THE UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD,

MANCHESTER
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING, SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
Petroleum and Gas Engineering
Division
MSc Petroleum and Gas
Engineering

Module: Petroleum Geology, Exploration

and Drilling
Module Coordinator: Dr. Lateef Akanji

Question 1

Figure 1. Geologic Feature

1) - To determine the relative age of rocks using the Law of Superposition and Principle
of Cross-cutting Relationship. First one was formulated by Nicolas Steno that states In
undisturbed bedding of rocks each overlying layer is younger that underlying. Second
was described by James Hutton Any injected body that is crossing other rock masses, is
younger than this rock formation. According with what was mentioned above the
sequence from oldest to youngest:
X Z (igneous rock) B (igneous rock) C (dike) D (dike) A
(conglomerate) T (sandstone) Y (shale).
2)-

A - The are two main types of unconformity: Parallel unconformity and angular
displacement. So the layer A is a parallel unconformity that can be defined as The layers
of different ages are deposited in parallel and separated only by erosion surface stratigraphic break To be more precise it is stratigraphic discordance that is subgroup of
parallel unconformity. As a proof of this, from picture above can be seen that the rock
formation A it is a conglomerate, where conglomerate is a sedimentary rock formation,
connection something heterogeneous, inconsistent mix.
B - Can be an apophyse or as part of batholith or even dike. It is difficult to say what it is
exactly, it is needed to know relative dimensions of this formation, what form it have
below the picture, or how it connected with other igneous rocks.
C - Dike, because it is intrusive body with dimensions where length is much bigger than
width. According with this rock formation we can get a little clarification about rock B,
which is more like batholith that other types, because of the property of dikes to break
through the granite batholiths in the late stages of their formation.
d) - Same as previous Dike.
3) - The rock X was the first to be formed. Then was intrusion of Z, further parallelness of
layers X and Z was violated with some tectonic movement or other actions. Appearance
of igneous rocks B, C, D related with some active magmatic processes. The igneous rock
B was first, and then C and D. Dikes are the most widespread in the oceanic crust formed
by spreading or in the intercontinental rift zone. Intrusion of dikes C and D came out to
the surface of formation X. In consequence of erosion the surface area was aligned with
formation of conglomerate A and sandstone T, and then the subsidence of shale Y.

Question 2

Figure 2. Geological map

1) - To denote the rocks (without age) on geological maps, geological cross section and
stratigraphic columns uses colour alphabetic and dashed notation according with international
standards:
Igneous rock
Limestone
Conglomerate
Shale
Sandstone
2) Based on some of the Stratigraphic principles stated in the chapter 1, in a descending
order arrangement,
D Oldest (Law of Original Horizontality and the fact that Limestone D, moved only
20o SE)
C Next (Law of Superposition)
B Next (Law of Superposition)
A Next (Law of Superposition)
3) - U Erosion Unconformity; F Fault; Counting horizontal line Dike

The above image is an anticline because the arrow is dipping away

from axis at 20 o.

The above is a syncline because the arrow is dipping towards the

axis at 50o and it has its younger beds close to the center of the
structure.
4) - History
Limestone D was first deposited, then erosion unconformity U occurred; after which
the Shale, Conglomerate, and Sandstone layers were deposited respectively in
different successions. Compressional and Tensional forces, resulting from the
intrusion of the basement rock G then caused the Anticline and Syncline folds
producing the fault acting 70o SN. The upper layers of the Syncline, now detached
from the others, acted 60o NW while that of the Anticline acted 50 o. All these
processes produced cracks in the rocks thus enabling a dike to be formed through
them.

Question 3
1) Principle methods of exploration and reservoir prediction
Gravity Survey Method: Gravity surveys are performed to examine bedrock
topography under the Earths surface, map large metallic mineral deposits, and locate
subsurface caverns and also contacts between geologic units of differing mass and
density. It is a fairly complicated system but it is based on the premise that a target, oil
reserve in this case, has a different density from the surrounding geology. Computer
models are once again generated to depict the general area where such gravity
changes occur. Once the gravity survey indicates an area where there is density
differences it is time to perform a seismic survey. The instruments used make use of
the earth's gravitational field and the way the field varies according to differences in
mass distribution near the earth's surface. Because the density of rocks varies, the
gravitational force they exert necessarily varies. If very light rocks are found close to
the surface, the gravitational force they exert will be less than those of very heavy
rocks. With this in mind, geophysicists attempted to locate salt domes, which would
be associated with minimum gravity, by using the torsion balance instrument. The
pendulum method is another way of carrying out gravity survey but was superseded
by the gravity meter. Advances in gravity instrument technology afforded
geophysicists better equipment with which to make more accurate determinations.
The most common gravitational instrument in use today is the gravity meter or
gravimeter, which measures variations in the earth's gravitational field by the
gravitational pull on a mass balanced against some form of elastic force.
Magnetic Method: Most oil occurs in sedimentary rocks that are nonmagnetic.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks rarely contain oil and are highly magnetized. By
conducting a magnetic survey over a given area, a prospector can determine where
oil-bearing sedimentary rock is more likely to be found. Two types of magnetic
instruments are used to measure the slight difference in magnetism in rocks, the field
balance and the airborne magnetometer. The field balance is used on the earth's
surface to measure magnetism in specific locations. The airborne magnetometer is
used to measure the magnitude of the earth's total magnetic field over a large area.

 Seismic Method: A seismic survey is conducted utilizing a special truck, called a

seismic source truck, which creates seismic waves by essentially vibrating. The waves
then travel through the Earths crust and the wave returns are measured by
sophisticated computers traveling in front of the seismic truck. These tests can also be
performed by using dynamite instead of a seismic truck. The computer will calculate
the timing of the returns and will then be able to draw graphs called, seismographs, of
the topography and layers of the crust. By examining these charts a trained geologist
would be able to identify the traps. By identifying the traps one would be likely to
identify an oil reservoir. Many seismographs can be manipulated by the computer to
produce 3-D images of the rock
formations. Extensive modeling can also be
built, all by computer, based on the data
that is returned from the seismic waves.
The seismic survey would be performed a little different offshore, mainly involving
sonar equipment.
Study of Stratigraphy: Stratigraphic exploration consists of establishing correlations
between wells, matching fossils, strata, rock hardness or softness, and electrical and
radioactivity data to determine the origin, composition, distribution, and succession of
rock strata.
Test Well: Once a geologist clears the project for drilling a test well is drilled to see if
oil is indeed reached in the reservoir. The test drill will be the final preliminary phase
prior to permanent drilling of an oil field.
2) Two common methods of seismic prospecting
Reflection Method
Refraction Method
a) - Most often used Seismic Reflection Method
b) - The Reflection Method gives the most information.
3) Hydrocarbon Indicators
A type of seismic amplitude anomaly, seismic event, or characteristic of seismic data
that can occur in a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. Bright spots, as hydrocarbon indicators are
loosely called, can originate in numerous ways, they are not all indicative of the presence of
hydrocarbons. Criteria to distinguish true hydrocarbon indicators (sometimes called HCIs)
from other types of amplitude anomalies include:
amplitude variation with offset
bright or dim spot(s) in amplitude as a result of variations in lithology and pore fluids,
sometimes occurring in groups of stacked reservoirs
change or reversal in polarity because of velocity changes, also called phasing
conformity with local structures
diffractions that emanate from fluid contacts

 flat spot that represents a fluid (gas-oil or gas-water) contact, which can also show the
downdip limit of the reservoir in some cases
gas chimneys above leaking reservoirs
shadow zones below the accumulation
velocity push-down because of lower velocities of hydrocarbons than rocks
Difference in response between reflected pressure and shear energy.
Hydrocarbon indicators are most common in relatively young, unconsolidated siliciclastic
sediments with large impedance contrasts across lithologic boundaries, such as those in the
Gulf of Mexico and offshore western Africa. An ongoing issue in exploration for hydrocarbon
indicators is the difficulty in distinguishing between gas accumulations and water with a low
degree of gas saturation ("fizz water").
4) Sources of Energy Used in Seismic Prospecting
Explosives (dynamite): Explosives, such as dynamite, can be used

as crude but effective sources of seismic energy. Generally the

explosive charges are placed between 6 and 76 metres (20 and 250
ft) below ground. The charges are placed in a hole that is drilled with
dedicated drilling equipment for this purpose. This type of seismic
drilling is often referred to as "Shot Hole Drilling".
Air Gun: this is used for marine reflection and refraction surveys. It consists of one
or more pneumatic chambers that are pressurized with compressed air at pressures
from 14 to 21 MPa (2,000 to 3,000 psi). The air gun array is submerged below the
water surface, and is towed behind a ship. When the air gun is fired, a solenoid is
triggered, which releases air into a fire chamber which in turn causes a piston to
move, thereby allowing the air to escape the main chamber and to produce a pulse of
acoustic energy. Air gun arrays are built up of up to 48 individual air guns with
different size chambers, the aim being to create the optimum initial shock wave with
minimum reverberation of the bubble after the first shot.
Vibroseis: is a seismic method that involves sending a controlled amount of sound
energy (waves) and monitoring the frequency as the wave is sent. The waves must be
controlled so as not to cause damage or harm to the environment in terms or noise
pollution amongst other problems and this is the reason why it is preferred in most
locations. Usually the transmitter is mounted on a under a truck and the receivers or
sensors are placed at some reasonable distance away from the truck to pick the
reflected or retracted signal. It is cheap as compared to the use of dynamite since no
holes need to be dug to mount them rather; it is mobile as it is carried around with the
trucks.

5) - Principal Uses of Seismic Data

Hydrocarbon exploration - used by the hydrocarbon industry to provide a high
resolution map of acoustic impedance contrasts at depths of up to 10 km within the
subsurface. This can be combined with seismic attribute analysis and other
exploration geophysics tools and used to help geologists build a geological model of
the area of interest.

Near-surface applications an application that aims to understand geology at depths

of up to approximately 1 km, typically used for engineering and environmental
surveys, as well as coal and mineral exploration. A more recently developed
application for seismic reflection is for geothermal energy surveys, although the depth
of investigation can be up to 2 km deep in this case.
Crustal studies investigation into the structure and origin of the Earth's crust at
depths of up to 100 km.

Question 4
1)
NS(meters)
EW(meters)

TARGET
964
-144

RIG
1334
653

N
133
4

RIG

X
370

TGT

96
4

W
S

797

144

65

From the triangle above,

X2 = 7972 + 3702
X2 = 772109
X = 772109
X = 878.70m
Sin =

opp
h yp

370
878.7

= 0.4211

= Sin-1 0.4211 = 24.9

a) Rectangular Coordinates
Rig (653, 1334)
Target (-144, 964)
b) Polar Coordinates
The target from the Rig: (878.70m, S24.9W)
The rig from the target: (878.70m, N24.9E)
2)

Vertical depth
Horizontal displacement Kick-off depth
Build rate
-

3, 218.688 meters [10, 560 ft.]

1, 333.5 meters [4, 375 ft.]
457.2 meters [1, 500 ft.]
2o per 30.48 meters [2o per 100ft.]

1500
r

S
10560
ft

D
y

9060f
t
x

a) Radius of curvature
r = B.R x

r=

100
2

4375f

180

180

= 2864.79ft

b) Hold Angle
From the figure above,
z = 4375ft r = 4375 2864.79 = 1510.21ft

Therefore, from triangle BAC,

Tan 2 =

opp
adj

9060
1510.21

= 5.9991

2 = tan-1 5.9991 = 80.54

b2 = 90602 + 1510.212
b2 = 84364334.24
b = 84364334.24
b = 9185m
From triangle DAC,
Cos 1 =

adj
h yp

2864.79
9158

= 0.3119

1 = cos-1 0.3119 = 71.83

= 180 (1 + 2) = 180 (80.54 + 71.83) = 27.63
Hold angle = = 27.63
c) Measured Depth at start of hold
MDhold = KOP + S
S=

360

S=

27.63
360

X 2r

X 2 (2864.79)

S = 1381.5ft
Therefore,
MDhold = 1500 + 1381.5 = 2881.5ft
d) Measured Depth at Total Depth
MDTVD = KOP + S + X
From triangle ADC,
91852 = x2 + 2864.792

x2 = 91852 - 2864.792
x = 76157203.26
x = 8726.81m
MDTVD = 1500 + 1381.5 + 8726.81
= 11608.31ft

Question 5
1)
a)- Productivity Index
A commonly used measure of the ability of the well to produce is the Productivity Index.
Defined by the symbol J, the productivity index is the ratio of the total liquid flow rate to the
pressure drawdown. For a water-free oil production, the productivity index is given by:

Where
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
J = productivity index, STB/day/psi
avg(Pr) = volumetric average drainage area pressure (static pressure)
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure

P = drawdown, psi

The productivity index is generally measured during a production test on the well. The well is
shut-in until the static reservoir pressure is reached. The well is then allowed to produce at a
constant flow rate of Q and a stabilized bottom-hole flow pressure of pwf. Since a stabilized
pressure at surface does not necessarily indicate a stabilized pwf, the bottom-hole flowing
pressure should be recorded continuously from the time the well is to flow. The productivity
index is then calculated from the above Equation.
It is important to note that the productivity index is a valid measure of the well productivity
potential only if the well is flowing at pseudo-steady state conditions. Therefore, in order to
accurately measure the productivity index of a well, it is essential that the well is allowed to
flow at a constant flow rate for a sufficient amount of time to reach the pseudo-steady-state.

b) Vertical Lift Performance

The ability to pass reservoir fluids through the tubular is known as vertical lift performance.
Fluid that is produced at the bottom of the well has to flow to the surface overcoming the
pressure losses due to the flowing fluid mixture plus the friction forces due to flow in tubing
and any other loss depending on the flow regime.

Figure 5b: Relationship between IPR and VLP

(Source: www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C08/E6-193-13.pdf)
Pressure required at intake of tubing to be able to flow the fluid mixture to surface is tubing
intake pressure. As tubing head pressure reduces tubing intake pressure decreases causing an
increase in drawdown pressure and increase in flow rate from the reservoir. Optimum
production rate is given by the point where inflow and outflow curves intersect.
c) Inflow Performance Relationship
The relation between the flow rate (q) and the flowing bottom-hole pressure (Pwf) states the
inflow performance relationship. For a gas well to flow there must be a pressure differential
from the reservoir to the well bore and the fluid characteristics and changes with time. There
is a linear relationship between the reservoirs producing at the pressures above the bubble
point pressure, this is the pressure when Pwf is greater or equal to bubble point pressure.
Inflow performance of a reservoir is also defined as the functional relationship between the
flowing bottom-hole and the resulting flow rate. It is the rate at which fluid will flow towards
the wellbore and depends on the viscosity of the fluid, the permeability of the rock, and the
driving force. For a gas well to flow there must be a pressure difference from reservoir to the
well-bore at the reservoir depth. If the well-bore pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure

there can be no inflow. If the well-bore pressure is zero, the inflow would be a maximum
possible i.e the Absolute Open Flow (AOF).
For intermediate well-bore pressures, the inflow will vary. For each reservoir, there will be
unique relationship between the inflow rate and wellbore pressure. For a heterogeneous
reservoir, the inflow performance might differ from one well to another. The performance is
commonly defined in term of a plot of surface production rate (stb/d) versus flowing bottom
hole pressure (pwf in psi). Several models are available for determining the different types of
Inflow performance Relation; they are Straight line flow, Vogel's method, Future IPR flows,
The Fetkovich method and many more.
Vogel
qo
qmax

= [1 0.2

Pwf
P

- 0.8(

Pwf
2
P )]

Fetkovitch
qo = C(Pr2 Pwf2)n
qo = C1(Pb2 Pwf2) + C2 (Pr Pb)
d) Gas Reservoir Deliverability
This is defined as the gas production rate achievable from reservoir at a given bottom hole
pressure. It is a major factor affecting well deliverability. Reservoir deliverability relates the
ability to produce gas into well bore and, subsequently to the surface facilities at a particular
rate. Rate of flow from porous area and permeable drainage area into a well bore is a function
of properties of the information and the fluids, as well as the pressure gradient which is the
driving force.
The following factors involve gas deliverability:
Flow near the well bore as affected by the skin effect.
Reservoir pressure.
Well bore radius.
Reservoir fluid properties.
Flow into the well bore through particular completion system and up or down through
the well.
Field to main pipeline connection.

2)
a) - Injectivity Test

Injectivity test is a pressure transient, it would have been similar to pressure draw down test
for the unit M, but for the constant rate that is negative with a value of q inj. injectivity test
procedures include:
Shutting in the well until the pressure is stabilized at the initial reservoir pressure.
injecting at a constant rate qinj and recording the bottom hole flowing pressure
The objectives of the injectivity test is as follows

to enable us estimate the permeability

to estimate the skin factor
to know the average reservoir pressure
and to also know the reservoir heterogeneity.

b) - Falloff Test
A pressure fall off test is preceded by an injectivity test of a long duration. It is similar to a
build up test in that the pressure change with time is monitored after flow ceases. The
procedure for carrying out a fall-off test includes:
Injectivity test that lasted for a total injection time tp at a constant injection rate
Well shut in followed by pressure analysis by Horner method.
The objectives of the fall off test include:
It helps to determine the permeability of the sand around the injection wells.
it shows the gradual build up of skin occurring with time
It can be used to determine that there is an appreciable level of skin effect occurring
with time.
It helps to determine the mobility of the water in rock rather than in gas.
c) - Interference Test
Interference test is a kind of multiple well test(multiple well test is a kind of well test that
involves two or more wells). in this kind of test, the rate of the active well is modified. For
example, the well is closed or put into operation and the effects on the observation wells are
measured.
The objective of the interference well test includes:
It can be used to get information about the formation properties between the wells.
d) - Drill Stem Test
Drill stem test is the well test that is usually conducted with the drill string still in the well.
These tests are usually conducted with a down hole shut in tool that allows the well to be
opened and closed at the bottom of the hole with a surface actuated valve. Drill stem test
provides primarily an indication of formation content. Drill stem testing is a procedure for
temporarily completing a well to determine the productive characteristics of a specific zone.

Drill stem objectives include:

it provides a good data to help evaluate the productivity of the zone

provides a good data for the completion practices
helps us to know the extent of formation damage
helps us to know the need for stimulation
it provides an estimate of formation properties and wellbore damage which can be
used to determine the well flow potential with a regular completion that uses
stimulation techniques to remove damage and increase effective wellbore size.

e) - Pulse Test
This kind of test is usually similar to interference test but usually within a considerably
shorter time. There is very small pressure change sometimes only within the K pa, therefore
special differential pressure gauges are required. the active wells usually produces at short
intervals, the production and the shut in periods are different but the cycles are the same.
Pulse test can be analysed using the method of Kamal and Brigham(1975).

Question 6

Pi = 20.7 MPa[3002.3 psi]

Boi = 1.32
o = 9.2 103 Pa s[9.2 cp]
h = 21 m[68.9ft.]
_ = 0.17
Swi = 0.26
ct = 1.2 109 Pa1[8.27 1061/psi]
rw = 0.1m [0.328 ft.]
q = 17.2 m3/d[108.2 bbl/d]

Pressure drawdown test data

TIME (HRS)
32
43
53
64
72
81
110

Pwf (MPa)
18.41
18.38
18.35
18.32
18.30
18.29
18.25

1)- Plot of Pwf versus time

18.9
18.8
18.7

Pw
f

18.6
18.5
18.4
18.3
18.2
18.1
18

100
time

10

2) a) gradient, m =

1000

P /cycle

m = 18.53 18.81 = -0.28MPa

1MPa = 145.0377psi
M = -0.28 x 145.0377 = -40.61psi
b) - P at t = 10hrs
P = 18.53MPa = 2687.55psi
c) Permeability
k=

162.6 q B
mh

162.6 108.2 9.2 1.32

40.61 68.9

= 76.17mD

d) Skin Effect
s = 1.1513

( P 1h r Pwf )
m

P1hr = 18.81MPa = 2728.16psi

Pi = Pwf = 3002.3psi

log

K
Ctr 2 w

+3.2255

s = 1.1513
+3.2255

(2728.163002.3)
40.61

log

76.17
0.17 x 8.27 x 106 x 9.2 x 0.328 x 0.328

]
s = 1.1513 (6.751 7.738 3.2255) = 2.57 =2.6

e) - Since the skin factor is positive, the system is damaged.

Question 7
Np = 21409 m3 [134648bbl], cumulative production
q = 38.3 m3/d [241bbl/d], production rate before shut-in
Boi = 1.52 (rb/stb)
Pi = 20.7 MPa [3002.3 psi]
o = 9.2 103 Pa-s [9.2 cp]
h = 21 m [68.9 ft]
= 0.17

Swi = 0.25
ct = 1.2 109Pa1 [8.27 1061/psi]
rw = 0.1 m [0.328 ft]
1)
a)- production time tp
tp =

Np
q

134648
241

= 558.7 days

tp = 24 x 558.70 = 13408.93hrs = 13409hrs

b)- slope, m
m=

P / cycle

from the log cycle between 104 and 103 ,

P P = 11.9 11.6 = 0.3Mpa = 43.51psi
c) Pws and Pwf at 1 hour
at 1 hour ,

tp + t
t

From the graph at 13410hrs,

13409+1
1

= 13410hrs

Pws = 11.25MPa and Pwf = 11.60Mpa

d) Pws and Pwf at 1hr are different because of the Wellbore Storage Effect.
2)- Mean pressure of drainage area
tpDA =

K=

0.0002637 Ktp
CtA

162.6 q B
mh

162.6 x 241 x 9.2 x 1.52

43.51 x 68.9

= 182.79mD

A = 103.2 acre
1 acre = 43560ft2
103.8 acre = 43560 x 103.8 = 4.52 x 106 ft2
Therefore,
tpDA =

0.0002637 x 182.79 x 13409

0.17 x 9.2 x 0.00000827 x 4520000

From the given graph,

at tpDA = 11.06, PDMBH = 5.9
From PDMBH =

2.303 (PP)
m

From the graph given, P* when

tp+ t
t

=1

P* = 12.75Mpa = 1849.23psi
Therefore,
5.9 =

2.303 (1849.23P)
43.52

5.9 x 43.52 = 2.303x1849.23 2.303P

2.303P = 4258.78 256.709
P=

4002.071
2.303

= 1737.76 = 1738psi

= 11.06

Question 8

tM = 100hours
(tD/r2D)M = 50
PM = 105 Pa [= 14.5psi]
PDM = 0.8
q = 300 m3/d [= 1887bbl/d]
= 0.82 103 Pa-s [0.82cp]
Bw = 1.0
h = 12 m [39.4ft]
r = 112.4 m [368.8ft]

a) Permeability
K = 141.2

K = 141.2

b) - ct =

1887 1 x 0.82 0.8

39.4 10

2.64 e4 k
r 2

Q BPd m
h Pm

tm
(tD /r 2 D)m

2.64 e4 x 443.62
0.82 x 368.8 x 368.8

=2.10 x 10-61/psi

Question 9

= 443.62mD

100
50

Figure 8a: Well test interpretation models

Figure 8b: Flow Regimes

The plots in figure 8b consists of three regimes,
1. 1st flow regime (early time region) = well bore storage effect
2. 2nd flow regime (middle time region) = response from reservoir

3. 3rd flow regime (late time region) = region where you start feeling the effect of the
boundary
When the curve is maximum it means the wellbore is damaged, but when the curve is
minimum it means the wellbore is stimulated in the Early Time Region, the flat curve
indicates a homogeneous system during the Middle Time Region where the permeability of
the rock remains constant, and the Late time Region also indicates that the test has to be
conducted for a longer period to feel the boundary effect.
The plot lines from figure 8 show the pressure plot (blue) and the derivative (red).
Analysis for fault system plot:
A fault will create an additional pressure drop that causes no flow to occur orthogonally to the
fault, before the additional pressure drops, the boundary is picked up by the pressure gauge,
and the system behaves as if the reservoir has an infinite extent of directions. Once the
boundary is detected, the response deviates from the infinite acting radial flow until it
doubles. If the fault is detected the speed of the pressure doubles because there are two wells
producing instead of one. From the derivative, it can be seen that the reservoir is a
homogeneous reservoir i.e the porosity, permeability and thickness is the same in all
directions, it also shows that there is a boundary.
Analysis for channel system plot:
In this case, the well is located in a channel i.e. between two parallel faults. The orthogonal
distance between the well and the two boundaries is the width of the channel. If the well is
significantly closer to one of the boundaries the same behaviour as seen in a fault will be
experienced. When the second fault is detected the response will go straight to its final
behaviour i.e. a linear flow along the channel.
Analysis for wedge system plot:
Here, the well is located between two intersecting linear boundaries of infinite extent; is
the angle between the faults. If the well is significantly closer to one of the boundaries, the
initial behaviour is the same as for a single sealing fault. When the second fault is detected,
the response enters its final behaviour. If the well is fairly equidistant from the two faults, the
response goes straight the final behaviour. Since is the angle between the two faults, the
actual reservoir size is smaller than an infinite reservoir factor of

pressure is

times larger to produce the same fluid to the well.

Question 10

Thickness = 10m
Radius = 5km = 5000m
Porosity = 15% = 0.15
Water saturation = 0.3
Oil saturation = 0.7
Oil in place = vol. (1- Sw)

, showing that the

But,
Volume = r

2
= 500 10

V = 785398163.4
Oil in place = 785398163.4 0.15 (1 0.3)
3
= 82466807.16 m
If 1 barrel = 0.1589
X = 82466807.16

X=

82466807.16
0.1589
Oil in place in barrels = 518985570.5 barrels = 5.19 x 108 barrels

2) - Density =

mass
volume
Mass = Density volume
= 900 82466807.16
10
Mass = 7.4220 10 kg

Question 11

Gas

Wet Gas

Dry Gas

Figure 11a: Phase Envelope Diagram for Cricondenbar and Cricondentherm

(Source: www.petrosef.com)
Cricondentherm is defined as the maximum temperature above which liquid cannot be
formed regardless of pressure (it is the point labelled Q on figure 11a), in other words it is the
maximum temperature at which two phases can coexist.
Cricondenbar is the maximum pressure above which no gas can be formed regardless of
temperature (it is the point P on figure 11a), it is simply Maximum pressure at which two
phases (for example, liquid and vapour) can coexist.

Figure 11b: Phase diagram for Retrograde Condensation

(Source: www.petrosef.com)
The formation of liquid hydrocarbons in a gas reservoir as the pressure in the reservoir
decreases below dew point pressure during production. It is called retrograde because some
of the gas condenses into a liquid under isothermal conditions instead of expanding or

vaporizing when pressure is decreased. Fluid at point A is above critical temperature and is
therefore classified as gas. On reduction of pressure at constant temperature from point A,
the dew point line is crossed at A and liquid begins to condense from the reservoir gas.
Dry Gas
The phase diagram shown on figure 11a the pressure-temperature plane, typifies the
behaviour of a dry gas reservoir. If the pressure and temperature are reduced from the original
reservoir conditions at point A to standard stock tank conditions, there is no liquid recovery
and the reservoir fluid remain completely in the gaseous phase during the process.
Wet Gas
As shown on figure 11a, fluid that exists above its critical temperature as gas in reservoir
conditions, but produces a small quantity of liquid condensate on reduction to separator/stock
tank conditions, may be termed wet gas.

Figure 11c Phase Diagram for Light Intermediate and Heavy Crude System
(Source: Dr. Lateef Akanji, 2013)
From the figure above, the higher the pressure, the lighter the crude will be and the lower the
pressure, the heavier the crude will be. It can also be seen that at a high temperature the crude
is heavier and at a low temperature the crude is lighter.

Question 12
PRESSURE

GP(108m3)

P/Z

(MPa)
25
24
23
22
21

0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89

0
6.09
11.8
17.1
23.1

29.4
27.91
26.44
25
23.596

plot of Gp vs P/Z
25

10

20

plot of Gp vs P/Z

15

Linear (plot of Gp vs
P/Z)

10
5
0
20

3.16

25

30

a) Gas Initially In Place

From the graph above, GIIP = 118 x 108m3
b) Gp at abandonment pressure of 3MPa and Z=0.95
P
Z

3
0.95

= 3.16MPa

From the graph above, @ P/Z = 3.16,

Gp = 108 x 108m3
c) Abandonment Pressure is not 1atm because;

Extra pressure required to deliver the gas

Well bore pressure drop at required flow rate
Pressure drop in surface facilities
Cost of compression

Question 13

P = 100kPa = 100,000Pa
L=10 X 10-2m=0.1m
r=2cm=0.02m
k=200mD = 200 X 10-15m2
=15% = 0.15
= 0.001a-s

1) - Q =

Area

KA P
l

A= r 2 = 3.14 x 0.022 = 1.26 x 10-3m2

Q=

200 X 1015 x 1.26 x 103 x 100000

0.001 x 0.1
=2.51 X10-7m3/s

Q
2) - q= A

2.51 X 107
1.26 x 103

= 1.99 X 10-4m/s

QUESTION 14

Thickness of each rock = 1m

K1 = 1000mD
K2 = 100mD
K3 = 10mD

1) Effective permeability when fluid is flowing parallel to layering

Keff =

K 1 h 1+ K 2 h 2+ K 3 h 3
h 1+h 2+h 3

1000.1 x 100.1 x 10.1

1+1+1

= 370mD

2) Effective permeability when fluid is flowing perpendicular to layering

h
Ke

h1
K1
3
Ke

h2
+ K2

h3
+ K3

1
1000

1
+ 100

1
10

3
Ke =

1+10+100
1000

3
Ke

111
1000

Ke =

3 1000
111

= 27.02mD

3) Effective permeability when the rocks occur in random spatial distribution

Kr =

n k 1 k 2 k 3 . kn
Kr =

3 1000 100 10

Kr =

3 1000000 = = 100mD

QUESTION 15
Surface tension: = 0.02Nm
Radius of blob = 0.05mm
1) - The value of the capillary pressure
Capillary pressure =

2
r

2 x 0.02
0.05 x 103

=800N/m2
2) - The pressure is higher in the oil because the blob pressure is low

QUESTION 16
Component

methane
Ethane
Propane

Composition Molar Mass

(Mi)
(Yi)

0.820
0.059
0.046

16
30
44

Apparent
molecular
weight
(YiMi)
13.12
1.77
2.024

Composition Composition
in weight
in volume
fraction
fraction
YiMi
(Yi)
( EYiMi )
0.634
0.0856
0.0979

0.820
0.059
0.046

Iso butane
N-butane

0.035
0.030

58
58
EMi = 206

2.03
1.74
EYiMi =
20.684

0.0981
0.0841

0.035
0.030

2) Specific Gravity

g =

AMWg
AMWair

20.684
29

= 0.713

QUESTION 17
Component

Mole Fraction
(Mi)

Molar Mass
(Yi)

n- butane
n - pentane
n - hexane

0.29
0.40
0.31

58
72
86

o =
S.G =

Mass
Volume

AMW
Liquid Volume at 60 F

o( pounds /ft 3)
w( pounds/ ft 3)

API Gravity =

141.5
S.G

API Gravity =

39.26
62.4

Apparent
Molecular
Weight (AMW
-YiMi)
16.82
28.80
26.66
EYiMi = 72.28
72.28
1.841

Liquid
Vol. at
60oF(ft3)
0.462
0.734
0.645
E = 1.841

= 39.26

= 0.629

- 131.5
141.5
0.629

- 131.5 = 93 API

QUESTION 18
Compone
nts

Mole
Fractio
n
(PPM)

Na+
Ca++
Mg++

7365
1582
305

Milligrams
per litre
(PPM/dens
ity of
brine)
5987.8
1286.2
248.0

Percent
Valency Atomic
Solids
weight
(PPM/1000
0)
0.7365
0.1582
0.0305

1
2
2

22.99
40.08
24.31

Equivalent
Weight (atomic
weight/valency)

Me/L(PPM/E
quivalent
weight)

22.99
20.04
12.16

320.36
78.94
25.09

SO4-CLCO3-HCO4-

521
14162
705
0

423.6
11513.8
573.2
0

0.0521
1.4162
0.0705
0

2
1
2
1

96.07
35.45
60.01
60.01

48.04
35.45
30.01
61.01

10.85
398.48
23.49
0

Milligram per litre = PPM / density of brine

Equivalent Weight = Atomic Weight / Valency
Milliequivalent per litre = PPM / Equivalent Weight
Percent Solids = PPM / 10,000
Density of Brine = 1230Kg/m3 = 1.23kg/cm3

Brine Pattern
2

Na+

Cl
-

1.5

Ca2+

Mg2

CO32-

0.5

SO32-

0
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50

50

HCO3-

100 150 200 250 300 350 400

REFERENCES
Dr Lateef Akanji- Basic Well Testing, Petroleum and Gas Engineering, University of
Salford. March 2013
Dr. L. T. Akanji. Production Engineering. Petroleum and Gas Engineering. University
of Salford. March 2013
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http://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/inflow-performancerelationship.php#ixzz2Q0YMhW2I
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