JC Mathematics H2 Level

Topic 12 Vectors
12.1 Introduction to Vectors
Geometrical Representation of Vectors
Notation :
A vector quantity is denoted by a or a .
~

a
P

Geometrically, we specify a displacement vector a by a directed line segment PQ

where
(i)
the length of line segment PQ = magnitude of a,
(ii)
the direction from P to Q indicates the direction of a.

The modulus of a vector is its magnitude. The modulus of the vector PQ is written

as PQ or PQ and the modulus of a is written as |a| or a.

x1

The magnitude of a vector x2 is
x
3

x12 + x2 2 + x32 .

Equal Vectors

If the two vectors u and v have the same magnitude and direction, then they are equal
vectors and we write u = v.

Negative Vector
For a non zero vector a , its negative vector a has the same magnitude but has
direction opposite to a .
a

a
(a)

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Unit Vector
A vector with magnitude equal to one unit length is called a unit vector. The unit
vector of a is
denoted as a and is defined as a =

a
.
a

Example

Zero Vector (Null Vector)

The zero or null vector has zero magnitude and is denoted by 0.
Vector Addition
There are two general methods to add two vectors. They are the triangle and the
parallelogram laws.

Triangle Law of Addition

Q
b

R
a+b

If two vectors a and b are represented by the sides PQ and QR of a triangle,

then the resultant vector a + b is represented by the third side PR .

Parallelogram Law of Addition
Q

a
P

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If vectors a and b are represented by the sides PQ and PS of a parallelogram, then

a + b is represented by the diagonal vector in the parallelogram denoted by PR .

By extending the addition laws to two or more vectors, we arrive at the polygon law
of addition.
B
C

A
We can add any number of vectors together by
joining them such that the initial point of one vector
lies on the endpoint of another vector.

The diagram
on
uuur uuu
r the
uuur right
uuurshows
uuur that
uuur
AF = AB + BC + CD + DE + EF .
Vector Subtraction
The vector a b is defined to be a + (b).

uuur uuur uuur

DB = DA + AB
= (b) + a
= a + (b) (vector addition is commutative)
=ab
Note: a b b a (i.e., vector subtraction is not commutative)

Scalar Multiplication of a Vector

2a

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Let a be a non-zero vector and b = ka where k .

I.f
(i) k > 0, then k a is a vector with the same direction as a, and magnitude k
times of a,
(ii) k = 0,

then k a is a zero vector,

(iii) k < 0, then k a is a vector with opposite direction to a, and magnitude |k |

times of a.
For all vectors a and b and for all , ,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

a is a vector,
( a) = () a, (scalar multiplication is associative)
( + ) a = a + a, ( ) a = a a,
distributive law
(a + b) = a + b, (a b) = a b.

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.2 More on 3-Dimensional Vectors, Parallel vectors and Collinear points
3-Dimensional Vectors
The unit vectors in the directions of the positive xand y- axes are denoted by i and j respectively,
where i is perpendicular to j.
Now we introduce the unit vector in the direction of the positive z- axis, which is
denoted by k , so that
i , j and k are mutually perpendicular.
z
P(a, b, c)

k
i

uuur uuuur uuuur uuur

If P is a point with coordinates (a, b, c), then OP = OM + MN + NP = ai + bj + ck.
Column Vector Notation
A three-dimensional vector r = xi + yj + zk may be written as
x

r = y , with the unit vectors i =
z

1

0 , j =
0

Position Vectors

0

1 and k =
0

0

0 .
1

To specify the position of a point P , we

introduce a point of reference which is the
fixed point O (called the origin). The
position vector of P relative to O is the
uuur
vector OP .

p
O

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uuur uuur uuur

Recall: For any two points A and B, AB = OB OA .

Parallel Vectors
Two non-zero vectors u and v are parallel
if and only if u = k v for some scalar k \{0}.

Collinear Points
Three points A, B and C are collinear if they lie on a
straight line. To prove that they are collinear, we need to
uuur
uuur
prove AB = k BC , where k \{0}.
Note:
uuur
uuur
uuur uuur
(i)
AB = k BC AB // BC . Since B is a common
point, therefore A, B and C are collinear.
uuur
uuur
uuur
uuur
(ii)
We may also prove AB = k AC or AC = k BC in order
to prove that A, B and C are collinear.

C
B

Example
(a) Suppose A, B, C and D are four points such that A (1, 3, 7), B(2, 4, 9), C(3, 5,
10) and D(6, 8, 16) . Show that AB and CD are parallel.
(b) Suppose A, B, C are three points such that A (1, 3, 7), B(2, 4, 9) and C(5, 7,
15) . Show that A, B and C are collinear.

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.3 Ratio Theorem
The Ratio Theorem
Let a , b and p be the position vectors of A, B and P with respect to the origin
O respectively.
B
If P divides the line segment AB in the ratio m : n , then
n
p=

1
(na + mb )
m+n

b
p

In particular, if P is the mid-point of the

1
line segment AB , then p = (a + b ) .
2

Example
Let A (1, 7, 5) and B (6, 8, 2) be two points. Suppose C divides AB in the ratio of 2:5
while D is the mid point of A and B, find the position vector of C and D.

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.4 Scalar Product
Scalar Product

uuur
uuur
Consider two non-zero vectors a = AB and b = AC .
uuur
uuur
The scalar product (or dot product ) of AB and AC is denoted by a.b (read as a
dot b ).
uuur
uuur
where is the angle between AB and AC .
a.b = abcos
Properties of Scalar Product
a.b = abcos = bacos = b.a
where is the angle between a and b .(scalar product is commutative)
(ii)
(a.b) = ( a).b = a .( b) = abcos
where and is the angle between a and b .
(iii)
(ma).(nb) = mn(a.b) where m, n .
(iv)
a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
(v)
(a + b).c = a.c + b.c
(vi)
(a + b).(c + d) = a.(c + d) + b.(c + d) = a.c + a.d + b.c + b.d
(vii) For any vector a, a.a = a2 cos 0 = a2
(viii) For any two non-zero vectors a and b , if a.b = 0, then abcos = 0
cos = 0 a b.
(ix)
For any vector a , we have a.0 = 0
(i)

Scalar Product of Position Vectors

If

a1
b1


a = a2 and b = b2 , then
a
b
3
3

a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.5 Angle between 2 vectors
Angle Between Two Vectors
B

a
A

a.b = abcos
C

Then the angle between two vectors a and b can be found via
cos =

a .b
| a || b|

or a . b

a .b
= cos-1

| a ||b|

or cos -1( a . b )

a
b
and b =
.
|
b|
a
cos > 0 is acute and cos < 0 is obtuse
If acute angle is required then consider

where a =

= cos-1

a .b
| a||b|

or cos-1 |( a . b )|

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.6 Vector Product
The vector product of two vectors a and b is written as a b (pronounced a
cross b) which in turn is defined as

a b =absin n

where is the angle between a and b and n is the unit vector perpendicular to
both a and b .
The direction of n is found via the right hand grip rule.

O n

n = ab

n=b a

b a =basin (- n ) = absin n = a b . (Vector product is not

commutative).
(a) i i = j j = k k = 0
(b) i j = j i = k
j k=k j = i
k i = i k = j

Hence

where i, j, k are the standard unit vectors which are mutually perpendicular.
Note : If a // b , then a b = 0 .
This is because the angle between a and b, = 0 or 180 , a b = a b sin = 0
ab = 0
Properties of Vector Product
(i) a b = b a
( a b = b a have the same magnitude but are in opposite directions.)
a
ab

b
g

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ab

JC Mathematics H2 Level

(ii ) ( a b ) c a ( b c )

(iii) a ( b c ) = ( a b ) ( a c )

vector product is not associative.

Distributive over addition

(iv) a ( b ) = ( a ) b = ( a b )
(v) a b = 0 a = 0 or b = 0 or a // b
(vi) a x 0 = 0 x a = 0 ( the zero vector)

Vector Product in Cartesian Form

If a = a1i + a2j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k, then
i
j k
a a3
a a
a a2
j 1 3 +k 1
a b = a1 a2 a3 = i 2
b2 b3
b1 b3
b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
= (a2b3 a3b2 ) i (a1b3 a3b1 ) j + (a1b2 a2b1 ) k

a2b3 a3b2

= ( a1b3 a3b1 )
ab a b
1 2 2 1
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.7 Area of Triangle and Parallelogram

Area of the parallelogram = base height = a b sin = a b

The area of a triangle with vectors a and b as two adjacent sides is given by
1
ab .
2
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.8 Projection Vectors and Length of Projection
A

uuur
uuur
Let OA = a and OB = b and let be the angle between the vectors.
From A draw AN to OB .
The projection vector of a on b = ON =

( a cos ) b$

a.b
b
b
= a . b b
=

since a . b = abcos

( )

( )

The projection vector of a on b is a . b b

The length of projection of a on b = a . b

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.9 Vector Equation of a Line
Given a point A (with position vector a ) lies on a line and a
vector d parallel to the line,
we can express the position vector of any point P on the
line as

A
P
a

uuur uuur uuur

OP = OA + AP

for some .

r = a + d

d
r

Hence the vector equation of a line is

r = a + d , where .

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.10 Cartesian Equation of a line
Consider the case when the vector equation of a line is given as
a1 d1 a1 + td1

r = a2 + t d 2 = a2 + td 2 , where d1 , d 2 , d 3 0 .
a d a + td
3
3 3 3
x
x a1 + td1

Then letting r = y , we have y = a2 + td 2 .

z
z a + td
3

3
Comparing the x, y and z components, we obtain
x a1
y a2
z a3
, t=
, t=
.
t=
d1
d2
d3
Equating the three results, we arrive at the Cartesian Equation of the line

x a1 y a 2 z a3
=
=
d1
d2
d3
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.11 Relationship between 2 lines
Given any two lines in a vector space, one of the following must be observed.
(a) the lines are intersecting;

(b) the lines are skew (and therefore non intersecting, non-coplanar);

(c) the lines are parallel and coincide;

(d) the lines are parallel but apart (therefore not intersecting, and are co-planar).

Example
Determine whether the following pair of lines are parallel, intersecting or skew
1 3
1 2


(i) l1 : r = 2 + s 4 . s
l2 : r = 4 + t 2 . t
1 2
0 1


3 1
4 0


(ii) l1 : r = 1 + s 2 . s
l2 : r = 3 + t 1 . t
2 1
1 1


0 1

x+3 y2 z
(iii) l1 : r = 1 + s 2 . s
l2 :
=
=
1
2
1
1 1

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.12 Angle between 2 lines
Assume two non parallel vector lines l1 and l2 intersect at a point.
Let d1 and d 2 be the direction vectors of the two lines l1 and l2 respectively.
Suppose the acute angle between the lines is , then
using the scalar product, d 1 .d 2 = d 1 d 2 cos
we have

= cos 1

d 1 .d 2
d1 d 2

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.13 Foot of Perpendicular from a point to a line
Foot of Perpendicular from a Point to a Line
Consider a point P (with position vector p) and a line l with vector equation
r = a + b
Let N be the foot of perpendicular from A to l. Then, ON = a + 'b
PN = a p + ' b
Then, use PN .b = 0 to find ' and hence find ON .
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.14 Shortest Distance from a point to a line
To find the shortest distance from a point P (with position vector p) to a line l with
vector equation

r = a + b , we just need to find

PN = a p + ' b if the

question already requires you to find the coordinates of N, the foot of perpendicular
from P to the line.
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.15 Reflection of a point about a line
Consider a point P (with position vector p) and a line l with vector equation
r = a + b
Let N be the foot of perpendicular from A to l.
Let P be the reflection of P about the line l
Then, OP' = 2ON OP
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.16 Vector Equation of a plane
The vector form of the plane containing point A with position vector a and // to two
non-parallel vectors p and q is
r = a + p + q , where ,
Note: p and q are called the direction vectors of the plane.
Notation: A vector plane is usually denoted accompanied with a logically
chosen subscript or superscript.
Example :

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.17 Scalar Product Form of a Plane
Suppose we have a fixed point A (position vector a) on a plane and a vector n which is
perpendicular to the plane.

A
a

r
O

uuur
If r is the position vector of a point R on the plane, then AR is perpendicular to n ,
uuur
ie. AR . n = 0 (r a) . n = 0 r . n a . n = 0
r.n=a.n
r . n = p , where p is a constant.

The scalar product form of a plane is given as

r.n = p
where n is a normal vector to the plane and p is a constant.

In the scalar product form

r . n = p
p = perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin O.

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.18 Cartesian Equation of a Plane

n1

Suppose the vector equation of the plane is r . n2 = a . n = p , say
n
3
x
x n1


Then if we let r = y , then we have y n2 = p
z
z n

3
and that means

n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = p

The Cartesian Equation of a plane

n1

r . n2 = p is n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = p
n
3

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.19 Relationship Between a Line and a Plane
By sketching possibilities in intersections between a line and a plane, we can
generalise.
A line may be contained in the plane (and therefore parallel to the plane as
well).
A line may be parallel to the plane, but not contained in the plane. (no
intersections)
A line may intersect the plane at exactly one point.

Example
Determine whether the line intersects the given plane and if so, find the point of
intersection/line of intersection.
1 2

(a) l : r = 0 + 3 ,
3 1

1

: r. 1 = 4
1

1 2

(b) l : r = 0 + 3 ,
3 1

: x + y + z = 10

1 2

(c) l : r = 0 + 3 ,
3 1

1
1
0



: r = 1 + 2 + 1 , ,
1
1
1

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.20 Foot of Perpendicular of a Point from a Plane
Consider a point P (with position vector p) and a plane with equation r.n = d
Let N be the foot of perpendicular from A to . Then, the equation of the line PN
would be given by :
l : r = p + n for some

At point N, we have:
(p + n ).n = d
We can then obtain the value of and hence ON .
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.21 Perpendicular Distance from a point to a plane
To find the shortest distance from a point P (with position vector p) to a plane with
equation r.n = d , we just need to find PN if the question already requires you to
find the coordinates of N, the foot of perpendicular from P to the plane.
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.22 Relationships between Two Planes
Consider the possible intersections of two vector planes.
(1) No intersection. (parallel planes)
(2) Intersect at a plane. (same plane)
(3) Intersect at a line.

2
2
1
1

Example
Determine the relationship between the pair of planes:
1
3
1



(a) 1 : r = 2 + 6 + 1
1
1
0



1

2 : r , 1 = 5
3

1
3
1



(b) 1 : r = 2 + 6 + 1
1
1
0



1

2 : r , 1 = 4
3

1
3
1



(C) 1 : r = 2 + 6 + 1
1
1
0



1

2 : r , 1 = 3
2

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.23 Relationships between Three Planes
In general, given any three vectors planes, there are only three possibilities
(1) They intersect at a point, providing a unique solution.
(2) They intersect at a line, providing infinite many solutions. The planes form a
sheaf.
(3) They form a hollow prism and provide no solution.
(4) Two of the planes are parallel to each other while the 3rd plane is not parallel to
the other two planes
(5) Three planes are parallel to each other

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Example
Determine the relationship between the following set of three planes
(a) 1 : x + 2y +3z = 1
2 : 3x + y z = 2
3 : x + 3y + 4z = 7
(b) 1 : 3x y + 4z = 10

1
1
1



2 : r = 1 + 1 + 2 , ,
1
1
4

3 : 2x + y + z = 5
1
2
3



(c) 1 : r = 0 + 1 + 1 , ,
1
4
5



0

2 : r . 4 = 1
1

3

2 : r . 2 = 2
1

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.24 Angle between a line and a plane
Finding the (acute) Angle between a Line and a Plane

d
n

Let be the acute angle between the direction vector d (of l ) and the normal
vector n (of ).
Let be the acute angle the line l makes with the plane .
Then can first be found via the dot product
cos =
And then =

d.n
dn

or cos = d .n

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.25 Angle between two planes
Finding the (acute) Angle between Two Planes

n2
n1

The angle between two planes is equal to the angle between their normal vectors.
Thus the acute angle between two planes 1 and 2 can be found via

= cos 1

n 1 .n 2
n1 n 2

) )
or = cos 1 n 1 .n 2

Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.26 Reflection of a point about a plane
P(p)

; r.n = d
P(p)

Consider a plane ; r.n = d and a point P with position vector p. To find the
reflection of P in the plane , we first find the foot of perpendicular from P to the
plane. Using mid-point theorem, we can find the position vector of P
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.27 Reflection of a line about a plane

l ; r = a + b

A(a)

P(p)

; r.n = d
P(p)

Consider a plane ; r.n = d and a line l with equation l ; r = a + b . We first

find the coordinates of the point A, the intersection between the line l and the plane
.
We next find the coordinates of the point P, the point of reflection of P about the
plane .
With the two points A and P, we can find the equation of the line AP.
Example

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.28 Worked example on Vectors lines
Example
Line l1 passes through the point A with position vector 3i2k and is parallel to
x 1
2i+4jk. Line l 2 has Cartesian equation given by
= y = z + 3.
2
(i)
Show that the two lines intersect and find the coordinates of their point of
intersection.
(ii)
Find the acute angle between the two lines l1 and l2 . Hence, or otherwise,
find the shortest distance from point A to line l2 .
(iii)
Find the position vector of the foot N of the perpendicular from A to the line l2 .
The point B lies on the line AN produced and is such that AN : AB = 2 : 3.
Find the position vector of B.

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.29 Worked example on Vectors Planes
Example

D
F 7

k
O

j
i

12

In the above diagram, a rectangular box has base OABC. The point O is taken
as the origin, with unit vectors i, j and k in the direction of, OA, OC and OD
respectively. The length of OA, OC and OD are 12 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm
respectively. A spider crawls along the surfaces of the rectangular box. The
route OEFG taken by the spider starts at one corner, O , of the base of the box
and continues over three surfaces of the box to end at a point G along an edge
of the box. The line of the route always makes a fixed angle with the
1
horizontal, with tan = .
4
(i) Find the position vectors of E, F and G.
(ii) Find the area of the triangle OEG. Hence find the distance from G to the
line OE.
(iii) Find an equation of the plane that contains the points E, F and G in the
form r n = p , where n and p are to be determined.
(iv) Determine whether the points O, E, F and G lie on the same plane. Justify
your answer.
(v) A plane contains the points O and F. Given that the three planes ,
OEG and EFG do not have any point in common, find an equation of in the
form r = u + v + w , where , .

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.30 Worked example to Practice Question on Vectors Part 1
Example

R
Q

P
D

k
A

j
B

The diagram shows a cuboid with horizontal rectangular base ABCD, where
AB = 5 units, AD = 3 units and AP = 2 units. The edges AP, BQ, CR and DS
are vertical, and PQRS is the top of the cuboid. The point A is taken as the
origin and vectors i, j, k, each of length 1 unit, are taken along AB, AD, AP
respectively.
(i)

Show that the line DQ has equation

r = 3 j + (5i 3 j + 2k ) ,
where is a parameter.
Find an equation of the line BS.
(ii)

Hence calculate the acute angle between the lines DQ and BS, giving
your answer to the nearest 0.1.

3
RC and the point M is the midpoint
5
of BD. The plane contains the points R, B and M.

The point X lies on RC such that RX =

(iii)

Find, in scalar product form, an equation of the plane

(iv)

Find the exact value of the shortest distance from X to the plane .

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Topic 12 Vectors
12.31 Worked example to Practice Question on Vectors Part 2
Example
1
7

The equation of the line l is r = 8 + 2 and the equation of the plane 1 is

8
1


7 x 2 y + z = 1 . The point A has coordinates (1, 8, 8).

(i)

Verify that point A lies on plane 1 .

0
1
0

The equation of the plane 2 is r = 1 + 4 + 2 .

2
1
4

(ii)

Find the angle line l makes with 2 .

(iii)

Describe, with a reason, the geometrical representation of the planes 1 and

2.
(iv)
Hence find the exact shortest distance between 1 and 2 .
(v)
The point P has position vector 3i + 2j. Find the position vector of point P,
the reflection of point P in the plane 1 .

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