighted and ventilated with sufficient windows.
Placing a few transparent fiber glass sheets (skylight) in the roof will provide additional
illumination. The roof can be covered with corrugated, galvanised iron (CCI) sheets.
6. The powerhouse walls can be built of stone masonry in mud mortar with cement plastering on the
surfaces.
7. The penstock pipe should not normally be built into the powerhouse wall.
8. The clear height of the building should be 2.5 m to 3 m.
8. The floor of the powerhouse should be 300 mm to 500 mm above the outside ground surface to
prevent dampness and rainwater entering. Drains should also be provided outside the powerhouse.
9. Costs can be brought down if the construction is similar to that of other houses in the area.
10. The machine foundations should be constructed out of reinforced concrete so that all the loads,
including the dynamic forces of the generator and the turbine, are properly supported and the
alignment does not change over the years.

55

2.6.12 Overview of tailrace

The tailrace is the final civil structure that conveys the design flow from the turbine (after power
generation) back into the stream, generally the same stream from which the water was initially
withdrawn. Similar to the headrace, open channel or pipes can be used for the tailrace section.
Design of the tailrace canal or pipe is similar to that of the headrace canal. However, since head loss
does not need to be minimised a higher velocity can usually be allowed, within the limits. Note that at
higher velocities and steep channel a stronger grade of mortar or concrete is required to resist erosion.
The downstream end of the tailrace must be arranged so that there is no danger of erosion either by
the river or by the flow from the tailrace.
2.7 Selection of mechanical components MHP system
2.7.1 Selection of turbines and its components
The necessary input data has to be collected from project site such as Designed discharge, Gross head,
net head or pipe length, pipe diameter, required power out etc.

Flow Available or designed discharge for the turbine. The unit will be liter per second (l/s) or
(m3/s). Almost all the MHP schemes are run-of-river type, meaning that the storage reservoir
will not be constructed. But flow varies considerably during the seasons. Therefore, the design
flow chosen for the scheme is that which is available through out the year. That is why the
flow measurement will be carried out especially during the dry season as possible.

Gross Head: In case of impulse turbines, the height from fore-bay tank water level to turbine
rotor axis is known as gross head. But in case of reaction turbine the gross head is measured
from fore-bay tank water level to tail race water level. So it can be determined the correct
gross head after having detail land profile design. However, once the civil works constructed
the gross head remains constant whether the plant will run for part or full load.

Net head:
The designed head is known as net head. The height available after deducting
all the head loses of different component along the water line like Entrance (Bellmouth),
Penstock pipe, Expansion Joint, Bend, Reducer, depending upon turbine type etc. Head loses
will be considered of that situation when the designed discharge is flowing through turbine. (it
can be measured the true net head at the time of test or commissioning period only through
precision pressure gauge installed at near by the turbine.

Turbine Selection:
There are various types of turbines. The best selection of turbine type
will be depending upon the site data and other technical parameters likewise afford able quality
of the machine or cost of machine, appropriate equipment to operate for local people etc. In
fact, one of the selection criteria for the turbine type is its efficiency, characteristics under partflow conditions. It is very essential part while selecting the turbine for the MHP projects.
Tentatively the type of turbine cab be selected from the following Figure:

[Type a quote from the

document or the summary of an
interesting point. You can
position the text box anywhere
in the document.
56 Use the Text
Box Tools tab to change the
formatting of the pull quote text
box.]

Fig 3.1 Selection of turbine type (source Escher Wyss SKAT Micro pelton book
Functional range of different water turbines)
By using Nomogram (Refer Lecture Note)
2.7.2 Drive System
Drive system is used to transmit the power from turbine to generator or any other output shaft at the
correct speed and in a suitable direction. Major drive system components are: generator shaft, turbine
shaft, bearings, couplings, gearboxes, belts and pulleys, etc.
i)
Direct coupled drive
This drive system is only for the case where the shaft speeds are identical because it uses a flexible
coupling to join the two shafts together directly.

Induction motor
used as alternator
Gear box
Inline
coupling

Fig.: Direct Coupled Drive System

57

Turbine runner

Characteristics of the direct coupled drive system are:

Compact and simple
Efficiency approaches almost 100%
No additional load is imposed on bearings
Easy for maintenance
Correct shaft alignment necessary to prevent failure of the bearing (Flexible Couplings)
No speed change is possible between the turbine shaft and the generator
2.8 Generators
Induction or synchronous generators can be used to convert the mechanical energy output of the
turbine into electrical energy. Most installations of mini hydro projects utilize synchronous
generators. Induction generators are used in MHP plants when system conditions and economics
permits.
The main advantage of a synchronous generator for mini hydroelectric plant applications is its
capability to operate with either a lagging or leading power factor, by control of its excitation. Power
factor ratings of generators are determined by the requirement of the local load, or the connecting
electric utility system, or both, which commonly ranges between 0.8 and 0.95.
Furthermore, synchronous generator has ability to establish its own operating voltage and maintain
frequency while operating isolated. Thus, if the interconnection to the power system is separated, the
generator may continue supplying the local load. To utilize this advantage requires governor
(accurate and responsive speed and power output control system) and automatic voltage regulator
(voltage and reactive power control system). These increase the cost of synchronous generator.
The advantages of an induction generator are lower installed and maintenance costs from elimination
of the exciter, voltage regulator, and synchronizer. But it can not provide reactive power or voltage
control as an isolated power source. Another disadvantage is its lower efficiency throughout the
operating range. The induction generator draws its excitation (magnetizing) current from the
electrical system.
2.9 Switching, transmission and distribution
2.9.1 Switching
Almost all micro-hydro installations which generate electricity will have some form of switchgear.
The purpose of the switchgear is to isolate the power supply when necessary and also to have some
control over the electrical power flow. The protection equipment will work along with the switches
and will be in a position to isolate the power supply when a fault occurs.
Some of the common switches used on MHP installations and their functions:
1.

Isolators: Manually operated switches to isolate the load from supply.

2.

Switch fuse: These are similar to isolator but with additional fuse for current limiting.

3.

Molded case circuits breakers (MCCB): This is used for protection from over current,
short circuits and earth fault. For over current, bimetallic strips, for short circuits
58

magnetic trips and for earth fault relays are connected. This is used up to 600 amps. This
is main protection instrument used in micro and Pico- hydropower.
4.

Oil and air circuits breakers: These have similar functions as MCCB but are used over
11kv and over 600amp. They are costly, and are mainly used in small hydropower.

5.

Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB): This is special type of MCCB, which can protect
the circuit against earth leakage.

6.

Contactor: used in control circuits as in motor starters; used as circuit breakers\s along
with the relevant trips.

7.

Changeovers: Select power either from main grid or from micro hydro.

2.9.2 Transmission and distribution

Usually the load is remote from the powerhouse site so transmission line is needed.
Main design criterion for transmission lines are:1. The design of transmission and distribution lines should be such that a voltage drop at any
distribution line end is limited to 10% of nominal value (11 kV or 33 kV line-5%, distribution
transformer-3% and service wire-2%)
2. The minimum economic power loss.
3. Protection from lighting and other damages.
4. Structural stability in high winds.
5. Safety for people living and working nears the lines.
Design is done for (Conductor size, power loss, voltage drop, voltage regulation, approximate total
cost, stability, protection, pole spacing, lighting conductors etc.)
Overhead
Overheads lines are used most often because by using air as cable insulation, the cable is less
expensive.
Installation can be simple and cheap.
In developing countries, this system is suitable.
easy to repair and maintain
Underground
Underground lines have to be insulated and protected against ground movement, ploughing,
new building, densely located or heavy snowfall
But, once installed, the line should run without maintenance about 50 years.
For service connection, following voltage system should be used:
Low Tension supply
230 V, single phase for loads up to 30 A
59

400/230 V, three phase for loads more than 30A

High Tension supply
11 kV and 33 kV three phase systems for load more than 100 kVA

CHAPTER THREE
BIOMASS AND BIO FUEL
3.1 Introduction to biomass
Biomass is defined as any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis. It
includes all plants and plant derived materials, including agricultural crops and trees, wood and wood
residues, grasses, aquatic plants, animal manure, municipal residues, and other residue materials.
Biomass fuel can be defined as fuel that is derived from any organic, renewable material that can be
used in either raw or processed form.
The energy stored inside biomass comes from the sun through the process known as photosynthesis.
The chemical energy that is stored in plants and animls (that eat plants or other animals), or in the
wastes that they produse, is called bioenergy. Essentially, the use of biomass for energy is the reversal
of photosynthesis. Biomass energy is used in many different ways, but always as fuel.
Photosynthesis process
Light
CO2+H2O

(CH2O)+O2
60

Heat
Energy conversion process
For example; combustion process:
CH2O+O2

CO2+H2O+Energy

Examples of biomass fuel sources include:

1. Energy crops: Plants grown specifically as energy sources. Such as sugar cane, corn, wheat,
sorghum and vegetable oil-bearing crops such as; sun flowers, soya-beans. These are harvested
and processed into fuels such as ethanol or biodiesel.
2. Agricultural Residues: A common agricultural residue is rice husk, banana stalks, coconut husks
and shells, palm oil fiber, cereal straw etc.
3. Forest residues: They are generated during thinning of plantations, trimming of felled trees,
timber processing etc.
4. Animal residues: Manures from pigs, chickens and cattle are the examples. A common method
of converting these materials to energy is through anaerobic digestion.
5. Industrial waste: The food industry produces a large number of residues and by products that can
be used as biomass energy sources. For example; peelings and scraps from fruit and vegetables,
food that does not meet quality standard, pulp and fiber from sugar and starch extraction, coffee
grounds.
6. Municipal solid waste (MSW): MSW can be converted into energy by direct combustion or by
natural anaerobic digestion in the landfill.
Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient biomass, they are not considered biomass by the
generally accepted definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for
a very long time. Their combustion therefore disturbs the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere.
Biomass can be used directly (e.g. burning wood for heating or cooking) or indirectly by converting it
into a liquid or gaseous fuel (eg ethanol from sugar crops or biogas from animal waste). The net
energy available in the biomass when it is combusted ranges from about 8MJ/kg green wood to 20
MJ/kg( oven dry plant) to 55 MJ/kg for methane gas. The efficiency of the conversion process
determines how much of the actual energy can be practically utilised.
3.2 Factors that affects cooking
Fuel choice and cook stove design are important considerations for cooking. One of the key factors to
efficient cooking is to understand about cooking habits. If you dont cook much, more efficient
cooking appliances wont save much energy. On the other hand, these appliances tend to have long
lives, so it is worth using efficiency as one guide when you purchase new kitchenware.

a) Types of cook stove

61

The energy required for the cooking depends on the type and quality of cook stove, . For example, in
traditional and improved cooking stove the fuel wood required for cooking the same quantity of meal
varies.

Smoke

Fire wood
Fire wood

Figure 1.2: Traditional cooking practices

b) Methods of cooking
i. Using pressure cooker: One of the most energy efficient methods of cooking is with pressure
cooker. A pressure cooker requires very little water and reduces cooking time due to high
temperature inside the pot and heat is very evenly, deeply and quickly distributed.
ii. Lid on the pot: Cooking ware having the lid consumes little energy compare to the kitchen
ware having no lid. All research indicates that considerable energy is lost through evaporation
of water surfaces during the cooking processes. This evaporation can be reduced two ways.
One is to have a well fitting lid on the pot and the second is to be able to lower the heat
source, allowing simmering after the food has been brought to the boiling point on hot fire.
iii. Thermo Box or Hay Box: Thermo box or hay box is also one option to cook food by using
less fuel wood when rice or beans are at cooking temperature, the well closed pot is placed in
an insulated container (hay box). Inside the insulated container, the cooking process continues
with out the need of a fire. The rice or beans are perfectly cooked within 30 minutes.

iv. Small pieces: Other method for reducing the cooking time and consumption of fire wood is to
cut vegetables into small pieces before cooking. Size of the food materials also varies the
consumption of fuel wood. This will also require less water.
62

v. Soaking: Soaking beans or rice for certain time before cooking also save fuel wood.
Foods are cooked much faster by using pressure cooker than by other methods, and with much
less water than boiling, so dishes can be ready sooner. Less energy is required. Since less water is
necessary, the foods come to cooking temperature faster. The food is cooked at a temperature
above the normal boiling point of water, killing bacteria and viruses. The pressure cooker can also
be used as an effective sterilizer, for jam pots and glass baby bottles for example, or for water
while camping.

3.3 Problems associated with traditional stoves in cooking

Stone base

Iron Tripod

Fire wood

Fire wood

Use of
traditional stoves consumes more fuel wood increasing the burden on women, as women are mainly
responsible for cooking and collection of biomass. Use of biomass energy and low grade biomass
fuels lead to excessive levels of indoor smoke/air pollution women and children in particular are
exposed to the smoke emission.This is one of the reasons for higher rates of infant mortality and
morbidity and other unhealthy living conditions. Release of CO 2 and other harmful gases in the
atmosphere due to poor combustion of biomass fuels in rudimentary stoves resulting into the
emission of green house gases. The produced smoke stays in the kitchen due to absence of vent pipe
and ill ventilation. So utensils and clothes are blackened by soot, open fire has an inherent risk of
burning houses or their occupants.

63

Figure 1.4: Iron Tripod and Three stone traditional biomass cooking
Improved cook stove (ICS) is designed with modifications over traditional one with reduction in
smoke emission and increased efficiency. The direct and indirect benefits of ICS includes: increased
thermal efficiency, the conservation of forests by cutback in firewood consumption, reduction in
womens labour, reduction in indoor air pollution and hence smoke-released health disorders,
prevention of fire hazards, reduction of cooking time.

Smoke outside the room

Chimney
Pot hole

Fire wood

Figure 1.5: Improved cook stove

Table 1.1: Characteristics of traditional cooking stove and improved cooking stove
Traditional Stoves
Improved Cook Stoves
1. Types: Three stones, Tripod and 1-3
1. Types: 1-3 pot holes mud and metal
pot hole.
with and without chimney.
2. Use of local materials, low cost, easy
2. Use of local and non local materials,
to build and installed by user
needs promoters/fabricators to build.
households.
3. Small pieces of wood.
3. Any type, size of firewood.
4. Household, institutions, cooking, space
4. Household and institutional cooking
heating.
and spacing heating.
5. Efficiency (15-30%).
5. Efficiency (5-15%).
6. Less kitchen pollution, no fire burns
64

6. Kitchen pollution, smoke and soot, fire

burns and accidents.
7. Frequent blowing.
8. More cooking time, more fuel
consumed.
9. More emissions hence more global
warming potential (GWP).

and accidents.
7. No need of frequent blowing.
8. Less cooking time, less fuel spent.
9. Less emission, less GWP.

3.4 Environmental and Social benefits of Improved Cooking Stoves

3.4.1 Conservation of forest
An improved cooking stove is a more effective and healthy way of using firewood compared to
traditional stoves. An improved cooking stove saves 20-30% of firewood. It also makes cooking
faster. Improved cooking stoves are the choice of hundreds of households that do not have cattle to
produce manure needed for a biogas plant, or that do not have enough money to install a biogas plant.
The amount of fuel wood saved depends on the type of ICS, the condition of fuel wood, the type and
amount of food prepared, and the types of pots used for cooking. While some commercial wood
traders who sell fuelwood operate in this fashion, taking live trees as well as deadwood and debris,
the type of deforestation resulting from the daily collection of fuelwood for household use takes a
different form. Serious environmental damage occurs long before an area is left completely bare.
Such damage includes loss of biodiversity, soil depletion and erosion, decreased agricultural yields,
and in many areas desertification and climate change.
3.4.2 Saving of energy and time
Stoves can save up to 40% of the wood fuel normally consumed in open fires, and 25-35% of the fuel
consumed in typical traditional stoves. Costing $1-5 each, the stoves can often pay for themselves in
fuel savings within 1-2 months if the fuel is purchased. In rural areas where most fuel is gathered,
very low-cost stoves can still be sold to some both electric and kerosene stoves have the added daily
cost of fuel, which in the case of the improved stove is nil (because improved efficiency alone
accounts for all of the gain). The common subsidies and the foreign exchange requirements make
kerosene imports burdensome for the national economies of many countries.
As the need for firewood is a major cause of deforestation, ICS helps conserve forest cover directly.
Moreover, collecting firewood is one of the most important tasks for rural women, often taking
several hours per day. Saving biomass energy for cooking and fuel wood collection time helps many
women to learn how to read and write, as they have finally got enough spare time to attend literacy
classes.
When wood is simply too expensive or too far away, animal manures and crop residues formerly
returned to the soil as fertilizers frequently are burned as fuel instead. This practice, increasingly
65

common in many parts of Africa and South Asia, adds to a downward spiral in soil fertility. Once the
trees and vegetation on hillsides are removed, soil erosion proceeds rapidly with rain water runoff
and flooding, and the land can be turned into a desert. Current patterns of daily firewood
consumption around the world are thus important factors in an advancing environmental crisis.
3.4.3 Promote health condition
Cooking and heating with solid fuels such as wood, dung, coal or crop waste over open fires or stoves
without chimneys can lead to indoor air pollution. This indoor smoke contains carbon monoxide,
benzenes, aldehydes, small soot and dust particles and other health-damaging pollutants. More than
90% of particles emitted from combustion of wood and dung are fine particles that are less than 1
micron in diameter. These fine particles can remain suspended in the lungs when they are inhaled.
The most common associated diseases with indoor air pollution is respiratory diseases such as lower
respiratory infections among children and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases among women.
Children exposed to indoor smoke are more than twice as likely to suffer from pneumonia than
unexposed children.. Other possible health impact includes lung cancer, tuberculosis, cataract,
asthma, low birth weight etc.

A WHO assessment found indoor air pollution to be the 8th most important risk factor for disease. It
is a particularly important risk factor for acute respiratory tract infections (ARI) including bronchitis
and pneumonia. Each year, indoor air pollution (IAP) is implicated in the deaths of 1.6 million people
(a death every 20 seconds). Because women and children spend the most time near the domestic
hearth, they are especially vulnerable.
Use of cleaner burning fuels, access to improved stoves and/or behavior changes could substantially
reduce exposure to indoor smoke and associated diseases and ultimately promote the health
condition.

3.4.4 Reduce indoor air pollution

Use of improved cook stove reduces the indoor air pollution. Indoor air pollution is the clearest and
most direct physical health risk, and there is now fairly consistent evidence that biomass smoke
exposure increases the risk of a range of common and serious diseases of both children and adults.
Chief among these is childhood acute lower respiatory infections ( ALRI), particularly pneumonia.
In recent years, new evidence had emerged which suggests that indoor air pollution (IAP) in
developing countries may also increase the risk or other important child and adult health problems,
such as low birth weight, perinatal mortality (stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life), asthma,
and middle ear infection in children, tuberculosis, cancer, and cataract in adults. Following are the
major parameters associated with the burning of biomass in cook stove.

66

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) In perfect combustion, emissions from burning fuel would be only
Carbon dioxide and water. If biomass was completely combusted, and the fuel was harvested
sustainably, cooking with biomass could be a carbon-neutral situation.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is one of the primary products of incomplete
combustion. Emissions of carbon monoxide in unimproved wood-burning stoves are
frequently as much as 10-15% of the CO2 emissions, and this figure is even higher for
charcoal. CO generally has a lifetime of several months before it converts to CO2 by natural
atmospheric processes.
3. Methane (CH4) - Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas. Averaged over 100 years,
each kg of CH4 warms the earth 21 times as much as the same mass of CO2. Methane has an
atmospheric lifetime of about 12 years. Methane is a part of the Kyoto Accords and is
considered one of the most important greenhouse gases resulting from biomass burning
4. Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) Hydrocarbons are gases consisting primarily of
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Emissions of unburned hydrocarbons indicate incomplete
combustion and the vapors can be harmful if inhaled. Overall, the 100-year GWP of the nonmethane hydrocarbons is approximately 12 times that of CO2 , with climate forcing occurring
because of their contribution to ozone formation
5. Nitrous oxide (N2O) A powerful greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide has an atmospheric lifetime
of 120 years and a GWP of 296 over 100 years. N2O is also a part of the Primary Kyoto
Accords and one of the primary gases considered in inventories of biomass burning. While
naturally occurring from bacteria and oceans, the main source of human-produced nitrous
oxide seems to be the use of nitrogen fertilizers and animal-waste handling.
6. An oxide of nitrogen (NOx) NOx is a broad term for the various nitrogen oxides produced
during combustion when combustion temperatures reach a high enough level to burn some of
the nitrogen in the air. NOx is an ozone precursor and when dissolved in atmospheric
moisture can result in acid rain.
7. Particulate Matter (PM) PM is composed of tiny, solid or liquid particles. The effects of
inhaling particulate matter have been widely studied in humans and animals. They include
asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. By weight, particles can
have an extremely strong effect on the atmosphere by absorbing and/or scattering the suns
incoming radiation.
3.5 Biogas: Properties and production methods
Biogas, which is combustible in nature, is produced by anaerobic fermentation of organic materials
by the action of methanogenic bacteria. This odorless gas is 20% lighter than air and burns with blue
flame as LPG. This gas is principally of methane and carbon dioxide and has the proportion of gas
as: methane - 50 to 70 %, carbon dioxide - 30 to 40%, hydrogen - 5 to 10%, nitrogen - 1 to 2%, water
vapor about 0.3% and traces of hydrogen sulphide. Retention time of biodegradable material varies
from 40-60 or 70-90 days depending upon temperature and type of material. Methane is virtually
odorless and is invisible in burning. It burns with a clear flame without smoke and is non-toxic in
nature. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter. Anaerobic digestion of organic
matter takes place by the action of methanogenic bacteria. In principle a biogas plant should have
three essential components which are digestion chamber, inlet, and outlet parts.
67

Manhole

Composite
pit I
Composite
pit II

Plan
Inlet

Gas outlet
Compacted earth

Ground

Outlet

Dome

Level

Digester
Sectional View

Figure2.14: Fixed Dome type Biogas Plant (Model GGC 2047)

There are different models of biogas plant. Floating drum digester (Chinese model), fixed drum
digester, fixed dome digester and Deen bandhu model (Indian model) are the common type of biogas
plant.
The success or failure of any biogas plant mainly depends upon the quality of construction works. To
come to a successfully constructed biogas plant, the mason should not only respect the dimensions as
indicated on the drawing but also follow the correct construction method.
68

Design concept [Refer Lecture Note]

CHAPTER FOUR
WIND ENERGY SYSTEM DESIGN
4.1 Wind Power
The wind systems that exist over the earths surface are as a result of variations in air pressure. These
are in turn due to the variations in solar heating. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to take its
place. Wind is merely the movement of air from one place to another. There are global wind patterns
related to large scale solar heating of different regions of the earths surface and seasonal variations in
solar incidence. There are also localized wind patterns due the effects of temperature differences
between land and seas, or mountains and valleys.
The power in the wind is proportional to:
The area of windmill being swept by the wind
The cube of the wind speed
The air density which varies with altitude
The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is shown below:
P = A V3
Where,
P is power in watts available in the wind (W)
is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
A is the swept rotor area in square meters (m/s)
The fact the power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed is very significant. This can be
demonstrated by pointing out that if the wind speed doubles then the power in the wind increases by a
factor of eight. It is therefore worthwhile finding a site which has a relatively high mean wind speed.
4.2 Wind into Watt
Although the power equation above gives us the power in the wind, the actual power that we can
extract from the wind is significantly less than this figure suggests. The actual power will depend on
several factors, such as the type of machine and rotor used, the sophistication of blade design, friction
losses, the losses in the pump or other equipment connected to the wind machine, and there are also
physical limits to the amount of power which can be extracted realistically from the wind. It can be
shown theoretically that any windmill can only possibly extract a maximum of 59.3 % of the power
from the wind (this is known as the Betz limit). In reality, for a wind pump, this figure is usually
around 30 % to 40 % and for a large electricity producing turbine around 45 % maximum.
So, modifying the formula for Power in the wind the power is produced by the wind machine can be
given by:
PM = CP A V3
Where, PM is power (in watts) available from the machine
Cp is the coefficient of performance of the wind machine
It is also worth bearing in mind that a wind machine will only operate at maximum efficiency for a
fraction of the time it is running, due to variations in wind speed. A rough estimate of the output from
a wind pump can be obtained using the following equation;
PA = 0.1 A V3
69

Where, PA is the average power output in watts over the year

V is the mean annual wind speed in m/s
A rotor that rotates slowly will allow the wind to pass unperturbed through the gaps between the
blades. A rotor rotating rapidly will appear as a solid wall to the wind. It is necessary in the design of
wind turbines to match the angular velocity of the rotor to the wind speed in order to obtain
maximum or optimal rotor efficiency. If the rotor of the wind turbine turns too slowly, most of the
wind will pass undisturbed through the openings between the blades with little power extraction. On
the other hand, if the rotor turns too fast, the rotating blades act a solid wall obstructing the wind
flow, again reducing the power extraction.
4.3 The Basis for Wind Energy Conversion
The extraction of power, and hence energy from the wind depends on creating certain forces and
applying them to rotate (or to translate) a mechanism. There are two primary mechanisms for
producing forces from the wind; lift and drag.
By definition lift forces act perpendicular to the air flow, while drag forces act in the direction of
flow. Lift forces are produced by changing the velocity of the air stream flowing over either side of
the lifting surface: speeding up the air flow causes the pressure to drop, while slowing the air stream
down leads to increase in pressure. In other words, any change in velocity generates a pressure
difference across the lifting surface. This pressure difference produces a force that begins to act on
the high pressure side and moves towards the low pressure side of the lifting surface which is called
an airfoil. A good airfoil has a high lift/drag ratio, in some cases it can generate lift forces
perpendicular to the air stream direction that are 30 times as great as the drag force parallel to the
flow. The lift increases as the angle formed at the junction of the airfoil and the air-stream (the angle
of attack) becomes less and less acute, upto the point where the angle of the air flow on the low
pressure side becomes excessive. When this happens, the air flow breaks away from the low pressure
side. A lot of turbulence ensues the lift decreases and the drag increases quite substantially; this
phenomenon is known as stalling. For efficient operation, a wind turbine blade needs to function with
as much lift and as little drag as possible because drag dissipates energy. As lift does not involve
anything more complex than deflecting the air flow, it is usually an efficient process. The design of
each wind turbine specifies the angle at which the airfoil should be set to achieve the maximum lift to
drag ratio.
In addition to airfoils, there are two other mechanisms for creating lift. One is the so called Magnus
effect, caused by spinning a cylinder in an air stream at a high-speed rotation. The spinning slows
down the air speed on the side where the cylinder is moving into the wind and increases it on the
other side; the result is similar to an airfoil. This principle has been put to practical use in one or two
cases but is not generally employed. The second way is to blow air through narrow slots in a cylinder,
so that it emerges tangentially; this is known as a Thwaits slot. This also creates a rotation (or
circulation) of the air flow, which in turn generates lift. Because the lift drag ratio of airfoils is
generally much better than those of rotating or slotted cylinders, the latter techniques probably have
little practical potential.
(G.D.RAI, 2006)
The lift and drag forces on horizontal axis rotor blade and its cross section are shown in figure 2.5
and 2. 6 respectively.

70

Figure 2.5 Shape of horizontal axis wind turbine rotor blade

V Free wind velocity
Vb Velocity of airfoil element
Vr
resultant wind as seen by airffoil element
FL lifts force (perpendicular to Vr)
FD drag force

angle of twist

angle of incidence

angular speed of rotor

r distance of airfoil element from its axis of rotation

Figure 2.6 cross-section across A-A

fig.a
Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion, these being the forces felt by a person (or
object) exposed to the wind. Lift forces are the most efficient means of propulsion but being more
restrained than drag forces are not so well understood.
The basic features that characterize lift and drag are:
Drag is in the direction of flow
Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow
Generation of lift always causes amount of drag to be developed
With a good aerofoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag
Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices
4.4 Terminologies
4.4.1 Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)
The relationship between the wind speed and the rate of rotation of the rotor is characterized by a
non-dimensional factor, known as the Tip speed ratio (TSR) which is denoted by .
Speed of rotor tip (r)
Tip speed ratio:
=
71

(V ) Wind speed
Where:
V
r
r
= 2 f
f

is the wind speed (m/s)

is the velocity of rotor tip (m/s)
is the rotor radius (m)
is the angular velocity (radian/s)
is the frequency of rotation (Hz)

4.4.2 Power Coefficient, CP

The power generated by the kinetic energy of a free flowing wind stream is given by:
P = A V3 (Watt)
The cross sectional area S of the turbine in terms of its blade radius R is given by:
A = R2 (m2)
From which the power P becomes:
P = R2V3
The power coefficient is defined as the power extracted by the turbine relative to that available in the
wind stream:
Pt
Cp = Pt/P =
R2V3
The maximum achievable power factor is 59.26 percent, and is designated as the Betz limit. In
practice, values of obtainable power coefficients are in the range of 45 percent. This value below the
theoretical limit is caused by the inefficiencies and losses attributed to different configurations, rotor
blades and turbine designs.
4.4.3 Torque Coefficients (CT)
It is the ratio of torque developed by the turbine to the torque available in the wind.
CT = (Torque developed by the turbine / Torque available in the wind)
T
=
* *Ar*V2*Dr
Torque coefficient can also be expressed in terms of tip-speed ratio and power coefficient as
CT = C P/
A multi-blade rotor needs highest torque while it starts rotating. This starting torque coefficient is
different than ordinary torque coefficient. An empirical formula to estimate the starting torque
coefficient of a rotor as a function of its tip-speed ratio is:
CT, start = 0.5/ 2
4.5 Types and Characteristics of Rotors
There are several technical parameters that are used to characterize windmill rotors. The tip-speed
ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of the extremities of a windmill rotor to the speed of the free
wind. Drag devices always have tip-speed ratios less than one and hence turn slowly, whereas lift
devices can have high tip-speed ratios( up to 13:1) and hence turn quickly relative to the wind.
The proportion of the power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed the coefficient of
performance (or power coefficient or efficiency; symbol C p) and its variation as a function of tipspeed ratio is commonly used to characterize different types of rotor. As mentioned earlier there is an
72

upper limit of Cp = 59.33%, although in practice real wind rotors have maximum C p values in the
range of 25% - 45%. (G.D.RAI, 2006)
Solidity is usually defined as the percentage of the area of the rotor, which contains material rather
than air. High solidity machines carry a lot material and have coarse blade angles. They generate
much higher starting torque than low-solidity machines but are inherently less efficient than lowsolidity machines. The wind pump is generally of this type. Low solidity machines tend to be used
for electricity generation. High solidity machines will have a low tip-speed ratio and vice-versa. The
overall comparisons of rotors are given in table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Comparison of Rotors
Type
Horizontal axis
Multi blade
Three- bladed
aerofoil
Vertical axis
Panemone
Darrieus

Speed

Torque

Cp

Solidity
(%)

Use

Low

High

0.25-0.4

50 80

Mechanical power

High

Low

Up to 0.45

Less than 5

Electricity production

Low
Moderat
e

Medium

Less than 0.1

50

Mechanical power

Very low

0.25-0.35

10 20

Electricity production

4.6 Wind Electrification System [Refer Lecture note]

Site survey
Design parameter: Wind speed, density, relative humidity etc.
Design steps up to rotor design only
4.7 Wind pumping system
4.7.1 Types of wind pump
a) Piston Cylinder Pump
It comprised of a cylinder with a reciprocating
piston. One way suction and discharge valves
are mounted in the cylinder. During the
upstroke, the plunger retracts and the suction
valve opens, drawing water into the cylinder. In
the down stroke, the plunger pushes the water
out of the discharge valve as shown in
figure2.7. Piston pumps have a constant
efficiency independent on its RPM and are
common in high pressure applications (250
3000 psi). Rotational energy at the rotor shaft is
converted to translational energy via a four- bar
mechanism at turbine height and transmitted to
the ground via a pump rod.
Figure 2.7 Piston Cylinder Pump
73

b) Centrifugal Pump
It comprised of a rotating impeller supplying energy to a fluid
as the fluid moves toward the outer diameter of the pump as
shown in figure 2.8. The water is forced out of the pump by the
energy it obtains from the rotating impeller. Centrifugal pumps
obtain optimal performance at high RPM (1000). Efficiency
and flow decrease rapidly as pressure increases or RPM
decreases. The rotational energy from the turbine could be
transmitted via gearing or belts.

Figure 2.8 Centrifugal Pump

c) Compressed Air Tank
Compressed air tank as shown in figure 2.9 elevates water pressure by compressing air into the
empty space at the top of a sealed water tank. As the air compresses, the water pressure increases
proportionally until it meets the pressure required by the water filter. Air would be compressed using
an off-the-shelf air compressor driven by mechanical energy supplied by the wind turbine. The
system requires power division to power both the air compressor and a mechanism to continuously
fill the tank. The compressor would be attached at turbine height and high pressure tubing would
transmit the compressed air to the tank at ground level.
4.7.2 Pumping System Selection Criteria
This experiment was carried out for finding suitable solution for wind pumping system design to rural
households for irrigation and for this reason this model could be replicated in this case. The following
criteria were established among these pumping systems. Again, their relative weights were
determined by taking an average of each individual group members individual category weightings.

Figure 2.9 Compressed air tank

74

Reliability (18 %) The reliability of the pump is a qualitative measurement based on how
long the pump type typically runs without failure. It also considers the pumping systems
susceptibility to corrosion, fatigue and wear.
Maintainability (22 %) This measurement assesses the pumping systems ability to be
maintained. This includes consideration for accessibility by humans, repairable with basic
technical knowledge and rudimentary tools.

Reliabili Maintaina Co Efficien Consequence

of Total
Pump
ty
ble
st
cy
Failure
Score
Piston Cylinder
2
3
2
3
3
2.63
Centrifugal
1
2
1
2
2
1.63
Compressed Air
Tank
3
1
3
1
1
1.73
Efficiency (18 %) The most efficient pumping system will suffer the least energy loss
converting the incoming mechanical energy to fluid energy.
Cost (22 %) The relative cost of each pumping mechanism
Consequences of Failure (20 %) Because the system is designed for use in rural
communities, it is assumed that spare parts and skilled labor are not readily available. The
design must consider whether a part failure would lead to total failure or simply reduced
performance.
The selection criteria of different pumping mechanism are given in table 2.2.
4.7.3 Pump Selection Matrix
Based on ratings listed in table 2.2, the final pumping system design was selected to be a piston
cylinder pump. When installing a wind pump it is important to match the characteristics of the pump
and the wind machine. A good interaction between pump and rotor is essential. The most common
and suitable as per study mentioned above type pump used for water pumping (especially for
borehole water pumping) in conjunction with a windmill is the reciprocating or piston pump. The
piston pump tends to have a high torque requirement on starting because, when starting, the rotor has
to provide enough torque to overcome the weight of the pump rods and water in the rising main once
the rotor is turning, the torque requirement decreases because of the momentum of the revolving
rotor. The wind speed can then drop to about 2/3 of the start-up wind speed before the wind pump
will stop.
4.8 Wind pumping system design (Sample design Baratnagar)
Wind pump installation at particular site depends on annual average wind speed and water lifting
head at particular site. For the same Morang district is selected to design wind water pumping system.
The site parameter are given below.
4.8.1 Annual average wind speed
September 2003, BMC SILT Environmental Services P. Ltd. in collaboration with Department of
Mechanical Engineering (DoME), Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering has conducted wind
data recording at Ward number 18, Morang district in Biratnagar Sub Metropolis (lies in Terai
region). They conducted the reading for 20 months starting from September 2003 to April 2005 using
an anemometer at a height of 8 m from ground surface for recording the wind speed and wind
direction in a data logger. WAsP software was used for generating wind potential at the site and the
annual mean wind speed for that site was calculated 1.8 m/s.
75

From the above findings search for the site narrowed down to the Morang District. Then to meet the
other criteria mentioned above, the site visit was carried out in the Morang district and searched out
for the sites which met best to the above criteria.
Wind speed and wind direction
Wind rose and the weibull curve help to understand the wind distribution during the period as shown
in figure 3.4. WAsP software was utilized to analyze these characteristics. The annual mean wind
speed was found to be 1.8 m/s and the power density was obtained to be 15 W/m 2. The highest
occurrence of wind was found to be in the direction of North (10.6%) and North East (10.4%) with
the mean speed of 1.76 m/s and 2.9 m/s respectively. Similarly, power density was found to be 17
W/m2 and 30 W/m2 respectively.

S
E

Figure 3.4 Average annual wind direction and frequency of occurrence

4.8.2 Water lifting head
Total water lifting head includes suction head, delivery head, frictional head, head loss in suction and
delivery pipes and drawdown head.
A. Frictional head loss on the suction pipe
The suction head is assumed to be 2.5 m for the particular location and the suction pipe is 4 m long
and of 1.5 inch diameter
Friction loss in pipes due to the friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach formula.
4 f x L xV2
H fs =
2 x g xD
Where,
L
= length of the pipe (m)
f
= Coefficient of friction
Vmean = Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
D
= Diameter of pipe (m)
76

Again friction loss in the suction pipe in the reciprocating pump

= 4 l f ( A r sin ) 2 / 2 g
a
Maximum value of loss of heads due to friction in suction pipe is at the middle of the stroke i.e.

900
2

)/2 g

Where,
= Angle described by rotating crank (rad)
r = Radius of rotating crank (m)
A = Area of cylinder (m2)
d = diameter of suction pipe (m)
a = Area of suction pipe (m2)
= 6 rad/s
Total dynamic head (H) = Suction head + Delivery head + total friction losses on suction
and delivery pipes + Drawdown head
= 2.5 m + 1 m + (0.3419+0.151) m + 0.7 m
= 4.51 m

The wind water pumping system consists of following main components. They are:
The rotor
The safety system
Transmission mechanism
Pump and
Tower
The designs of each component based on design parameter are given below.
4.9 Design of rotor
Rotor is main component of wind of wind pump. Common rotor blades are made of 1 mm thick and 2
m length steel sheet, however, at storms the tips and the inner parts are collapsed and cracked. To
avoid this third ring is used to support the blades but this will make the construction too heavy and
more expensive. A better solution is to choose the length of the blades shorter. Hence blade material
is taken as 1 mm thick and 1 m length standard steel sheet, which is available in local market. One of
the advantage of 1 m length blade is smaller sheet roller can be used to make bent profile. The net
diameter of rotor is taken as 4.5 m including spokes and blade.
4.9.1 Tip speed ratio
The tip speed ratio depends on power coefficient. To get maximum power from wind maximum
power coefficient is desired. For 4.5 m rotor power coefficient is maximum when tip speed ratio is
77

one. Earlier tip speed ratio of 2 is used. However low tip speed ratio causes less friction between
piston and pump cylinder. Thus design tip speed ratio is taken as one.
4.9.2 Blade design
Blade profile depends on solidity. Solidity is the area of all the blades divided by the rotor area. High
solidity means low wind speed can rotate wind turbine. For mechanical energy like water pumping
and low wind speed high solidity is required. The number of blades depends on number of spokes.
Optimum spokes for 4.5 m rotor is six. Hence the number of blades must be a multiple of six. To get
high solidity large blade area is required as area of rotor is same. The possible number of blades are
6, 12, 18, 24 etc. To design blade dimensions following formulas are used.

Where
Rr
= Rotor radius
B
= Number of blades
= Design tip speed ratio
Cl

= Lift coefficient
= Angle of attack

Table 4.1 Total projected area of blade

SN No. of blades on rotor Projected area of one blade (m2)
1
6
0.97
2
12
0.501
3
18
0.34
4
24
0.26

78

Total projected area (m2)

5.82
6.012
6.12
6.24

A = 0.97 Sq. m

1m

6 Blades
0.5 m
A = 0.501 Sq. m
12 Blades
A = 0.34 Sq. m

0.35 m

18 Blades
0.26 m
A = 0.26 Sq. m
24 Blades

Figure 4.1 Blade profiles

From table 4.1 it is clear that if number of blade increases projected area also increases. For high
solidity large number of blade is required. But it is difficult to increase number of blades due to cost
and weight. Thus 18 number of blade with maximum cord length 0.35 m is selected.

79

f = 0.035 m
C = 0.35 m

f = 0.035 m
C = 0.35 m

The sheets are bent as in figure 4.2 with f/c = 0.1. The code 18PU450 is used for the new rotor that
means rotor has a diameter of 450 cm and 18 blades that is coupled to a pump unit as shown in figure
4.3.

Figure 4.2 The blade profile

80

2.5 m
4.5 m

Figure 4.3 Rotor having diameter of 4.5m

4.10 Design of safety system
The safety system is designed to limit axial force on rotor during high wind speed. This particular
sub-system will save the whole system from structure failure, which usually occurs during storms.
Accurate designing of this system is very important for the overall success of the wind pump because
minor errors in size calculation of the components in the safety system cause total loss of the whole
system during storm season. Comparison between old and new safety system is given in table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Comparison between hysteresis and inclined hinge safety system
SN Description
Hysteresis system
Inclined hinge system
81

Sensitivity

Catch shock

Wind speed

Reacting time

Manufacturing
cost
Construction

Automation

Application

Low, large time is required to

turn wind direction
High
Suitable for variable wind speed
only
4 5 sec time required to
change direction. So in these
time rotor experience very large
force.

High as compared to
hysteresis system
Not applicable
Suitable for constant as well
as variable wind speed
Low reacting time and avoid
huge axial force

High

Low

Difficult due to gear mechanism Simple due to hinge

It is not fully automatic,
sometimes rotor should be
turned in the direction of wind Fully automatic
manually specially at low wind
speed i.e. 4 5 m/s
Limited
Popular

Based on above comparison inclined hinge main vane system is better safety system. The calculations
herein have been made to construct the whole safety mechanism depending on the wind characteristic
found on local site. The design is focused on to find the dimensional parameters of the safety system
components. Various understood terms and equations have been directly interpreted from the
literatures.
4.10.1 The inclined hinge main vane system
This system has a tail vane (or main vane) situated at backside of the rotor at normal position (neutral
position) given in figure below. The vane with its arm is hinged at the tower through a couple of ball
bearings at a certain angle () to the vertical axis in the opposite direction of the rotor plane. The
system has also a side vane with an arm parallel to the rotor plane and this vane is fixed to the tower.
When the wind speed increases the wind thrust on the rotor and side vane causes the rotor to rotate
out of the wind about the tower axis (z-axis). The main vane also rotates as the tower rotates but not
at the same angle. As the main vane is hinged at an inclined ball bearing, the wind thrust on the vane
and vanes self weight cause the vane to rotate at lesser angle than that of the rotor and at a certain
constant wind speed the whole system rotation is balanced at a certain angle to the direction of wind
(). This angle increases as wind speed increases and at a certain high wind speed (in storm
condition) the rotor will be completely perpendicular to the direction of wind.
As the wind speed decreases the rotor changes its position gradually towards its normal position and
ultimately in the direction of the wind when the winds speed reaches its normal designed value. Thus
the system works fully automatic with no need of human intervention. The system works on the
moments balance of numbers of forces developed about z-axis and s-axis (vane axis).

82

Z- axis

S - axis

Vane axis

Tail Vane

Fv

Side View

e
Frt

Ra

Frt
f

Frs
Frs

Resultant force
on rotor
Top view

Fa

83

Practical thrust force is greater than theoritical thrust force due to high bearing friction. Maximum
thrust force, 1128.91 N occurs at 12 m/s consedering bearing friction, however its value is 814.84 N
theoritically at the same wind speed. Design of safety system structure is based on practical peak
load.
Maximum stress 1.11 MPa and 26.7 MPa on bearing and structure respectively. Possible materials for
bearing are given in table 4.5.

84

Table 4.5 Possible material for safety system bearing

SN
Material for bearing
Description
- High friction
- Contraction and expansion during dry and wet
condition
1
Wood
- Swells due to rain water
- Cheap
- Design Stress, 14 Mpa
- Operating speed, up to 10 m/s
- Low friction as compared to wood bearing
- It is not easily available
2
Nylon
- High cost
- Design stress, 7 Mpa
- Operating speed, up to 5 m/s
- Low friction as compared to nylon
- Easily available
Ball bearing (Al3
- Low to high cost available in local market
alloy)
- Design stress, 35 Mpa
- Wide range of operating speed
- Self lubricating
- Quiet operation
4
Rubber
- Low cost like wood
- Design stress, 0.35 Mpa
- Operating speed, up to 20 m/s
Besides rubber other bearing is suitable based on maximum stress on bearing. From friction point of
view plastic bearing like nylon is better than wood bearing but less design stress, availability and low
operating speed hinder the selection of nylon bearing. Due to high friction wood is not suitable hence
ball bearing is one of the best option for safety system. Detail of ball bearing is given in appendix.
Similar to bearing design stress of commonly available steel is 160 MPa and 105 MPa for static and
fatigue load respectively. The load on wind turbine is not static. Wind turbulence caused cyclic load.
But design fatigue stress is 4 times greater than maximum static pressure, 26.7 MPa, hence local steel
is safe for safety system structure.
4.11 Design of transmission
The transmission should be designed in such way that it should minimize high peak forces in the
pump rod. This can be achieved by:
- decreasing the acceleration of the piston at the moment that it passes its lowest
position (at this moment the peak force appears).
- decreasing the acceleration of the water in the rising main by decreasing the ratio of
the areas of the piston and of the rising main (Ap/Ari) .
- using an airchamber.
Earlier transmission consists of crank, connecting rod and cross head mechanism. However, high
acceleration of piston and pump rod force makes this mechanism unpopular. Four bar mechanism
reduces the acceleration 51 % as compared to earlier mechanism so that this mechanism is suitable
for transmission. The four bar mechanism is shown in figure 4.6.
85

Figure 4.6 Four bar mechanism

At a constant angular speed of the rotor the upward movement of the piston takes more time than
downward (202 of 360 rotation upward and 156 downward). From four bars mechanism a p = 2.4
m/s2 for Q= 2 rad/s and s = 250 mm.
Maximum bearing force occurs on bearing K as shown in figure 4.6. Load on bearing and four bar
mechanism is fatigue load due to variation on wind speed. The comparison between maximum stress
and design stress of different bearing material is given in table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Comparison between actual stress and design stress for transmission bearing
Maximum design Design stress Actual stress Factor
of
SN Material
speed (m/s)
(MPa)
(MPa)
safety
1
Wood
10
14
4
3.5
2
Rubber
20
0.34
4
0.085
3
Phenolics
15
42
4
10.5
4
Nylon
5
7
4
1.75
5
Poly carbonate 5
7
4
1.75
6
Teflon
5
17.5
4
4.4
Carbon
7
15
4.2
4
1.05
graphite
Ball
bearing
8
Wide range
35
4
8.75
(Al- alloy)
86

Rubber bearing can not be used because design stress is less than actual stress on bearing and carbon
graphite bearing can not be used due to low factor of safety. Aluminum alloy ball bearing has
excellent fatigue strength and high factor of safety as compared to other bearing. Similar to safety
system ball bearing is best option for transmission bearing. Locally available steel is safe for other
members of mechanism.
4.12 Design of Pump
The proposed pump is single acting piston pump. The pump is submerged in the water well. The
piston is connected to the pump rod which is driven by the four bar mechanism. With the upward
movement of the piston the pump delivers the water through the rising main. The pump has two
valves; one is at the piston (piston valve) and second at the bottom of the pump (foot valve).
The pump is designed based upon the peak forces occurred during its operation. The peak forces in
the pump rod appear just after the piston has passed its lowest position. The peak forces consist of
different forces:
Fpeak = Fstat+Fa+Fs+Fw+Fwl
Fstat
= force caused by the static pressure
Fa
= force caused by the acceleration of the water, piston and pump rod
Fs
= force caused by the shock of the piston against the water column at the
moment that the piston valve closes.
Fw
= force caused by the friction of the piston and the cylinder.
Fwl
= force caused by the conductor resistance in the pump and the rising
main.
From the nature of forces mentioned above, it may be clear that it is not easy to calculate F peak this
way. The Consulting Services Wind Energy Developing Countries (CWD) suggested the following
simple formula to calculate Fpeak.
Fpeak = k x w x H x (Ap Apr) x {g + 2 x Rc x (Ap Apr) /(Arm Apr)} (CWD, 1989)
Where,
K is an overshoot factor
w
= density of water
H
= water lifting head
Ap
= piston area
Apr
= area of pump rod
g
= gravitational pull = 9.8m/s2

= rotor angular speed

Rc
= crank length
ArN
= area of the rising main
As designed tip speed ratio =1 for the design wind speed, vd= 1.8 m/s and for fatigue strength (v = 9
m/s) and for static strength (v =12 m/s), 1.6 (WOT, 1990)
From = x Rr x v = x n x Dr/v
For v = 9 m/s;
n = 60 rpm
For v = 12 m/s;
n = 80 rpm
The pump dimensions
To determine the optimal swept volume of the pump following formula has been used
87

Vs

a 2 C p tot v 2 Dr

8 w g H vol
Where Cp
= power coefficient
tot
= total efficiency of the wind pump
w
= density of water
vol
= volumetric efficiency of the pump
Vs

1.2 2 0.27 0.67 1.8 2 4.5 3

8 1000 9.81 H 0.9 1

Vs = Ap x S = 8.956/H (Liter)
Since the design of the pump depends upon the efficiency of the pump. Efficiency is taken as 67%
(WOT, 1990). Various diameter pumps are possible to lift the water. Maximum water lifting head for
each pump is calculated in table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Selection of pump
Diameter of Piston (mm)
Stroke (mm) Water Lifting Head, H (m)
Swept Volume (L)
8" (190.2 mm)
250.00
1.26
8.956/H
6" (150.6 mm)
250.00
2.01
8.956/H
5" (117.6 mm)
250.00
3.50
8.956/H
4" (101.6 mm)
250.00
4.60
8.956/H
The required water lifting head is 4.51 m. Pump having a diameter above 4 is not suitable to lift
water above 4.51 m. Pump less than 4 diameter can lift water greater than 4.51m but they have low
discharge. Hence best possible diameter of pump is 4.

Diameter, Inch

Hence, the basis of table 4.6 it is found that the maximum theoretical water lifting head is 4.6 m for 4
inch diameter of piston. No other size greater than this size could lift water as much of this calculated
head at particular location. The head versus required diameter for piston is shown in figure 4.7.

Head, m

Figure 4.7 Head Vs Piston Diameter

The peak force in the pump rod can be calculated by formula:Fpeak = k x w x H x (Ap Apr) x {g + 2 x Rc x (Ap Apr) /(Arm Apr)}
88

The peak force with safety system and monthly variation are shown in figure 4.8 and 4.9. These peak
forces are calculated on the basis rotor axis is changes with wind speed and monthly variation of
average wind speed in Biratnagar respectively.

Figure 4.8 Peak force as a function of wind speed

If safety system works well, the maximum peak force, 5290.5 N, occurs at the wind speed of 12 m/s.
for same condition maximum peak force occurs in the month of July, 1563.125 N.

Figure 4.9 Monthly variations of peak forces

So, following design is made for piston cylinder:Pump cylinder material: PVC
Piston material
: Wood
Pump dimension
Pump cylinder size : 4 (110mm101.6mm)
Rising main size
: 2
Stroke length
= 250 mm
89

Water lifting head

Pump rod size
Overshoot factor, k

= 4.51m
=
: for 4 pump: 1.4 < k < 2.0

4.13 Tower
For the Diever 450 a tower with a height of 10 meters is chosen. The tower is a frame consisting of
angle irons and is welded in 10 parts which are connected together with bolts. The construction has
four legs which are made of 50 x 50 x 5 mm, the horizontals and diagonals of 30 x 30 x 3 mm. The
tower pipe is made of 4" gas pipe. At one side there are stairs till a height of 6 meters. It continues at
two opposite sides of the tower till 9 meters. The last 3 meters two stairs at opposite sides to stay
away from the turning rotor is chosen. From the stairs one can step on the seat which is connected to
the head. On this seat it is easy and safe to lubricate the shaft bearings and the bearings of the
transmission or to do other maintenance work. This is safer then standing on a platform which is
connected to the tower. Aerodynamic forces, gravity forces and pump rod forces act on the tower.
These are calculated for two situations: for maximum operating conditions and for storm conditions.
In the calculations the following conditions are assumed survival winds peed of 40 m/s. At the wind
speed of 12 m/s it is possible that the rotor temporarily faces the wind perpendicular. The influence of
rain, snow and glazed frost is neglected. The stresses in the legs will be maximal when the wind
attacks the tower in a diagonal way. This is explained in figure 4.10. Assuming the tower to hinge on
foundation blocks B and D during diagonal attack, the total wind force is divided among legs A and
C, loading A to buckle and C to tensile forces. The vertical load is divided over all four legs in both situations.
But the horizontal load (wind load) and the moments on the tower top cause a bar force in leg A
(compression) and C (tensile) under diagonal attack which is 2 times higher than in leg C and D
(compression) and A and B (tensile) under orthogonal attack. Also the projected area of the tower
under diagonal attack is bigger than under orthogonal attack.
The maximum force on tower member is 18606 N, compressive (WOT, 1990). The type of material,
design stress and maximum possible stress on tower member is given in table 4.12.

Figure 4.10 Top view on the tower

90