Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures

267

A Statistical regularization technique for the spectral estimation of

irregularly sampled data
D. Daucher, D. Clair and M. Fogli
LaMI-UBP & IFMA, Aubire, France

ABSTRACT : This paper proposes a method for solving the following problem. Let T be a
bounded interval of IR+ , called sampling interval, N > 1 and M > 0 be two integers, IN and
JM be two ordered families of integers such that IN = {0, ..., N 1}, JM = {1, ..., M }, t IR
be a deterministic variable, X = (X(t), t IR) be a IR-valued second order random process, and
N,m
N,m
(Eexp
)mJM be a M -family of experimental samples, where, for all m JM , Eexp
= {yi , i
IN } is composed of N measured values (yi )iIN of X at the nodes (ei )iIN of a non regular N partition of T . We consider a new N -partition of T , which is now regular, with nodes (tj )jIN .
N,m
Then from the M -family (Eexp
)mJM , how to build a new M -family (ErN,m )mJM in such a way
that, for all m JM , ErN,m = {xj , j IN } is a N -sample of values of X at nodes (tj )jIN which
N,m
N,m
is spectrally equivalent to Eexp
, i.e. which contains the same spectral information as Eexp
. Such
a problem is common in the field of online measurements of dynamical signals. The proposed
solution method is based on the use of the Kotelnikov-Shannons theorem. Several numerical tests
and applications are presented and show the relevance of this method and its advantages compared
to the Nearest Neighbour Resampling method in the case of "gaped" signals.

1 INTRODUCTION
Remote vibration monitoring of civil engineering structures is a topic of increasing interest to researchers and engineers. Online measurements of displacement or acceleration at specified points
of a structure are commonly used in order to assess its structural integrity. In numerous cases, as
for example in repeated short duration telemetry transmission problems, the recorded signals are
irregularly sampled, that is to say sampled at nodes of an uneven partition of the sampling interval.
To extract statistical information from such signals, and notably to estimate power spectral densities (PSD), two ways are possible (an interesting critical analysis of spectral estimation methods
based on the use of irregularly sampled data can be found in reference [1]) : either use is made
of estimators working directly on the irregularly sampled signals, or regularly sampled signals
statistically equivalent to the initial signals are first constructed, from which the searched PSDs
are then estimated using standard spectral estimators (i.e. estimators based on the use of regularly
distributed samples [11]).
Among the first methods category, we can quote for example the ones proposed by Lomb [7] and
Scargle [10], Canela et al.[3]. The slotting method cited by Benedict [1] and the Nearest Neighbour

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Ressampling (NNR) proposed by Broersen et al.([2],[13]) belong to the second category.

The conclusion of Benedict is that none of the tested methods are fully satisfying. For example, Lomb and Scargle method seems effective in the high frequency domain provided that the
observation noise of the signal is weak. The backward of the "Slotting" method is that the spectral estimation may possibly take negative values. Corrective techniques exist for some of these
methods, but they can only be applied on a case-by-case basis. At present, the NNR method coupled with standard spectral estimators is renowned to be one of the best existing methods. It can
therefore be considered as a reference method. Nevertheless, its principle, presented in section 3,
makes its application delicate when strong irregularities in the sampling intervals and particularly
"gaps" in the signal occur. This article focuses on this particular type of sampling irregularity. We
propose a method belonging to the second family described above which can be an alternative to
the NNR method in this particular case.
The following paragraph presents the mathematical statement of the problem. We briefly recall
the principle of the NNR method. Then the proposed method, based on the use of the KotelnikovShannon theorem [11], is extensively presented and detailed. Finally, we compare this new method
with the NNR method on several signals issued from two different types of nonlinear oscillators
representative of two kinds of nonlinearities encountered in civil engineering applications : multilinearity, corresponding to dynamic systems such as pipings having a clearance into the supporting
device or mechanical equipments subjected to impact disturbance with the basements, and Duffing type nonlinearity commonly used to model nonlinear vibration absorbers or Nonlinear Energy
Sink (NES) [14]. Comparisons are done on power spectral densities obtained by treating the resampled signals with the same standard spectral estimator. This enables to show the potentiality
of the present work and its complementarity with the NNR method.

2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND NOTATIONS

The basic data consist in a M -family of experimental samples
N,m
N,m
)mJM , where for all m JM = {1, ..., M }, M IN , Eexp
= {yim , i IN }, N IN ,
(Eexp
is a N -sample which contains N measured values of a mechanical or physical parameter (that
m
we assume here to be the response of a mechanical system) measured at points 0 em
0 < e1 <
... < em
N 1 of an interval T = [0, ] of IR+ . The interval T is the sampling interval, the points
(em
)
are the sampling points and , by hypothesis, they are not regularly spaced on T . In particiI
N
i
ular, for all m JM , we suppose that there exists at least one subinterval of T of significant length
compared to T which does not contain any points of the family (em
i )iIN (see figure 1). These

Figure 1: Example of an irregular partition of T

points represent the discrete values of a parameter which can be either a time or a space variable
depending on whether the considered response describes the temporal or spatial evolution of the
system. Note that, as our objective is the spectral estimation, we suppose implicitely here that the
N,m
system admits a stationary response and that the samples (Eexp
)mJM represent measured values
of this response. We also assume that the system response is centered (this can be done easily if
its not the case initially) and ergodic. Then, the problem can be stated as follows.
N,m
, m JM , can be considered as resulting from the sampling at the points
Each sample Eexp
m
(ei )iIN of a trajectory t Xm (t), m , of a IR-valued zero-mean second order stationary random process X = (X(t), t IR) defined on a probability space (, , P ), continuous

Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures

269

in quadric mean, ergodic, and whose power spectral density (PSD) SX has a compact support
= [C , C ] IR, 0 < C < +. We suppose that, for all m JM , there exists m such
m
that Xm (em
i ) = yi , i IN . Note that the compacity of the support of SX is not absolutely imperative. It could be replaced, without significant modification, by the less constraining following
hypothesis : the quasi-totality of the process energy is concentrated in the interval = [C , C ].
The random process X is the probabilistic model of the stationary system response. The aim of
this work is to propose a convenient method to estimate the PSD SX of X from the M experiN,m
mental samples (Eexp
)mJM irregularly distributed on T . Before presenting further this method,
we briefly recall the principle of a reference method to deal with this class of problems : the NNR
method.
3 PRINCIPLE OF THE NNR METHOD
The Nearest Neighbour Resampling (NNR) method is due to Broersen et al.([2],[13]).
N,m
)mJM ,
The starting data are the M experimental samples erratically distributed on T : (Eexp
defined in the previous section.
Let 0 = t0 < t1 < ... < tN 1 = , with :
tj = jt, j IN , t =

N 1

(1)

be a regular N-partition of T , i.e. a partition whose nodes are regularly spaced on T (fig. 2). For
N,m
all m JM , the NNR method enables, knowing Eexp
, to resample the response at the points tj .
Its principle is the following.
m
Let ErN,m = {xm
j , j IN } be the searched sample, with xj the response value at the points tj .
This sample is builded as follows :
m
j IN xm
j = yf (j)

(2)

m
where yfm(j) is the experimental value of the response at the point em
f (j) and ef (j) is the element of
m
the set (ei )iIN which is the closest to tj (fig. 2).

Figure 2: Construction of the regularized partition of T

The following step is to estimate the PSD of X. For that, any classical spectral estimator (i.e.
based on the use of samples regularly distributed on the observation domain) can be used. A judicious choice is the Welchs estimator with Hammings filtering window ([4],[12]). Of course this
method is heuristic. In particular, it does not ensure, by construction, the conservation of the statistical content of the initial signal. Nevertheless it provides good results (i.e. samples statistically
close to the initial samples) if the initial samples are sufficiently equidistributed on T [5].
4 THE PROPOSED METHOD
4.1 General idea of the method
The idea consists, given the regular partition (1), in associating with every experimental sample
N,m
, m JM , a N -sample ErN,m = {xm
Eexp
j , j IN } regularly distributed on the nodes (tj )jIN of

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N,m
N,m
T and spectrally equivalent to Eexp
. In other words, starting from Eexp
, it is a matter of developm
ing a procedure enabling to associate with every tj a real number xj so that the obtained N-sample
N,m
ErN,m = {xm
j , j IN } possesses a spectral content close to the one of Eexp . The estimation of
the PSD of X can then be carried out using a standard spectral estimator based on the use of the
evenly distributed samples (ErN,m )mJM , for example the Welchs estimator as mentioned in the
previous section.
The proposed regularization procedure is based on the use of the Kotelnikov-Shannon sampling
theorem [11]. It reduces the problem to the solution of M (N N )-dimensional matrix linear
equations in which :
N,m
- the known vectors are composed of the elements of the given experimental samples (Eexp
)mJM ;
- the known matrices result from the use of the Kotelnikov-Shannon theorem;
- the unknown vectors are composed of the elements of the searched evenly distributed samples
(ErN,m )mJM ;
The interest and originality compared to other methods, are that, for all m JM , the calculation
of each element of the resampled signal ErN,m uses the totality of the elements of the initial signal
N,m
Eexp
. This gives a maximal statistical representativity to the obtained modified samples.

4.2 Principle of the method

N,m
Let us recall that the experimental samples (Eexp
)mJM are considered as resulting from the samm
pling at the points (ei )iIN of M trajectories t Xm (t), m , m JM , of a IR-valued zeromean second order stationary random process X = (X(t), t IR) defined on a probability space
(, , P ), continuous in quadratic mean, ergodic, and whose power spectral density (PSD) SX
has a compact support = [C , C ] IR. Under these hypotheses, the Kotelnikov-Shannons
theorem [11] enables to express the following result: If X is sampled with the time step t = C ,
then, for all t IR, and in the L2 (, , P ) sense
X sin (C t k)  k 
X
X(t) =
(3)
C t k
C
kZZ

Note that, due to the compacity of the support of the PSD SX and to the respect of the Shannons
2
, where = 2NC is the spectral
sampling rule, the process X is P -periodic, with P = N t =
sampling step associated with the step t through the sampling relation: t = 2
N.
In addition, note that, according to the Euclidian division theorem [6], every element k of ZZ can
be written : k = j + lN , with j IN , l ZZ, and this decomposition is unique.
Taking into account these two remarks and considering that kC = kt, Eq. (3) can be rewritten
X(t) =

N
1
X
j=0

X sin (C t (j + lN ))
X ((j + lN )t)
C t (j + lN )
lZZ

that is to say, taking into account the periodicity of X

X(t) =

N
1
X

j (t) X (jt)

(4)

j=0

with, j IN
j (t) =

X sin ((C t j) lN )
(C t j) lN
lZZ

(5)

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271

The formula (4) can then be exploited in order to obtain the searched regularly distributed sample
N,m
m
ErN,m = {xm
j , j IN }, from the given experimental sample Eexp = {yi , i IN }. Indeed,
m
remembering that the points tj are associated with the values xm
j , the points ei with the values
m
2
yi , and setting, (i, j) IN
m
am
(6)
ij = j (ei )
we obtain, form Eq. (4)
yim =

N
1
X

m
am
ij xj

i IN

(7)

j=0

relations which can be rewritten matricially

Am Um = Bm

(8)

where, m JM
 
Am = am
ij (i,j)I 2

(9)


T
m
Bm = y0m y1m . . . yN
1

T
Um = xm
xm
. . . xm
0
1
N 1

(10)
(11)

For all m JM , the sample ErN,m is thus obtained by solving a (N N )-dimensional matrix
equation.
Note that the hypotheses on which relies the Kotelnikov-Shannons theorem [11] ensure that the
N,m
samples ErN,m and Eexp
are statiscally equivalent in the L2 (, , P ) sense.
From a methodolological point of vue, we are thus brought to:
1- construct the matrices Am ;
2- solve the M matrix linear equations (8).
N,m
=
Note that, contrary to the NNR method, the choice of the same dimension N for Eexp
N,m
m
m
{yi , i IN } and Er
= {yi , i IN } is not a requirement of the proposed method. Indeed,
from this method it is possible to build a regularly distributed sample of greater dimension than N.
In this case the matrix equation to solve is not square anymore and must be solved by calculating
the generalized inverse (i.e. the Moore-Penroses inverse) of the rectangular matrix associated with
this equation. This is not presented in the present article which focuses on comparisons with the
NNR method.

4.3 Construction of the matrices Am

It is clear that the formula (5) enabling the construction of these matrices via Eqs.(6) and (9) is very
badly adapted to numerical calculation due to the summation on ZZ of cardinal sines. Howewer,
assuming that N is even, of the form N = 2q, q IN (hypothesis little constraining in practice),
it is possible to calculate the exact expression of this sum. Indeed, we have the following result.
Proposition :
Under the assumption : N = 2q, q IN , Eq.(5) may also be written, t IR, j IN ,
j (t) =

sin (C t j)


C tj
N tan
N

(12)

Proof :
Under the assumption of the proposition Eq.(5) becomes
j (t) =

lZZ

sin (C t j)
(C t j) lN

(13)

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By spliting the sum on ZZ into two sums on IN plus the zero suffix term, it is easy to see that,
t IR , j IN , Eq.(13) can be written as


j (t) = j (t)sin(j (t)) j2 (t) + 2j (t)
(14)
where
j (t) = C t j
X
1
j (t) =
2
2 2 2
j (t) l N
lIN

(15)
(16)

With the help of Fourier series theory, we can obtain a simpler expression of Eq. (16). Let us
consider the continuous, piecewice C 1 and 2 - periodic function f : IR IR, defined on [, [
by
f (x) = cos(x), IR \ ZZ, x [, [
Then, according to the Dirichlet theorem, the Fourier serie of f converges normally toward f on
IR and we have, x IR
f (x) =

cos(lx)
sin() 2sin() X
+
(1)l 2

l 2

lIN

In particular, for x = we obtain, IR \ ZZ

1
1

= 2
2 2
l
2
2tan()

lIN

Applying this result to Eq.(16) yields, t IR, j IN ,

j (t) =

1
1
+
2
2j (t) 2N j (t)tan (N 1 j (t))

(17)

Finally, substituing Eq.(17) in Eq.(14) we obtain

j (t) =

sin (j (t))
N tan (N 1 j (t))

(18)

result which is indentical to Eq.(12), taking into account Eq.(15). It is clear that this formula
enables a much more effective calculation of the matrix Am coefficients than the formula (5).
4.4 Solution of the matrix linear equation (8)
As shown by the formulas (6) and (12), the matrix Am does not possess any interesting properties
regarding the solution of the matrix equation (8). In particular it is not symmetric. It even presents
two embarrassing features : it may be of huge size (N can reach several thousands depending on the
application) and it is badly conditioned. For these reasons, direct methods, as Gauss elimination
algorithm [9], are badly suited to the solution of Eqs.(8), notably because they generate important
round off errors. That is why we have chosen to use an iterative method [8]. Indeed, these methods, based on the construction of sequences of vector converging toward the solution, are much
less sensitive to round off errors. The matrix equation system is solved by the conjugate gradient
algorithm with the SSOR preconditioning. It is well known that if the matrix of the equation set to
solve is symmetric and positive-definite, then this method is convergent.

Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures

273

5 NUMERICAL TESTS
Numerical tests are performed using nonlinear oscillators models representative of two kinds of
nonlinearities encountered in civil engineering applications : multilinearity, corresponding to dynamic systems such as pipings having a clearance into the supporting device or mechanical equipments subjected to impact disturbance with the basements, and Duffing type nonlinearity commonly used to model nonlinear vibration absorbers or Nonlinear Energy Sink (NES) [14]. The
aim of these tests is to study of the influence the length of the lacking data zone on the results
quality and to evaluate the robustness of the proposed method, called in the following Statistical
Resampling (SR) method. The obtained results are systematically compared to those obtained by
the NNR method. Let us first explain the general strategy used in this work to obtain and treat the
basic data.
5.1 Simulation and treatment of irregularly sampled data
N,m
)mJM , we use the following strategy:
In order to obtain the irregularly distributed samples (Eexp
1- Choice of a random process X = (X(t), t IR) satisfying the basic hypotheses mentioned in
section 2, and of a sampling interval T = [0, ] IR+, > 0.
2- Construction of M realizations of X on T using a Monte-Carlo procedure. These realizations
N S,m
consist in M trajectories of X sampled at nodes of a regular partition of T . Let (Esim
)mJM , be
the M -family of the simulated trajectories, where, m JM , N S denotes the number of sampling
N S,m
.
points of Esim
N S,m
N,m
3- For all m JM , extraction from Esim
of the searched sample Eexp
= {yim , i IN }, yim IR,
N S,m
IN = {0, ..., N 1}, N = 2q, q IN . This sample is made up of the elements of Esim
associated with points of T irregularly spaced and judiciously chosen among the nodes of the regular
N S,m
partition of T used for the Monte-Carlo numerical simulation (i.e. the sampling points of Esim
).
Let (ei )iIN be these points. They are such that : 0 e0 < e1 < ... < eN 1 and do not depend
N,1
N,M
on m, i.e. they are the same for all the samples Eexp
,...,Eexp
.
N,m
Once obtained the family (Eexp )mJM , the proposed method can be applied to obtain the family
(ErN,m )mJM . Then, from the latter, an estimate of the PSD SX of X can be performed using, as
SR
previously mentioned, the Welch estimator with Hammings filtering window. We denote by SX
the estimate of SX obtained with this approach. This estimate be compared to the one provided by
N N R , and to the target PSD S .
the NNR method, denoted by SX
X

5.2 Application to a multilinear oscillator

The random process X = (X(t), t IR) considered in this section is a coordinate of the stationary
vector response of a two-dimensional nonlinear stochastic oscillator modelling the dynamics of a
nuclear power plant component subjected to a stationnary random excitation. The complete study
N S,m
of this problem is presented in reference [8]. The M sampled trajectories (Esim
)mJM of X
have been obtained from the Monte-Carlo simulation of the stationary solution of the It stochastic differential equation associated with the oscillator response. In this particular case, the PSD
SX of X (i.e. the target PSD) is not known a priori. It has been statistically estimated from the
simulated trajectories using the Welch estimator. For this application, M = 500 trajectories have
been used and each trajectory has been simulated using N S = 1024 sampling points.
N,m
N S,m
The samples (Eexp
)mJM , M = 500, have been obtained from the family (Esim
)mJM using
N,m
N S,m
the following strategy : for all m JM , Eexp is derived from Esim by suppressing p consecutive
N S,m
elements of Esim
after its 100th element. This process has been repeated for several values of

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N S,m
p : 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 250, 400. Figure 3 shows one of the simulated trajectories Esim
and the
N,m
N S,m
sample Eexp obtained from Esim in the case p = 60. It is important to note that the choice of the
position of the p lacking points in the trajectory is purely arbitrary. Nevertheless, investigations
concerning this parameter has shown that this choice has no consequence on the obtained results.

NS,m
N,m
Figure 3: Sample representation of Esim
and Eexp

Figures 4 represents the resampled trajectories (i.e. the samples ErN,m )) obtained from the samN,m
ple Eexp
using respectively the NNR method and the proposed method. Due to the nature of
the proposed method, the provided resampled trajectory is everywhere different from the starting
trajectory. It is however obvious, comparing the trajectories, that they exhibit strong similarities.

Figure 4: Sample representation of ErN,m obtained by the NNR and SR methods

SR (proposed method) and S
N N R (NNR method) to
Figures 5 and 6 compare the estimates SX
X
the target PSD SX in the following cases : p = 30, p = 120, p = 250. The proposed method leads
to very accurate estimates even in the case of severely damaged signals.

NNR
X and comparison with S
X
Figure 5: Target S
to SX (p = 30)

SR
NNR
X
X
Figure 6: Comparison of S
and S
to SX for p = 120 and p = 250

Figure 7 shows the variation of the errors eSR and eN N R due respectively to the proposed method
N S,m
N,m
to obtain Eexp
.
and the NNR method according to the percentage of points suppressed in Esim

Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures

275

These errors are estimated as follows:







SR () and e
N N R ()
eSR = Sup SX () SX

N N R = Sup SX () SX

The variation of eSR is almost linear. The error eN N R presents two zones : it first grows rapidly up
to 25 percents of suppressed points, it is almost constant after this value. We also remark that the
SR method leads to more accurate results and particularly as the percentage of suppressed points
exceeds 5 percents. The average ratio between the error of the NNR method and the error of the
proposed method is greater than ten in this particular example.

Figure 7: Evolution of the error eSR and eNNR

The calculated error is an only partial indicator of the quality of the two methods. The aim of
this section is to compare the robustness of these methods according to their ability to describe
accurately the geometrical features (i.e. the shape) of the target PSD. It can be seen that the quality
of the estimates provided by the NNR method decreases as p increases. This is particularly obvious
in the low frequency range. This was foreseeable taking into account its operating mode. We also
note that the NNR method gives a very poor estimate of the two peaks for high values of p.
5.3 Application to a Duffing type oscillator
The purpose of this application is to extend the evaluation of the method to another type of nonlinearity. Details of the mathematical model can be found in reference [15]. The irregular data are
simulated in the same way as in the previous paragraph. Two cases corresponding respectively to
a weakly and strongly nonlinear 3 dof Duffing oscillator are considered. Figure 8 confirms the tendencies observed on the previous example from both quantitative and qualitative points of view.
This point gives generality to the conclusions drawn from the comparison of the NNR and SR
methods. These two examples also show the robustness of the proposed method to approximate
accurately the shape of the PSD in various configurations.

Figure 8: Comparison of PSDs (weak and strong non-linearity)

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6 CONCLUSION
The results obtained on two applications representative of two types of nonlinearities encountered
in Civil Engineering structures show the relevance of the proposed method. Its originality relies
on the fact that the calculation of each element of the resampled signal depends on the totality of
the original irregular signal. It is obvious that this characteristic constitutes the great force of this
method as it gives a maximal statistic representativity to the obtained regular sample.
In the presence of small irregularities, both methods lead to sufficiently accurate results. In
this case the advantage goes to the NNR method whose implementation is very easy and whose
computationnal cost is very low.
In the presence of huge irregularities and especially "gaps" of significant size in the signal, the
proposed method has demonstrated its accuracy and robustness compared to the NNR method.
This can be considered as its true field of application.
Acknowledgements
This work takes place within the TIMS Research Group Program, granted by the Regional Council
of Auvergne, the French Ministry of Research, the CNRS and the Cemagref.
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