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MODULE 03
FIXED WING THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Background. Theory of flight forms the backbone of the knowledge needed by the
technician to understand the basic operation of an aircraft. It forms the basics of
every other module you will encounter.
1.2.
Terminal Performance Objective. Recall theory of flight for fixed wing aircraft.
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.3.
Instructions.
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.4.
Learning Objective.
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
1.4.3.
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
1.4.6.
1.4.7.
1.4.8.
1.4.9.
1.4.10.
Objective 10. Recall the manoeuvres of the aircraft about the three axis.
1.4.11.
1.4.12.
1.4.13.
1.4.14.
Objective 14. Recall the high lift devices & air brakes.
1.4.15.
2.2.
THE ATMOSPHERE
2.3.
The earth's atmosphere can be said to consist of concentric gaseous layers. The
layer nearest to the surface is known as the troposphere, above which is the
stratosphere. The boundary of the troposphere, known as the tropopause, is not
at a constant height but varies from an average of about 7625m at the poles to
16470m at the equator.
Above the tropopause the stratosphere extends to
approximately 30km, till 80,45km.
Air is a mixture of several gasses. For practical purposes it is sufficient to say that
air is a mixture of one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. Pure, dry air contains
about 78 percent (by volume) nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 0.9 percent argon.
In addition, air contains about 0,1 percent carbon dioxide and traces of several
other gasses. See Figure 1.1.
The weight of the column is obviously at its greatest near to the earth and
decreases as we go upwards, because the column of air is getting shorter and
shorter. We can see that the pressure of the atmosphere at any place is equal to
the weight of the column of air above it. Therefore, atmospheric pressure varies
with altitude. The higher above sea level, the lower the pressure. Bearing this in
mind it would be clear that atmospheric pressure would not vary with the cross
sectional area of any surface, for example the pressure exerted on the surface of a
room of 5m at sea level would be the same as a room of 10m.
2.7.
2.7.1.
The standard pressure at sea level which is approximately 14,7 pounds per
square inch. This means that a column of air, one inch square, extending from
the earth's surface vertically upwards into space weighs 14.7 pounds.
2.7.2.
By comparing the pressure with the height of a column of mercury which would
balance the weight of the air above it. The column of mercury at sea level
extends approximately 29,92 inches high. The higher the pressure on the
surface of the mercury, the higher the liquid would rise in the evacuated tube
which is placed in the mercury.
2.7.3.
An altimeter See Figure 1.3 must compensate for atmospheric pressure changes if
it is to give true indications under all conditions.
DENSITY
2.10.
2.11.
2.12.
Density is normally expressed in pounds per cubic foot. At sea level, the density
is approximately 0,08 pounds per cubic foot.
2.12.1.
2.12.2.
2.13.
2.14.
It must be remembered that an aircraft is supported in the air by forces which are
entirely dependant on air density; the less the density, the more difficult flight
becomes, but for all of them, flight becomes impossible in a vacuum.
Weight
2.15.2.
Mass
2.15.3.
Density.
2.16.
The density of air is particularly important to pilots. If the climate is cold and the
altitude at which the airfield is situated is low, the air will be dense. An aircraft will
therefore take off at a much slower speed, using a shorter runway than when the
air is warm and the aircraft is at high altitudes. For this reason a pilot must be
aware of the effects of density, especially if the aircraft is to take-off from a short
runway.
TEMPERATURE
2.17.
Definition. Temperature is the reaction of the suns radiation reflecting back from
the earth upwards.
The decrease in temperature is caused by the radiant heat direct from the sun
which passes through the atmosphere without appreciably raising the temperature
thereof. The earth, however, absorbs the heat, causing the temperature of the
earth to rise and the air in contact with it is affected by this heat radiation which
causes the atmosphere to increase in temperature, and expand. The temperature
then decreases at a steady rate with an increase in altitude as the heat radiation of
the earth decreases and at about (10980m) ceases to decrease any further and
remains constant at -57C. (This altitude varies at different parts on earth, being
greater at the equator due to more heat radiation). The portion in which the
temperature decreases, is called the troposphere, and where temperature remains
constant - the stratosphere. The surface inbetween is commonly known as the
tropopause. See Figure 1.4.
Density
Cs
Feet
Celsius
Hg
Lb/ft
Slugs/ft
Cs, ft/s
- 2 000
18,9
108,40
2273,7
2,52
1124,54
15,0
101,04
2116,2
2,38
1116,89
1 000
13,0
97,46
2040,8
2,31
1113,05
2 000
11,0
93,95
1967,7
2,24
1105,31
3 000
9,1
90,57
1896,6
2,18
1101,43
4 000
7,1
87,26
1827,7
2,11
1096,53
5 000
5,1
84,09
1760,8
2,05
1057,73
10 000
-4,8
69,50
1455,3
1,76
1037,26
15 000
-14,7
57,04
1194,3
1,50
1016,38
20 000
-24,6
46,43
972,5
1,27
995,06
25 000
-34,5
37,46
785,3
1,07
968,46
30 000
-44,4
30,02
628,4
0,89
968,46
36 089
-56,5
22,56
472,7
0,71
968,46
40 000
-56,5
18,71
391,7
0,58
968,46
50 000
-56,5
11,57
242,2
0,36
968,46
60 000
-56,5
7,15
149,8
0,22
968,46
70 000
-56,5
4,46
93,5
0,14
968,46
T : Standard temperature
Cs : Standard speed of sound
Pressure
Slugs/ft3
ft/s
:
:
2.21.
INERTIA
2.22.
Definition. Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist change in its state of rest or
steady motion.
2.23.
Inertia will be more readily understood after Newton's three laws of motion have
been studied.
Definition. A body in a state of rest or uniform motion will remain in this state, until
it is acted upon by an external force.
2.25.
Definition. This law states that if a body moves with uniform speed is acted upon
by an extrenal force, the change of motion will be proportional to the amount of the
force, and motion will take place in the direction in which the force acts.
2.27.
This means that motion will take place in the direction of the applied external force.
This law may be stated mathematically as follows:
Force = Mass x Acceleration (F = m X a)
2.28.
Definition. For every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force).
2.30.
This action is well illustrated by the action of a swimmer's hands. He pushes the
water aft and thereby propels himself forward, since the water resists the action of
on his hand. When the force of lift on an aircraft's wing equals the force of gravity,
the aircraft maintains level flight. These three laws of motion are closely related
and applied to the theory of flight. In many cases all three laws may operate on
an aircraft at the same time.
The values of temperature, pressure and density are never constant in any given
layer of the atmosphere. In fact, they are all constantly changing. Experience
has shown that there is a requirement for a standard atmosphere with the
comparison of aircraft performances, calibration of altimeters and other practical
uses.
This standard assumes a mean sea level temperature of + 15C, a
pressure of 1013,5 millibar (14,7 pounds per square inch) and a density of
1,225kg per m3.
2.32.
2.33.
Definition. Pressure and temperature at average sea level and the change of
temperature at height are measured to the set standard as mentioned above.
AIR CURRENTS
2.34.
Air currents are movement of the air with respect to the earth. If the air is rising
from the earth, it is called a vertical/ thermal current. These currents are also
called convection currents and they often occur over sandy beaches and freshly
ploughed fields, in desert areas and in other places where the air is unstable. In
the past, rising or falling air currents have often been called "air pockets" or
"bumps", but these terms are not exact disciptions.
The correct terms are
updraughts or downdraughts. The ability of rising air currents to lift an aircraft is
used by glider pilots who are often able to keep a glider in the air for many hours
merely by keeping the glider in the rising currents. See Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Effect of a rising air current on the flight path of an aircraft.
2.35.
The air may be perfectly still for a short period of time, but most of the time it is in
motion. The differences in temperature between the poles and the equator, and
between the lower and upper atmosphere, are important sources of energy which
cause air motion. Furthermore, the rotation of the earth and the force of gravity
affects the movement of air. As a result, masses of warm air may be encountered
at fairly high altitudes and masses of cold air may be found where there would be
every reason to expect warm air.
RELATIVE MOTION
2.36.
2.37.
An aircraft must have relative motion between itself and the air in order to fly. The
velocity of this motion is called "the true airspeed (TAS)" and is measured in knots.
One knot is a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour. One nautical mile is 1852 m . If
an aircraft is flying at a speed of 75 kts and there is no wind, the ground speed of
the aircraft will be 75 kts; that is, the relative motion between the aircraft and the
ground will have a velocity of 75 kts. If the aircraft is flying at 75 kts and is
heading directly into a 75 kts wind, the aircraft will remain stationary with respect
to the ground. If an aircraft is flying at 75 kts airspeed against a 25 kts wind, it will
have a speed of 75 kts with respect to the air and a speed of 50 kts with respect to
the ground.
2.38.
Thus, we see that velocity is relative because all motion is relative and velocity is
the time of motion. True airspeed, represented by the symbol V, is the velocity of
the aircraft along its flight path with respect to the body of air through which the
aircraft is moving.
STUDY MATERIAL
3.1.
DEFINITION
3.2.
The sum of the three forms of energy present in a given mass of fluid equals a
constant. Pressure energy + Kinetic energy (due to motion) + Potential Energy
(due to position) = Constant.
3.3.
If this sum remains constant, it is clear that the increase of one will cause one/both
of the others to decrease in order to keep the same constant. A venturi is a tube
with a narrowing in the middle. See Figure 2.1.
3.5.3.
3.5.4.
3.5.5.
3.6.
A simple demonstration, involving two stiff pieces of paper folded as shown will
show that the pieces of paper resemble the cross-section of a venturi.
If you blow in the direction of the arrows, the two pieces of paper will draw
together. This is caused by the reduction of pressure between the sheets of
paper, assisted by the normal air pressure on the outside of these sheets of paper.
3.8.
The bottom half of the venturi resembles the shape of an aerofoil. If stream of air
passing over the venturi have to get past at the same time, they must speed up,
therefore creating a reducing in pressure above the aerofoil. It is this reduction of
pressure which provides a large proportion of the total lift of an aerofoil
(approximately 70%). The pressure below the aerofoil contributes the remaining
30%. See Figure 2.4.
STUDY MATERIAL
AEROFOIL
4.1.
A chord may be defined as the reference line directly across an aerofoil from the
leading edge to the trailing edge. See Figure 3.2.
The angle of attack is the acute angle between the chord and relative airflow
(R.A.F.) See Figure 3.3.
The vertical component that acts at right angles to the direction of airflow is called
lift. See Figure 3.4.
The component of the total reaction which is parallel to the airflow is called drag.
See Figure 3.5.
The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord and the horizontal, with the
aircraft in rigging position. See Figure 3.6.
Aspect ratio is the ratio between span and the chord. Suppose we have a wing of
100 sq. m plan area, it may be of 20m span and 5m chord, or even 50m span and
2m chord. As seen Figure 3.8.
Fineness ratio refers to the amount of times the thickness (b) of an aerofoil can be
divided into its chord (a), as can be seen in the figure. The fineness ratio which
gives the least drag is a ratio between 3 to 4. The thickness (b) is normally at
maximum camber and usually approximately 1/3 of the chord length from the
leading edge of the wing.
A thick wing will have a low fineness ratio and a thin wing will have a high fineness
ratio.
F = Chord
Thickness
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
4.11.
The centre of pressure constitutes all the distributed pressure replaced by a single
resultant force which acts less than halfway back along the chord. The point on
the chord at which this resultant force acts is called the centre of pressure (C of P)
of the aerofoil.
STUDY MATERIAL
PATTERNS OF AIRFLOW
5.1.
In a steady streamlined flow, the speed direction and pressure may vary from point
to point in the flow, but at any point is constant with respect to time. This flow can
be represented by streamlines. It is the type of flow which will be found over the
various components of an aircraft. Steady streamlined flow may be divided into
two types:
5.1.1.
5.1.2.
The flow found over a conventional aerofoil at low angles of attack where the
streamlines will more or less follow the contour of the body and there is no
separation of flow from the surface. See Figure 4.1.
When, because of a sharp leading edge, flow separates from the surface (but
does not break down into a turbulent chaotic condition) it forms a strong vortex
which can be controlled, because it is stable and predictable over the rest of the
aerofoil as can be seen in Figure 4.2.
In this type of flow, the flow parameters vary with time and the flow cannot be
represented by streamlines.
5.6.
The shape of the aircraft will determine the velocity changes and consequently, the
airflow pattern and pressure distribution.
STUDY MATERIAL
THEORY
6.1.
The effect produced by a flat plate moving through the air is illustrated in the
following sketch. When the air strikes the leading edge of the flat plate, the
passage of the air is obstructed and its velocity is reduced. Some of the particles
of air, flow over the upper surface and some flow under the lower surfaces, but all
particles of air must reach the trailing edge of the plate at the same time. See
Figure 5.1.
Those particles that pass over the upper surface have to travel a longer distance
and therefore must move faster than those passing under the lower edge. In
accordance with Bernoulli's theorem, the increased velocity above the plate results
in a lower pressure than that existing below the plate. Since there is a difference
in pressure, the greater must prevail and thus, there is an upward force exerted on
the plate called "Lift".
LIFT
6.3.
If the region of very low pressure immediately above the plate is too large, the
particles of air do not flow smoothly downward to the rear, but they drop into this
region and behave wildly, causing turbulence and eddy currents. The loss of
velocity causes an increase of pressure above the plate and consequently a loss
of lift. If the turbulence is not too great, there is still enough difference between
the pressure above and below the plate to sustain lift.
The angle, between the plate and the airstream is the "angle of attack." It's formal
definition is rather technical and has been explained. When the angle of attack
changes, the lift and resistance to the forward movement of the plate, called drag,
changes. If the flat plate is placed in the airstream in such a position that it does
not materially change the direction of the streamlines, there is no lift, because
there is no difference between the velocity of the air flowing over the upper surface
and that flowing under the lower surface. Under these conditions there is no
difference in pressure between the upper and the lower surfaces of the plate. As
we have already observed, when the plate is inclined at a small angle of attack, lift
and drag become important. As we increase the angle of attack, the air stream
must increasingly change direction resulting in more differential and more lift
through a range of several degrees. See Figure 5.2.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
7.1.
CURVATURE
7.2.
THICKNESS
7.3.
Thickness eliminates the turbulence occurring behind the leading edge of a simple
curved plate and provides for internal bracing required in a modern aircraft wing.
Due to the shape of the aerofoil, the airflow speeds up over the top of the aerofoil
and, at the same time, the pressure drops. At the bottom of the wing, because of
the angle of attack, the pressure of the airflow increases and the velocity
decreases. All this happens strictly according to Bernoulli's Theory.
A pressure differential is now created about the aerofoil section. When the airflow
moves through the atmosphere, it possesses kinetic energy. When the airflow
now passes over the curve of the aerofoil, it is sped up, so the kinetic energy
increases. Now, - due to the presence of the pressure differential - the kinetic
energy is transformed into a pulling force, acting upwards. See Figure 6.3.
As indicated in the sketch, these forces represent the total force acting upwards.
A resultant of these forces acting through the centre of pressure is called lift and it
represents 70% of the total lift.
7.7.
At the bottom of the aerofoil, the airflow is forced to bend away from its normal
path, thus increasing the internal pressure with a resulting drop in velocity. The
Because the airflow is slowed down the kinetic energy is transformed into pressure
energy and it creates a force acting upwards through the aerofoil representing in
30% of the total lift. See Figure 6.4.
As the angle of attack is altered, lift and drag changes very rapidly. Experiments
show that this is due to changes in the distribution of pressure over the aerofoil.
See Figure 6.5.
The decrease in pressure over the top surface is greater than the increase on
the lower surface.
7.10.2.
The pressure is not by any means evenly distributed- both the decreased
pressure on the upper surface and the increased pressure on the lower surface
marked mostly over the front portion of the aerofoil.
7.11.
7.12.
The first shows that, although both surfaces contribute, it is the top surface, by
means of its decreased pressure, which provides the greater part of the lift. At
some angles as much as 80% of the lift is obtained from the decrease in pressure
on the top surface.
7.13.
The second aspect that we learn from the pressure distribution diagram is that
both decrease and increase of pressure are both at their greatest near the leading
edge of the aerofoil. This means that if we were to replace all the distribution
pressure by a single resultant force, this single force would act less than halfway
back along the chord. The point on the chord at which this resultant force acts, is
called the Centre of Pressure of the aerofoil.
7.14.
7.15.
At low incidence, the lift arises from the difference between the pressure
reductions on the upper and lower surfaces.
7.16.
At higher incidence, the lift is partly due to pressure reduction on the upper surface
and partly due to pressure increase on the lower surface. See Figure 6.6.
Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as the angle of attack
increases, until an angle is reached where the lift has a maximum value. This
angle corresponds to the transition point and is the angle of attack at which the
On a normal subsonic section, no flow separation occurs at low incidence- the flow
being attached over the rear part of the surface in the form of a turbulent boundary
layer. As the incidence increases, boundary layers will begin to separate from the
surface near the trailing edge of the wing. As the angle of attack is further
increased, the separation point will move forward along the surface of the wing
towards the leading edge. As the separation point moves forward, the slope of
the lift incidence curve decreases and eventually an angle is reached at which the
wing is said to stall.
The flow over the upper surface of the wing is then
completely broken down and the lift produced by the wing decreases.
7.19.
This angle of attack is called the "stalling angle" which is approximately 16. At
this angle the drag has increased disproportionally beyond an acceptable figure.
See Figure 6.7.
Stalling angle is the angle of attack at which the lift of an aerofoil is at maximum
and beyond which the lift will begin to decrease, owing to the airflow becoming
turbulent, instead of streamlined.
7.21.
An aircraft would also stall in horizontal flight when the airspeed is too low and it
loses altitude. The angle of attack would increase due to the change in relative
airflow and lead to stall with the corresponding low airspeed. This is also referred
to as "mushing". See Figure 6.8b.
7.22.1.
7.22.2.
7.23.
When a pilot approaches a runway for landing, he should keep his angle of attack
and his airspeed to the correct proportions so that he won't stall the aircraft.
The above figures (a, b and c) indicates the increase in lift and drag as the angle
of attack is increased. (Although the drag has increased appreciably or, as can
be seen from the resultant change).
7.26.
Lift increases.
7.26.3.
Drag increases.
7.26.4.
7.27.
7.27.1.
Angle of attack.
7.27.2.
Speed of airflow.
7.27.3.
7.27.4.
7.27.5.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
8.1.
FUSELAGE
PARASITE
WING
SKIN
FROM
FROM
SKIN
INDUCED
FRICTION
DRAG
DRAG
FRICTION
DRAG
Total drag is the sum of the components of the aerodynamic forces which act
parallel and opposite to the direction of flight. Each part of total drag represents a
value of resistance to the aircraft's movement that is lost energy.
8.2.1.
An aircraft in flight will generate drag even when it is not generating lift, as in a
stall.
8.2.2.
When generating lift, the whole aircraft will generate additional drag which is
made up of various components.
PARASITE DRAG
8.3.
The layer or layers of air in which the shearing action is taking place, that is to say
between the surface and the full velocity of the air flow, is called the Boundary
Layer.
8.6.
The boundary layer like the main air flow, may be either laminar (streamline) or
turbulent and the difference that these two types of flow make to the total skin
friction is of the same order as the effect of streamlining the main flow. It has
been stated that if we could ensure a laminar boundary layer over the whole
surface of a wing, the skin friction would be reduced to about one-tenth of its value
on a conventional type of wing. See Figure 7.3.
TRANSITION POINT
8.7.
The usual tendency is for the boundary layer to start by being laminar over the
surface near the leading edge of a body, but there comes a point, called the
To conclude, both the laminar and turbulent boundary layer thickens downstream.
Generally, the turbulent layer is ten times thicker than the laminar layer therefore it
gives much greater drag. For this reason one should try and maintain the whole
boundary layer laminar. Any roughness on the skin of the aircraft will lead to a
thicker layer and will give transition to turbulence. See Figure 7.4.
8.9.
8.9.1.
8.9.2.
8.9.3.
8.9.4.
FORM DRAG
8.10.
Definition. Form drag is that drag which is produced by the shape of the object
and its attitude to the relative airflow.
8.11.
The difference between surface friction and drag can be easily appreciated if a flat
plate is considered in two attitudes- first a zero incidence where all the drag is due
to friction, and second at 90 where all the drag is form drag due to the separation
of air.
Induced drag would mainly occur when the aircraft is producing lift and therefore is
a lift dependent drag. See Figure 7.6.
Induced drag is made up of two components, namely wing tip and trailing edge
vortices
Trailing edge vortices are caused when the airflow over the bottom surface, under
pressure above that of atmospheric pressure, tends to move towards the tips
where atmospheric pressure is lower than the pressure over the bottom surface of
the wing. The airflow over the top surface, which is at a pressure below that of
atmospheric pressure, tends to flow towards the fuselage of the aircraft, because
atmospheric pressure tends to push the airflow in that direction. The airflow over
the bottom, moving towards the wing tips, and the airflow over the top moving
towards the fuselage, meet at different angles at the trailing edge of the wing,
causing a whirling motion behind the wing. When looking from the rear, this
whirling is clockwise on the port wing and anti-clockwise on the starboard wing.
See Figure 7.7.
Wing tip vortices are caused when the airflow tends to creep, from the high
pressure area at the bottom surface of the wing to the low pressure area at the top
surface of the wing, around the wingtips. Because the wing moves through the air
at high speeds, this creeping of the air around the tips forms a spiral motion
behind the wing. When looking from the back, the spiral is in the clockwise
direction on the port (left) wing, and anti-clockwise on the starboard (right) wing.
See Figure 7.8.
Wing tip vortices and trailing edge vortices can be minimised by tapering the wing
from the root to the tip, (looking from the top and front) by increasing the aspect
ratio of the wing, by increasing the fineness ratio of the wing, by fitting of wing
fences and tip tanks and by rounding off the wing tips. See Figure 7.9.
8.18.
Wing fences wash of trailing edge vortices that run from the fuselage to the wing
tip at the trailing edge to prevent flight control surface fluttering.
STUDY MATERIAL
THE FOUR FORCES
9.1.
There are four forces acting on an aircraft in straight and level flight, namely, lift,
weight, thrust and drag. In level flight there must be no residual force tending to
move the aircraft from its straight and level path, i.e. the forces must be in
equilibrium.
With the aircraft in steady level flight the four forces and their points of action are
as follows:
9.2.1.
The resultant of the lifting forces of the wing (lift) which acts at right angles to
the path of flight through the centre of pressure (C of P). The use of the term
"Lift" in this sense is misleading, for under certain conditions of flight, such as a
vertical nose dive, it may act horizontally, and cases may even arise where Lift
acts vertically downwards.
9.2.2.
The weight of the aircraft which acts vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity (C of G).
9.2.3.
The thrust of the engine or propeller which may be taken to act approximately
parallel to the direction of flight. This assumption, although not strictly valid, will
suffice for the purposes of this chapter. Thrust acts through the centre of
pressure (C of P).
9.2.4.
The drag which acts horizontally backwards from a point which varies with the
flight attitude of the aircraft. Drag acts through the centre of gravity (C of G).
For straight and level flight, the opposing forces must be equal and opposite, so:
Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag
9.3.1.
Lift must, therefore, be adjusted by altering the angle of attack until it is exactly
equal to the weight which it must support. See Figure 8.1.
9.3.2.
Similarly, thrust and drag must balance, for if thrust is greater, the aircraft will
accelerate; and if less, the speed will decrease. See Figure 8.1.
The positions of the C of P and C of G are variable and under most conditions of
level flight they are not coincident:
9.4.1.
9.4.2.
The C of G changes its position with a reduction in fuel or when stores are
dropped.
9.4.3.
The outcome is that the opposing forces of lift and weight set up a coupling,
causing either a nose-up or a nose-down pitching moment, depending on
whether the lift acts in front of, or behind the C of G, as illustrated.
9.5.
To ensure that any aircraft retains its stability within limits, it is usual during design
to position the centre of pressure behind the centre of gravity and the line of thrust
to act below the line of drag.
9.6.
This arrangement offers the possibility that the line of thrust and drag may exert a
correcting coupling for turning the aircraft tail down, with the centre of pressure
and centre of gravity turning the nose down.
These two couplings should
neutralise each other so that there is no residual moment tending to rotate the
aircraft.
9.7.
The main advantage of this arrangement is that, if the engine (thrust) fail, the
lift/weight coupling turns the nose down to put the aircraft into a gliding attitude.
Any correcting force that may be required to counter a nose heavy or tail heavy
attitude, is supplied by the tailplane and/or the elevator controls.
STUDY MATERIAL
FUSELAGE
10.1.
The fuselage is the body to which the wings and the tail unit of an aircraft is
attached and which provides space for the crew, passengers, cargo, controls and
other items, depending upon the size and design of the aircraft. It should have
the smallest streamline form consistent with desired capacity and aerodynamic
qualities of an aircraft.
10.2.
The fuselage must have points of attachment for the wing or wings, tail surfaces
and landing gear so arranged and installed that they can be inspected, removed,
repaired and replaced easily. The fuselage must be strong enough at the points
of attachment to withstand flying and landing loads. Finally, it should be shaped
to offer low resistance to the air and provide good vision for the pilot. See
Figure 9.2.
MAIN PLANES/WINGS
10.3.
The fuselage is fitted with a port (left) main plane and starboard (right) main plane,
viewed from the rear. Many have a centre plate (centre section) to which the
main planes are bolted, to support the aircraft in flight. They may also house fuel
tanks, bomb bays etc., and carry drop fuel tanks. The main planes which are of
aerofoil section, are sometimes referred to as the wing of the aircraft. See
Figure 9.1.
The horizontal stabiliser (tail plane) which stabilises to hold the aircraft in
horizontal flight, is attached to the rear end of the fuselage and may be a single
unit or separate port and starboard planes. The angle that the tail plane makes to
the airflow may be fixed, or a mechanism may be fitted that permits the angle to be
varied during flight.
VERTICAL STABILISER
10.5.
The vertical stabiliser (fin), may be built as part of the fuselage, or may be a
separate component bolted to it. The fin gives directional stability and tends to
hold the aircraft in a straight line of flight.
The ailerons are control surfaces hinged to the rear of the main planes and are
used to make the aircraft roll to port or to starboard, by moving the control stick
sideways.
They are interconnected so that as the port aileron goes up, the
starboard aileron goes down, and vice versa.
ELEVATORS
10.7.
The elevators are control surfaces that are hinged to the rear of the tail plane and
are operated by moving the control column backwards or forwards.
Upward
movement of elevators (rearward movement of the control column) causes the
aircraft to climb whereas downward movement of the elevators causes the aircraft
to dive.
RUDDER
10.8.
The rudder is a control surface hinged to the rear of the fin, by which the aircraft is
made to turn to port or to starboard. It is operated by the rudder pedals in the
cockpit - left foot forward on the rudder bar turns the aircraft to port.
EMPENAGE
10.9.
The tail plane, fin, elevators and rudder form the tail unit, or empenage.
Objective 10: Recall the manoeuvres of the aircraft about the three axis.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
11.1.
Changes in the attitude of an aircraft in flight can take place in any one - or
combination of - the three major axis described in figure 10.1.
During
manoeuvres, considerable forces are at work on the airframe, and these may be
large enough to cause damage or even structural failure if the aircraft is
manoeuvred without consideration of the limits for which the airframe has been
designed.
The longitudinal axis is a straight line, running from the nose to the tail of the
aircraft through the centre of gravity, and horizontal when the aircraft is in straight
and level flight.
11.3.
The aircraft may travel backwards and forwards along this axis. Backward motion
(such as the tail slide) is one of the most rare of all manoeuvres of an aircraft, but
(in compensation for this) forward movement along this axis is the greatest and is
the main feature of straight and level flight.
The normal axis a straight line through the centre of gravity, and vertical when the
aircraft is in rigging position. It is therefore at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
11.6.
The aircraft may travel upwards or downwards along this axis, as in climbing or
descending.
Climb or descent is obtained chiefly by the inclination of the
longitudinal axis to the horizontal.
11.7.
Rotary motion of the aircraft about the normal axis is called "Yawing."
Figure 10.3.
See
The lateral axis is a straight line through the centre of gravity at right angles to
both the longitudinal and the normal axis. It will be horizontal when the aircraft is
in rigging position and parallel to the line joining the wing tips.
11.9.
The aircraft may travel to left or right along the lateral axis. Such motion is called
side slipping.
11.10. Rotary motion of the aircraft about the lateral axis is called "Pitching."
Figure 10.4.
See
THE MANOEUVRES
11.12. The manoeuvres of an aircraft are made up of one, or more of the following:
Manoeuvre
Rotated axis
Rolling
Longitudinal
Ailerons(Lateral Control)
b.
Yawing
Normal
Rudder(Directional Control)
c.
Pitching
Lateral
Elevators(Longitudinal Control)
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
12.1.
An aircraft in flight is subjected to local air disturbances that may deflect the
aircraft from its original path. Any aircraft that returns to its original path without
any efforts of the pilot is said to be stable. If it continues on the new path, or
diverges still further, it is said to be unstable. An aircraft may be stable under
certain conditions of flight and unstable under other conditions. For instance, an
aircraft which is stable during straight and level flight, may be unstable when
inverted and vice versa. The stability which is definitely due to some features
incorporated in the design of the aircraft, is sometimes called "Inherent Stability."
STABILITY
12.2.
Stability is often confused with balance and the student should be careful to
distinguish between the two. An aircraft which flies one wing low may often, when
disturbed from this attitude, return to it. Such an aircraft is out of its proper
balance, but is not unstable.
12.3.
The stability of an aircraft must be considered about all three axis. It is possible
for an aircraft to be stable about one axis, but unstable about another.
12.4.
12.4.1.
Static stability.
12.4.2.
Dynamic stability.
12.5.
Static stability describes the immediate reaction of the body after disturbance.
Dynamic stability describes the subsequent reaction.
12.6.
The response is related to the original equilibrium state by use of the terms
positive-, neutral- and negative stability.
Positive stability indicates a return
towards the position prior to disturbance, neutral stability the taking up of a new
position of a constant relationship to the original, whereas negative stability
indicates a continuous divergence from the original state.
Stability
a. Longitudinal (x)
Roll (p)
Lateral
b. Lateral (y)
Pitch (q)
Longitudinal
c.
Yaw
Directional
Normal (z)
(r)
When the aircraft is flying in the normal way, the airflow will approach it directly
from the front, i.e. parallel to its longitudinal axis. Now, imagine the aircraft to be
deflected from its course owing to its natural momentum it will (for a short while)
tend to continue moving in its old direction; therefore, the longitudinal axis will be
inclined to the airflow and a pressure will be created on all the surfaces on one
side of the aircraft. See Figure 11.2.
If the turning effect of the pressure behind the centre of gravity is greater than the
turning effect in front of the centre of gravity, the aircraft will tend to return to its
original course.
12.9.
If, on the other hand, the turning effect in front is greater than that behind, the
aircraft will turn still further off its course. Notice that it is the turning effect, or the
moment, that matters and not the actual pressure. Therefore, it is not merely a
question of how much side surface is in front or behind the centre of gravity, but
also the distance from the centre of gravity of each side surface.
Figure 11.3: Short fuselage large fin design, long fuselage small fin design.
FIN AND RUDDER DESIGNS
12.11. The vertical stabiliser is a symmetrical aerofoil and it will produce an aerodynamic
force at positive angles of attack. In sideslip, therefore, the total side force on the
fin and rudder will be proportional to the lift co-efficient and the area. The lift coefficient will vary, as on any aerofoil, with aspect ratio and sweepback. At high
angles of sideslip, it is possible for the fin to stall. To avoid this the designer can
increase the stalling angle by increasing the sweepback, decreasing the aspect
ratio, or by fitting multiple fins of low aspect ratio.
12.12. The dorsal fin has a powerful effect on preserving the directional stability at large
angles of sideslip which would produce stall of the vertical fin. The addition of a
dorsal fin to the aircraft will allow the decay of directional stability at high sideslip in
two ways. The least obvious but most important, effect is a large increase in the
fuselage stability at large sideslip angles. In addition, the effective aspect ratio of
the vertical tail is reduced which increases the stall angle for the surface. By this
twofold effect, the addition of the dorsal fin is a very useful device. See
Figure 11.4.
12.16.2.
position of the C of G.
12.20.1.1.
Dihedral.
12.20.1.2.
Sweepback.
DIHEDRAL
12.21. The effect of the geometric dihedral of a wing is a powerful contribution to lateral
stability.
As shown in figure 11.8 a dihedral wing will develop stable rolling
moments with sideslip. If the relative wind comes from the side, the wing into the
wind is subject to an increase in angle of attack and develops an increase in lift.
The wing away from the wind is subject to a decrease in angle of attack and
develops a decrease in lift. The changes in lift effect a rolling moment tending to
raise the windward wing.
Hence, dihedral contributes positively towards the
overall lateral stability of an aircraft when it goes into a sideslip.
12.26.2.
High mounted wing giving pendulum stability due to the suspended weight
below the wing.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
13.1.
An aircraft is equipped with certain fixed and movable surfaces, or aerofoils, which
provide stability and control during flight. The fixed airfoils are the wings, the
vertical stabiliser (fin), and the horizontal stabiliser (objective 11). The moveable
airfoils, called control surfaces, are ailerons, elevators, rudder, and flaps
(discussed in objective 14). The ailerons, elevators, and rudder are used to
"steer" the aircraft in flight to make it go where the pilot wants it to go and cause it
to execute certain manoeuvres.
When an aileron is lowered in flight, its angle of attack to the airflow is increased,
while that of the raised aileron is decreased. Due to the difference in angle of
attack, the lowered aileron generates more lift, not only from the greater angle of
attack, but also from the increased camber over the top of the wing. See
Figure 12.1.
If both ailerons should travel the exact same distance upwards and downwards
from a neutral position, the lowered aileron which moves down in a region of high
air pressure generates a greater reaction out of the airflow, and thus produces
more drag.
Due to the fact that the drag is no longer balanced on the two mainplanes, a
bad yawing effect is produced in the direction opposite to that in which bank has
been applied.
13.4.2.
Also, if the aircraft is flying beyond the region of stall, the large movement of the
down-moving aileron may cause premature stall and, result in a loss of aileron
control.
13.5.
Differential Aileron Control will cause the distance in travel of the up-going aileron
to be greater than that of the down-going aileron.
This is accomplished by
applying the theory of the ineffective crank angle (as discussed during piston
engine theory) as illustrated.
13.7.
The effect of this arrangement is that the drag is being decreased on the lowered
aileron and increased on the raised aileron so as to balance the value and
counteracting the bad yawing effect. See Figure 12.2.
STUDY MATERIAL
BALANCING OF CONTROL SURFACE
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
14.1.
Although a balance tab will assist the pilot in moving a control surface, a similar
effect can be achieved by means of aerodynamic balance that consists of having a
part of the control surface in front of the hinge line. This front (balance) portion,
when meeting the airflow, will cause a pressure that tends to move the surface
over still further. Thus, the effect of the air loads acting on the control surface
behind the hinge line is balanced partially, thereby assisting the pilot when the
applicable flying control is being moved during flight. See Figure 13.1.
The control surface is only partially balanced, otherwise (if fully balanced) the
pilot would be unable to experience "feel" of control.
Control surfaces are often balanced in a different sense. A "mass" (usually a lump
of lead) is fitted in front of the hinge in such a way as to prevent the "flutter" of
control surfaces which is liable to occur at very high speeds of flight. This flutter is
a kind of vibration caused by the combined effects of the changes in air pressure
distribution over the surface as the angle of attack is altered and the elastic forces
are set up by the distortion of the structure itself.
See
Figure 13.2.
Tabs are essentially small auxiliary control surfaces, usually hinged and
recessed into to the trailing edges of the main surfaces.
Controllable trim tabs are used by the pilot in flight, to adjust the control surfaces
enabling the aircraft to fly as desired without holding pressure on the main
controls. If the pilot had to apply continuous pressure to the flight controls over a
period of extended flight, it would be very tiring. By adjusting the trim tabs for the
conditions of flight, the pilot only has to apply a slight corrective pressure
occasionally to keep the aircraft on the proper course.
14.5.
The operation of a trim tab is illustrated in figure 13.3. When the elevator trim tab
is moved down by means of the cockpit control, the airstream develops lift that
tends to push the tab up. This force is transmitted to the elevator and moves the
elevator up. This change, in turn, causes the tail of the aircraft to move down and
the nose to go up. The elevator-trim tab control in the cockpit is usually a small
wheel or knob arranged in such a way that its plane of rotation is vertical and
longitudinal with respect to the aircraft. If the nose of the aircraft has to be raised,
the top of the wheel is moved rearward; if it has to be lowered, the top of the wheel
is moved forward.
The trim control for the ailerons is a knob or wheel with a vertical and lateral plane
of rotation. If the right wing of the aircraft has to be lowered and the left to be
raised, the top of the knob or wheel is moved to the right. The reverse direction is
used to lower the left wing.
Adjustable trim tabs are similar to controllable tabs; however, they are adjusted
only when the aircraft is on the ground. If the pilot reports that the aircraft is noseheavy, tail-heavy or one - wing-heavy, the tab can be adjusted to correct the
condition. It is possible to adjust tabs of this type for one reason only, namely that
the aircraft will fly satisfactorily under conditions established for normal cruising
power and speed.
14.9.
By connecting the tabs directly to the cockpit controls, the tab can be made to
deliver the hinge moment required to move the control surface. The pilot's control
input deflects the tab. The moment produced about the hinge line of the control
surface causes this surface to "float" to its position of equilibrium. The floating
control will then produce the required moment about the C of G of the aircraft.
The stick forces involved are those arising from the hinge moments acting on the
tab which are much less than those on the main control surface. See Figure 13.4.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
15.1.
The purpose of high lift devices is primarily to decrease the landing and take-off
speed of modern aircraft so that shorter runways can be built and less braking
force is required during the landing roll.
SLOTS
15.2.
A slat (or sometimes called a leading edge flap), is a movable auxiliary aerofoil
attached to the leading edge of the wing, which - when closed - falls within the
original contour of the wing and which - when opened - forms a slot. There are
three major types, as can be seen in Figure 14.2:
15.3.1.
15.3.2.
15.3.3.
Automatic slat.
Smooth airflow is achieved by letting air flow through the slot in such a way that it
evens out the airflow over the top surface and thereby reduce turbulence. A
smooth airflow is forced to follow the contour of the camber of the aerofoil, thus
providing more lift until a larger angle of attack is reached.
This has a
disadvantage when landing as it affects visibility (Higher angle of attack makes it
difficult for the pilot to be able to see the runway over the nose of the aircraft). See
Figure 14.3.
Wing flaps reduces an aircrafts landing speed by increasing lift and drag, enabling
the aircraft to land on a shorter runway than it would normally require. The wing
flap increases the effective camber of the wing, although this is usually
accomplished with a substantial increase in drag. A flap hinged to the trailing
edge of the wing acts as an air brake when it is deflected sufficiently. This
enables the aircraft to approach the runway a steeper angle of descent for landing,
without increasing the airspeed.
15.8.
15.9.
For certain settings, drag, will increase more rapidly than lift.
Flaps add to the weight of an aircraft and increases the possibility of mechanical
failure (more parts = less dependable).
15.13.2.
Since the flaps normally extend along the trailing edge of the wing in between
the inboard side of both ailerons, it is possible that when fully extended - they
may have some affect on the lateral control of the aircraft. The amount of
affect depends on the size and type of flaps, as well as the design of the airfoil.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
16.1.
Thus far we have discussed airflow and aerodynamic principles with respect to
subsonic airspeeds only. The behaviour of an aerofoil under subsonic conditions
is easily predictable. However, when we consider operations at transonic and
supersonic speeds, we find the reaction of an aerofoil altogether different from that
which is found at subsonic speeds. The reason for this change lies in the reaction
of the airflow itself.
16.2.
SPEED OF SOUND
16.3.
When a body moves through the air at a speed well below that at which sound
travels through air, there is a message sent into the oncoming air stream in
advance to say that the body is approaching. When this message is received, the
air stream divides to make way for the body and there is very little change (if any)
in the density of the air as it flows past the body. The air is thus "warned" of the
presence of the approaching aircraft. If we could "see the air" in front of an
approaching aircraft, this fact would be immediately obvious. The disturbance of
the air would begin perhaps 30 metres or more in front of the aircraft.
16.4.
16.5.
These pressures are sent out in all directions to the surrounding air by means of
"waves". These waves are similar to sound waves, and they travel at the speed
of sound, which is about 760 mph in air at sea-level conditions (15C). There is
no mystery in this relationship between pressure waves and sound waves
because sound - in fact - is a pressure wave set up by some local compression of
the air. The speed of sound is simply the speed of the distribution of the thinning
and compressions to a small extent that is present in the air.
16.6.
So, if a body travels through the air at the speed of sound there will be no time for
the "message" to be sent by the waves to travel ahead, and thus the air strikes
violently against the oncoming body.
Figure 15.1 shows the pattern produced at a given instant in time. The soundwaves are emitted in all directions relative to the source, although they are closer
together ahead of the source than behind it. The waves maintain their separation
and there is no tendency for them to bunch.
A different pattern is produced when the source is moving at the speed of sound.
The waves do not move ahead of the source; they bunch up and form an incipient
wave. This is now a formed limit to the influence of the source. As the incipient
wave is at right angles to the direction of movement of the source, the wave is
called an incipient wave. Because the air ahead gets no warning as the source
approaches at sonic speed we get a good idea as to how the waves pile up and
what causes the "shock". See Figure 15.1.
Temperature F / C
Sea-level
50,0 / 15,0
661,7
5 000
41,2 / 5,1
650,3
10 000
23,3 / 4,8
638,6
15 000
5,5 / -14,7
626,7
20 000
-12,3. / -24,6
614,6
25 000
-30,2 / -34,5
602,2
30 000
-48,0 / -44,4
589,6
35 000
-65,8 / -56,3
576,6
40 000
-69,7 / -56,5
573,8
50 000
-69,7 / 56,5
573,8
60 000
-69,7 / -56,5
573,8
SHOCK WAVES
16.16. What actually happens during the change from incompressible flow to
compressible flow? The first indication would seem to be a breakaway of the
airflow from the surface of the body, usually some way back, setting up a turbulent
wave. This may occur at speeds less than half the speed of sound and has
already been dealt with when considering the boundary layer.
16.17. As the speed increases, the point of breakaway/transition point tends to creep
forward, resulting in turbulent airflow over the larger portion of the wing upper
surface and a thicker turbulent wave. See Figure 15.2.
Figure 15.6: Drag co-efficient diagram (Note fast increase in drag on entering the
supersonic range: Mach 1 and faster).
Density increases.
16.27.2.
Temperature increases.
16.27.3.
Increase in pressure
16.27.4.
Decrease in velocity.
16.27.5.
16.27.6.
South African Air Force: LMU 114, Volume 2, Part 1, Section 1 and 2, Second
Edition: Airfframe Notes for Fitter Aircraft.
17.2.
17.3.
17.4.
Aviation Technology Series. Aircraft Basic Science. Fifth Edition Bent/Mc Kinly.
17.5.
Royal Air Force Manual, Volume A. The Principles of Flight. Ministry of Defence.
April 1971.
17.6.
A Without Formulae Book. Flight without Formulae. How and Why an Aeroplane
Flies Explained in Simple Language. Third Edition. A.C. Kermode C.B.E., M.A.,
F.R.Ae.S. 1960.
Manual of
QUESTION 1
Indicate which of the following statements is correct by making next to the correct
statement:
1.
The tropopause.
The stratosphere.
The troposphere.
The gaseous layer.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
In the divergent part of a venturi relative to the direction of airflow, the following will
tend to take place:
a.
b.
c.
d.
QUESTION 2
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false:
1.
2.
3.
4.
True airspeed relates to the velocity of an aircraft with respect to the ground.
2.
3.
4.
Lift is at a maximum.
Lift decreases.
Drag is at a maximum.
Thrust decreases.
QUESTION 4
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false:
1.
Wingtip vortices will be increased by reducing the aspect ratio of the wing
concerned.
2.
If an aircraft flies at a constant height and velocity, the four forces (lift, drag, thrust
and weight) are said to be in equilibrium.
3.
Pivoted axis
Control surface
used
a. Rolling
b. Yawing
c. Pitching
QUESTION 6
Indicate which of the following statements is correct next to the correct statement:
1.
2.
3.
2.
With an increase in altitude, the air temperature will decrease, subsequently
causing an increase in air density.
3.
For an aircraft to fly there must be relative motion between itself and the ground.
4.
The pressure variations are most noticeable on the front portion of an aerofoil.
QUESTION 8
Write a short answer:
1.
2.
QUESTION 9
Make a neatly labelled sketch of a basic aerofoil, including all the applicable terms:
QUESTION 10
Define the following:
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Density
Inertia
Aerofoil