REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Study of contemporary literature

The assessment of water quality lies on carefully examining the delicate
interface between Physics, Chemistry and Biology. While the biological methods
show the degree of ecological imbalance, the chemical methods measure the
concentration of the pollutants (Shrotriya and Dubey 1991). The assessment and
evaluation, as well as devising methods for abatement of pollution, require a study of
these three components (Rana and Palria 1988).
Physico-Chemical International findings
Allhajjar et al., (1990) studied the effects of leachate from septic system
on the quality of under lying shallow ground water in the vicinity of the septic
systems were examined for two years in South Central Wisconsin. The increase in
the electrical conductivity value and chloride concentration in the ground water
sources with decreased distance from the drain suggested that these two parameters
can be taken as indicators for detecting plumes of contamination from septic system.
Ground water contamination was examined within a rural setting of the
Inner Blue grass karst region of Central Kentucky, USA for major ions including
nitrate and some species of bacteria by Scanlon (1990). These bacteria were
indicative of pollution from septic tank effluent, among other potential contamination
sources.
Along the stretch as reported by Sohetal (1991). By analyzing the physic
Sengai Pertama a tributary of Sungi Perai Malaysia received domestic and agricultural
effluents chemical para- meters it was observed that the water unfit for the domestic
use and fisheries.
Seigely et al., (1993) studied various chemical and bacteriological
parameters in the wells close to a feedlot and septic system of Audubon, USA. It was
observed the concentration of nitrate and bacterial counts were more pronounced in
the wells nearer the septic system.
Alla EI- Dinetal (1993) reported the quality of well water from six regions
of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia with respect to physic-chemical and bacteriological
21

parameters.Sixteen percent of the wells crossed the WHO limit for ammonia. Faecal
coliform was present in 21.4% of the tested well waters. Animal and human wastes
were the significant source of well water pollution.
Water samples from deep tube wells of Hazaribagh, Armanitola and
Banani of Bangladesh were analyzed for 26 parameters to determine their suitability
for drinking purpose as well as their possible contamination by Alangir et al., (1994).
Liu et al., (1994)studied the Ching-Pu and Sat- Lun landfill sites located in the
Taiwanese cities of Taiwan and Kaohsiung on the effects of reclaimed municipal
landfills on the local environment. The results showed that leachates from the
decomposing waste deposits seeped downward to contaminate the ground water.
Ground water Sources used for human consumption were tested for
chemical and bacteriological parameters in EI-Tall and EL-Kabier region of
Islamia ,Egypt .Water from wells of about 14 m depth were contaminated by
sulphate, chloride and carbonate ions and their salinity crossed the drinking
water standard Diab (1995) .Those samples were also potentially pathogenic
regarding their coli counts .
A research was undertaken by Asbrand (1996) in two districts of
South Berlin ,Germany to have an idea of the extent of ground water pollution
due to contamination with sewage water. Pollution of this aquifer especially by
nitrate, phosphate and other salts was attributed to the presence of sewage plant
in nearby area .The influence of sewage was clearly detectable by the high
concentration of inorganic salts in the wells located a few kilometers away
from the sewage tratment plant.
Pollution profiles and mechanism of ground water contamination in
Shijiazhuang city of China were investigated and discussed byGuo et al
,.(1996). The results of analysis and geochemical modelling showed that the
main reason for ground water pollution in the city was the leakage of sewage
channels. Excessive concentration of inorganic salts was attributed to the
dissolution and dolomite and gypsum.
Malard et al.,

(1997)

studied a limestone aquifer of DueBindorf,

Switzerland relating to physico chemical and biological dynamics for a period

of two years. They found that the spatio - temporal pattern of ground water
22

contamination was due to the spillage of sewage effluents through the fracture
zone.
Bore wells of Caliber municipality ,Nigeria were sampled and
analyzed using standard field and laboratory techniques to determine the water
quality status of ground water (Udom et al., 1998) . Nkansah et al (2001) studied
the ground water quality in the Kwahu west district of Ghana. This investigation
determined the use of physico-chemical parameters together with trace metal
contamination as indices of quality. Wright and Nobel (2002) compared the
contamination, of surface and ground water sources and soils in the vicinity, due to
leaching, percolation and infiltration.
Pradhan et al., (2003) investigated the quality of drinking water used by
the communities and their awareness regarding water quality and water borne diseases
in Bungamati Locality in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The observation indicated that
the factors responsible for contaminating drinking water at source points included
lack of protection and proper treatment of water, leakage in pipe distribution system,
intermittent supply of water, poor drainage system and poor environment surrounding
of water sources. So, the drinking water is not potable. The communities are unaware
of the quality of water they use. Incidence of water borne diseases appears to be the
common health problem among the sample households in the study region. It is found
more serious during the dry summer.
Gregor Muri (2004) studiedbasic physical and chemical characteristics of
the water in 14 Slovenian mountain lakes. Surface water was sampled once a year
over three consecutive years (2000-2002). The influences of lake and catchment area
properties on the measured parameters were studied. The lakes tropic status and size
of catchment area were found to affect the water chemistry. Pearson correlation
coefficients were calculated to identify the strength of relation between the variables.
The highest correlation was found among the alkalinity, calcium and conductivity.
Cluster analysis was additionally performed to obtain natural groupings in the data.
Finally, the condition of the lakes was assessed. Although the water quality has
deteriorated in some lakes (especially in Jezero na Planini pri Jezeru),most of the
lakes are still in a good condition

23

Wakida and Lerner (2005) explored for non-agricultural sources of

nitrate in groundwater at Nottingham, England. They found that leaky sewers and
solid wastes, including landfills,contribute to the nitrate content in the urban
aquifer.From a study conducted by Achyuthan Nair et al.,

(2005) on the

assessment of the well water quality of Benghazi ,Libya , recorded very high
nitrate contents in some of the well waters ,which are of concern.
Lang

et

al., (2006)

observed

that

the

major

anthropogenic

components in the surface and ground water include K+, Na+ ,Cl- ,SO42-and
NO3 with Cl-and NO3 being the main contributors to ground water pollution in
Guiyang ,China

and

its

adjoining

areas.

The

seasonal

variations

in

concentrations of anthropogenic components demonstrate that the karsts ground

water system is liable to pollution by human activities.
Karikari and Ansa-Ansare (2006) conducted water quality assessment in
the Densu basin of Ghana between july 2003 and March 2004 and identified human,
animal and agricultural activities as the main source of pollution. The dominance of
chloride over sulfate was probably due to household effluents, fertilizer use and other
anthropogenic point sources.
Almasri (2007) found evidence of deterioration of groundwater quality
due t nitrate contamination in agriculture-dominated watersheds of Palestine.
Maurizo et al(2005 / 2008)studied data from numerous studies in Murgia
Plateau and Salentine Peninsula in south-eastern Italy.They concluded that the
groundwater pollution is quite absent only in the interiors of these areas that constitute
the recharge zone and that groundwater flowing from these areas to the sea is
progressively polluted. This pollution load discharges into the sea or into wetlands
and lagoons, constituting a huge hazard for the ecological equilibrium.
Sajidu (2007) collected drinking water samples from boreholes and pipes
at 23 sampling sites, mostly villages within the district, for fluoride and other water
physicochemical

parameters during

dry and rainy seasons of

2004 and 2005

respectively. Fluoride endemic areas were identified as those villages around Mtubwi
F.P School and Liwonde L.E.A School. This finding was supported by the prevalence
of a high proportion of dental florosis in standard 3 and 4 pupils in these two schools.
24

Positive correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with pH, total
dissolved solids and carbonates, while phosphates correlated negatively with the
fluorides. No correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with
nitrates, electro conductivity, total hardness, carbonates and chlorides.
Akoto et al., (2007) studied the trace metals and some physiochemical
properties in drinking water samples from the Brong Ahafo region of the Republic of
Ghana, where drinking water is not treated before it is consumed. The concentrations
of most of the investigated parameters in the drinking water samples from Brong
Ahafo region were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization
drinking water quality guidelines. There were no correlations between metal
concentrations in the drinking water samples.
Naaz Abaas, et al, (2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was
3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Shittu et al., (2008) didpysicochemical and bacteriological analyses on
well water, stream water and river water used for drinking and swimming purposes in
Abeokuta, Nigeria. The results obtained were compared with WHO and EPA
standards for drinking and recreational water. With the exception of Sokori stream
and a well water that did not comply with Turbidity and Mg2+ standards respectively,
all others were within the standards set for PH, Color, Total solids, Total dissolved
solids, acidity, total hardness, Ca2+ hardness, chloride and Iron.
Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the
bottled mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The
positive samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%.
The recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water
when compared with tap water from municipal supplies

25

One of the major source of groundwater contamination is the surface

impoundments used by municipalities and industries, which dispose of wastewater
without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by farmers for agriculture purpose.
This research work was carried by Jakhrani (2009) to investigate the contamination
level of groundwater by determination of physical and chemical properties and was
observed that the groundwater quality is deteriorated because of higher concentration
of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as compared to WHO
standards.
Li et al., (2009) studied the factors associated with chemical compliance
of drinking water in regional New South Wales, Australia. In particular, the findings
of this study should prompt mangers of water utilities to examine carefully the
chemical quality of their drinking water supply and identify opportunities for
improvement. Water users should review their data on source water and drinking
water to determine whether there is need to optimize or add treatment processes.
The contamination of surface waters through human activities has been
intensified over the past years as the population density has increased. In order to
ascertain the drinking water quality of Greater Zab River in Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq, for
human consumptionKafiet al., (2009) the following water quality parameters were
determined which were chosen as the major indicators namely pH, Total Dissolved
Solid. EC, TH, Cl-, F-, Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2, NO3-, SO4-2,PO4-3 and the concentration
of eight heavy metals analyzed in this study were within the guidelines given by
WHO or US EPA for drinking water. The data analysis shows that the river water is
certainly unsafe for drinking purposes without any form of treatment, but safe for
various other surface water usage purposes.
Omofonmwan (2009), examined the effects of solid waste on the quality
of underground water in Benin metropolis, Nigeria. The analysis of physical,
chemical and biological parameters of raw water from eight wells collected around
the metropolis close to refuse dumps shows that these wastes produce leachates and
gases when they are decomposing and are washed by percolating and infiltration rain
water into ground water. However, most of the water parameters tested fall within
WHO recommendations, while some are not safe.

26

Evens Emmanuelet al., (2009) carried out the study of Groundwater

contamination by microbiological and chemical substances released from hospital
wastewater. Contamination of natural aquatic ecosystems by hospital wastewater is a
major environmental and human health issue. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals,
radionuclides and solvents are widely used in hospitals for medical purposes and
research.

COD,Chloroform,

Dichlomethane,

Dibromochloromethane,

Dichlorobromomethane and Bromoform contents were measured. Furthermore, the

presence of heavy metals (Chrome, Nickel and Lead) and faecal coliforms were
studied. Certain aspects of the scenario studied require improvement, especially those
relating to the characterisation of drugs in groundwater and the detection of other
microbiological indicators such as protozoa, enterococcus and viruses.
Onder Ayyildiz (2009) studied bactericidal effect of chlorine dioxide in
untreated artificial and domestic wastewaters and secondary effluent of various
organic loads. Results indicated that the inactivation of Escherichia coli in artificial
wastewater was similar with that in real municipal wastewater. Among three waters,
the bactericidal effect of chlorine dioxide was lowest in secondary effluent. The
bacteria log inactivation increased by up to threefold when the COD concentration of
raw wastewater was decreased by half. An unfavourable COD effect was also
observed for the disinfection of secondary effluent. To explain the COD effect on
bacteria inactivation, chlorine dioxide residuals were measured with time through
each disinfection process. Results from statistical analyses have revealed that, in
comparison to the correlations using CT values, the inactivation data can be better
correlated with the ratio of COD to ClO2 concentrations. The results of this study
would be a useful guide for many municipalities and communities in determining
chlorine dioxide dosages for water and wastewater disinfection systems.
Water samples were collected by Ocheri Maxwell (2010) from 26 rural
community boreholes and analyzed for iron concentrations as it affects the quality of
water for drinking in line with WHO drinking water standards for both rainy and dry
seasons. Iron concentrations in the boreholes were noted to be higher in the rainy
season than in the dry season. The source of iron in groundwater may be attributed to
dissolution of iron minerals from rock and soils, corrosion effect of galvanized hand
pump components and land use activities.

27

Ramirez et al (2010) investigated the source of microbiological and

chemical contamination of groundwater in Cuautla-Yautepec aquifer in Mexico and
observed a gradient for dissolved solids according to altitude; the concentrations of
dissolved solids increased in wells with lower altitudes.
Alnos Easaand (2010) collected groundwater samples at the pumping
level. Harmful effects of waste water on the chemical compositions of ground water
were detected.
Gil et al., (2010)reported that the south of Europe is suffering an acute
shortage of water. One way to solve this deficit is to use membrane bioreactors
(MBR) to reuse the treated wastewater for tasks where drinking water is not required,
e.g. irrigation. The aim of this research was to monitor physicalchemical (COD,
BOD, and TN) and microbiological (EF, TC, and FC) parameters, as well as the
energy costs in a Kubota MBR pilot plant located in Southeast Spain for one year, as
well as to check the feasibility of the MBR process. The system showed a high
robustness providing a fairly constant effluent with a large reduction of the entry
pollutants and thus providing a highly reliable operation. High TSS, COD, BOD,
NH+4 and TN removal efficiencies up to 97, 94, 95, 98 and 81% respectively where
achieved. The removal of the different microbials was quite high, with values in the
permeate below 10 colony forming units (CFUs) most of the time.
Celalettin et al 2010 evaluated the bacteriological and chemical analysis
of drinking water used in Kenya. Among 191 drinking water samples collected from
23 different regions of 23 Kenya districts, it was determined that the values of Ca,
Mg, & Cl in 2 samples exceeded the suggested levels. As a result of bacteriological
analysis evaluation of total 2039 mains water samples collected from 31 different
regions it was observed that there was 5.3% contamination rate
Gregory et al., (2011) studied the water quality used for washing
carcasses and abattoir premises at two sites in southeast Bangladesh. In addition, the
effect of discharging untreated washings from slaughter premises on water purity in
the receiving waterways was assessed from pH, dissolved oxygen and electrical
conductivity measurements. Premises effluents did not have a significant effect on the
physico-chemical properties of the water in the receiving canals, as determined from
28

the difference between the 4 m upstream and 4 m downstream samples, relative to the
entry point of the effluent.
Christopher et al., (2011) reported the environmental impact of leachate
pollutants on ground water samples from three boreholes located near a landfill at
Akure, Nigeria. The concentration of waste materials in the landfill site had
systematically polluted the soil and groundwater over time. Water hardness was
higher due to the leaching of both Ca and Mg into the groundwater table. Dumping of
industrial wastes and accumulation of heavy metals are considered the greatest hazard
on landfill site from the study. Presence of Fe, Pb and Cr in detectable quantities was
an indication of toxicity level in the groundwater and therefore poses serious
environmental risk to humans, animals and even the soil.
Vialle et al., (2011) studiedthe quality of harvested rainwater used for
toilet flushing in a private house in the south-west of France over a one-year period.
Temperature, pH, conductivity, colour, turbidity, anions, cations, alkalinity, total
hardness and total organic carbon were screened using standard analytical techniques.
Total flora at 22o C and 36o C, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci were
analysed. Overall, the collected rainwater had good physicochemical quality but did
not meet the requirements for drinking water. The stored rainwater is characterised by
low conductivity, hardness and alkalinity compared to mains water. Three widely
used bacterial indicators - total coliforms, E. coli and enterococci - were detected in
the majority of samples, indicating microbiological contamination of the water.
Pearl Kaplan et al., (2011) presented studies on theoccurrence of
Biochemically Active Compounds during Drinking water treatment plants in North
Carolina. They highlighted the complexities in safeguarding drinking water sources
from anthropogenic contaminants including the determination of BACs that remain
unchanged through drinking water treatment and the identification of transformation
products of BACs resulting from disinfection. The transformation of BACs during
drinking water treatment is important to guide future occurrence studies and direct
policy decisions that protect the safety of drinking water for consumers.
Mohamed Nageeb Rashed et al., (2012) investigated the physicochemical and bacterial characteristics of Nasser Lake water and houses drinking
29

water, as well as fish cultures and its wastewater, in three villages west of Lake
Nasser, Egypt. Fifteen representative water samples (Nasser Lake, different drinking
water, fish cultures, and wastewater sources) were collected from three villages (Garf
Hussein, Bashaier, and Kalabsha) in the west of Lake Nasser. Physico-chemical, total
viable counts, and bacterial qualification of water were achieved. The obtained results
indicated that the produced water, supposed to be for domestic use in the three
villages, contained all the tested organisms. The investigated water samples of the
lake and drinking water in the selected three villages are supposed to be chemically
safe according to World Health Organization and to Egyptian standards for drinking
water. Water pollution index (WPI) was used in this study and the result concluded
that for irrigation canals from the lake to the agriculture site, fish cultures (both
concrete and earth pond systems), and drainage canal of fish ponds need to be treated
before it is discharged to the ke. It is better to reuse it after treatment for agricultural
purposes or recycled it to the fish cultures.

Indian findings:
Water samples have been collected from problematic ground water and
surface water sources in different villages belonging to nine blocks/taluks of
Gulbarga district, Karnataka State. The water samples were analyzed for
physicochemical properties. Different types of statistical models like correlations and
regressions were applied to study the interrelationships between these variables.
Significant differences between blocks/taluks and different sources of water obtained
using analysis of variance two ways classification technique. This study was
conducted by Reddy (1991).
Analysis of six tube well water samples, which is the source of drinking
water in Roorkee city of Hardwar district was carried out along with physicochemical
and biotic analysis. Presence of bacterial community in relation to biotic factors is
sought by Garg Dinesh (1991).
Ravichandran et al (1991) studied the groundwater quality of Madras in
the context of polluted waterways of the city. Multiple regression analysis indicated
that the areas around waterways were contaminated with nitrates and phosphates,
while pH and electrical conductivity were beyond acceptable limits.
30

Dhanaselvan et al (1991) reported that the groundwater quality of Kanpur city Uttar
Pradesh was contaminated by both industrial and domestic sewage.
Hydro geochemical studies have been carried out in Seetammadhara,
which is an integral part of the Visakhapatnam urban area by Madhusudhana Reddy
(1991). Water samples were collected from both dug wells and bore-wells and
analyzed for chemical quality studies. The controlling factors of groundwater
chemistry and criteria for water uses were discussed.
Ramaswami (1991) collected water samples from dug and tube wells near
the Noyil River in Tiruppur Municipal area for the assessment of chemical quality
with reference to Indian Standards for drinking water. It was observed that values of
several parameters exceeded the permissible limits pointing out to the necessity of
proper treatment, disposal and management of wastes discharged into the river and on
open land.
Physico chemical and bacterial parameters of some bore wells and dug
wells of Challapalli Mandal, Andhra Pradesh were monitored by Rao et al,. (1992)..
The quality of well water samples was assessed by comparing with existing
standards for important parameters and correlation coefficient among various
water quality parameters were determined .
Ground water samples during post monsoon and pre monsoon were
analyzed in upper Gunjana Eru river basin of Cuddapah district, Andhra
Pradesh to assess the quality of water. The inequality was due to agricultural
and domestic activities through infiltration and percolation during monsoon as
reported by Raju et al., (1992).

Subba Rao and Subba Rao (1993) studied the chemical quality of
groundwater in the industrial zones of Visakhapatnam. They report that fifteen
percent of the industrial well waters recorded more than 3000 uS/cm level of
conductivity and that major ions crossed the safe limits at many places. Toxic
elements including lead, chromium, arsenic, zinc, cobalt have been traced in large

31

amounts in the groundwaters of the industrial zones, with a zinc plant being identified
as the worst offender.
Somasundaram et al., (1993) investigated ground water quality of
Madras urban aquifer to determine variations in major ions and nitrate
concentration. In addition, a detailed local survey of pollution in ground water
sources adjacent to a sewage - polluted water course was carried out for heavy
metals and bacterial populations. The source of pollution was almost certainly a
combination of inadequate sanitation and industrial discharge spillage.
Presences of nitrates in ground water and its relationship with other
physicochemical constituents of water were studied in a grid pattern by Vijay Kumar
et al. (1993). Nitrate concentration was found to increase with decreasing pH and
increasing hardness, Cl-, SO42- and TS content where alkalinity, F and water table did
not exhibit any significant effect on NO3- content.
Ozha et al (1993) observed that major nitrate contributing sources for the
groundwater in Barmer and Churu of Rajasthan appear to be of geologic origin,
especially rock fossils and nitrate deposits. Further, nitrate concentration increased
with total hardness, calcium and magnesium and decreased as the depth of the water
table increased.
Ground water quality in the close vicinity of sewage outlets of
Patiala city, Punjab was evaluated by Mittel et al.,

(1994) for alkalinity,

hardness, sodium, potassium, pH and conductivity. Some of the samples exceeded

the maximum permissible limits of total hardness and sodium content as per
recommendations of World Health Organization.
Deterioration in the ground water quality near the limestone quarry
was reported in Raipur, Madhya Pradesh. Chemical analysis of water from the
quarry dug wells and tube wells were carried out and water was found to be
contaminated by disposal of domestic waste and landfills Bodhankar et al.,
(1994)

32

Venkata Reddy et al., (1994) studied the potability of groundwater (dug

wells and bore wells) in respect of eleven heavy metals from twenty one locations
from Dhanbad City considered to be the capital of highly industrialized Jharia
Coalfield. This study reflects that presence of some heavy metals in some sampling
points raising the doubts about potability of these waters. Heavy metals were present
at varied concentration levels and in some of the samples these were found either
insignificant or present at BDL concentration levels.
Patel et al. (1994)described the quality of ground water in rural areas of
the Rourkela Industrial Complex. The study was carried out in a two year period. 21
physicalcochemical and 11 metallic parameteters were analyzed in the ground water
samples from 14 rural areas of this industrial complex and values obtained were
compared with standards prescribed by World Health Organization, to assess the
quality of water for drinking purposes. Analysis of results showed that ground water
is perfectly fit for drinking.
Ramesh et al., (1995) studied the quality of ground water of Madras city,
India. The study revealed that the quality of potable water has deteriorated to a large
extent. Seawater intrusion into the aquifer has been observed in nearly 50 percent of
the study area. The toxic elements (As & Se) have already exceeded the maximum
permissible limits of drinking water in almost the entire city. A positive correlation of
As and Se with other toxic metals indicates that all these elements are anthropogenic
in origin.
An attempt was made to assess the nitrate level in ground waters of
suburban regions of Madras city, India byRengaraj et al (1996) .The high
nitrate concentration in these regions might be due to leaching of domestic
wastes from sewage lines, septic tanks and also the use of various nitrogenous
fertilizers in the agricultural lands.

33

The physicochemical characteristics

of ground water in different

villages of Haridwar distriact, Uttar Pradesh were studied on the basis of

different standards byJain et al.(,1996) .Higher value of certain constituents at
few

places

indicated

that

the

water

was

not

suitable

for

domestic

consumption.

Drinking water qualities of Ranchi were evaluated in respect of

physical, chemical and bacteriological properties .The results indicated that the
iron and fluoride concentrations were beyond the desirable limits in drinking
water sources and were distributed heterogeneously in the region byKumar et
al., (1997).
Viswanadham et al., (1996) observed that domestic sewage along with
industrial effluents polluted the groundwater of Pedana town in Krishna district.
Naidu et al., (1997).studied the water quality parameters in the
coastal towns of Andhra Pradesh to assess their suitability for domestic and
other needs .The results clearly indicated that some towns were polluted either
by industrial waste water or by sewage.
Drinking water samples were analyzed in Gandhi gram ,Tamil Nadu
by Mary et al., (1997) to estimate the concentration of fluoride, iron, hardness
and bacterial population. In most of the cases the concentration of iron, total
hardness and bacterial count were found to be beyond tolerance limits.
Mittel et al., (1997)

evaluated the ground water quality in Patiala,

Punjab. Higher concentrations of various inorganic ions were observed in the

close vicinity of sewers. Leaching of contaminants from the sewers was the
only cause of ground water pollution of that area.
Gnanasundar et al., (1998) evaluated the groundwater in the coastal
aquifer in the urban zone to the south of Chennai city. They found a fresh water ridge
in the central part of this zone as well as sea water intrusion of upto 200 to 300 metres
from the coastline. They attribute the poor quality of groundwater at certain locations

34

to their proximity to the Buckingham canal, which functions as a drain for the urban
wastes.
Sudhir Dahiya (1999) examined groundwater samples from the rural
areas of Tosham subdivision, Bhivani district of Haryana. High concentrations of
chloride are due to contamination of sewage.
Water Quality survey of Rohtas district of Bihar was conducted by Ray et
al., (2000). Samples were collected from different sources and analyzed. Two
hundred and nine samples were collected from 196 villages. Results of water quality
survey identified the problems area in respect of high iron, manganese, fluoride ,
nitrate and brackishness of water in the district.
Fluoride in very limited quantities is desirable for healthy growth of teeth
and bones in human beings and prevents dental caries, and in excess quantities causes
the disease mottle enamel of teeth called Fluorosis. This Paper by Lingeswara Rao
(2001) discusses about the toxicity of fluoride in ground water of Chittoor district of
Andhra Pradesh.
As per an estimate by Dinesh Kumar et al., (2001) the landfills of NCT
Delhi cumulatively generate a significant quantity, 814800 cum, of leachates
annually, which is alarming from ground water quality point of view. In the present
paper issues related to ground water contamination through Municipal landfills
leachates in NCT Delhi have been discussed. An attempt has also been made to
evolve abatement measures on Hydro geologic design principles and policy
guidelines for mitigating the menace of ground water contamination through landfill
sites.
To evaluate the quality of drinking water in and around Tiruchirappalli
city, twenty spots were identified within a radius of about 20 km. All the water bodies
were found to contain high level of inorganic salts and total hardness with high
electrical conductance. Since they are unsuitable for drinking purposes, method to
improve the water quality has been suggested by. Abdul Jamee (2002).

35

Das et al (2002) studied groundwater at 60 sampling points, over a period

of six years, in Cuttack and found concentrations of ammonium, nitrates and sulphates
were higher during the winters and lower during the rainy seasons and a negative
correlation between flourides and sodium, nitrates, sulphates and phosphates.
Kaplay and Patode (2002) report contamination of groundwater by lead
and iron in Tuppa area near Nanded in Maharashtra.
Ramanathan (2002), carried out study of Systematic sampling of
groundwater in different seasons from1997 to 1999 in the entire Periyar district of
Tamilnadu. Groundwater was colorless, odorless and is alkaline in nature. The water
chemistry showed distinct variation in space and time and the influence of the
anthropogenic sources. SAR, RSC, Na%, CR, TH etc shows that the water is
generally good for domestic, agricultural purpose and is not good for long distance
transport. Here the Fluoride concentration is generally lower than prescribed limit
except few areas where the concentration exceeds 1.5ppm.
Guruprasad (2003) examined the physico-chemical and bacteriological
quality of groundwater in Tadepalli mandal of Guntur district. Investigation was
aimed at assessing the impact of pollutants due to agriculture and human activities on
water quality. The results indicated high levels of nutrient load and pollution in the
hand pumps.
Ground water with

higher

concentration

of magnesium causes

laxative effect to human beings and excess fluoride causes severe bone
fluorosis as determined byMishra et al.,(2003) .
From a study of the ground water Tiruchirapalli ,Tamil Nadu by
Ramachandramoorthy et al ., (2004) it was found that low calcium content and
high alkalinity increases the fluoride level in water where as the lower the
total hardness ,higher is the fluoride ion concentration .It shows that ground
water has been contaminated by the industrial activity and application of large
amount of fertilizer around the area.

36

Singh and Chandel (2004) analyzed groundwater samples from various

hand pumps of eight adjacent localities of various industrial areas in Jaipur city. It
was observed that the pH, EC, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, SO42-, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, DO and
BOD value are within permissible limits of ISI and WHO , whereas NO3-, TDS, TH,
COD and WQI values show poor water quality in most of the studied groundwater
samples taken.
In the ground water samples of coal mining area of Assam, it was
found that pH values were lower than the WHO prescribed limit and the
concentration of major cautions and anions were appreciable byPotawary et al,.
(2005).
Rao and Nagaprapurna (2005) studied correlations among various
groundwater quality parameters and data from 63 groundwater samples collected from
jeedimetla industrial estate in Hyderabad city.
Monitoring of Sanganer nallah and surrounding tube wells was carried out
by Singh (2005) during rainy season. The results reveals that the discharge of
untreated

industrial

effluents

and

sewage

in to

nallah

have

contributed

considerable pollution in the ground water in its vicinal areas, and is harmful
for use in agriculture and drinking purposes. The levels of nitrate and fluoride
concentration are high in tube well water samples, and need serious attention.
Mishra et al (2005) evaluated the effect of industrial effluents on the
groundwater and surface water due to the steel plant and other major industries at
Rourkela in Orissa. Their analytical data of physico-chemical parameters indicated
that the groundwater of some the areas is contaminated due to municipal and
industrial solid waste dumping.
Poonkothai and Parvatham (2005) carried out experiments on physicchemical and microbiological parameters of automobile wastewater in Nammakkal,
Tamilnadu and found that the values for physico-chemical parameters were on the
higher side of permissible limits of BIS and those bacteria were present at high
concentrations.

37

Correlations among various ground water quality parameters were

made with the data of 63 ground water samples collected from the Jeedimetla
Industrial Estate in Hyderabad city by Nageswara Rao (2005). The correlations
were highly significant (>85%) between the parameters pH and alkalinity as
well as for pH and cadmium content, which agree with a 3rd degree polynomial.
Similarly EC and DS as well as EC and hardness agree with a power fit
model EC and copper content with a sinusoidal model, and hardness and
calcium content with the saturated growth rate model.
All physico-chemical parameters recorded in the study in sethiyathope
area in Cuddalore dist. taken up by Sivagurunathan et al,. (2005) showed higher
values in summer season than in winter season, except fluoride content in
ground water.
Water samples were collected from wells, springs and rivers/streams
during pre and post monsoon seasons to evaluate drinking water quality on the basis
of BIS and irrigation water quality by Rai (2005) The study showed alkaline nature of
surface and ground water. Calcium and magnesium are dominating cations and
bicarbonate is major anion in the study area. At some locations the
concentration of TDS, Mg, Ca, total hardness, Fe, Mn and Cr exceeded the
limits set up for drinking purposes.
Radha Krishna et al 2005 have studied the physico-chemical and
bacteriological parameters of drinking, bore well and sewage water samples in
Sivakasi, India. Most of the physico-chemical characters of drinking and bore well
water were within the permissible levels. However, in water samples from all sites,
bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level byWHO. Introduction of
sewage into the drinking and bore well water was the main reason for the bacterial
contamination. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize water-borne
diseases.
Ram et al., (2006) observed that high value of TDS ,Iron ,Total
Hardness, Calcium Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium in the underground strata
where the aquifer is available or due to leaching of various pollutants through
sides and bottom of unlined drain.
38

Prakash and Somashekar (2006) tested 1026 groundwater samples from

272 villages in Anekal, near Bangalore and found that water quality is better in the
deeper borewells and is also influenced by the rock formations.
Harish Babu et al., (2006) examined the physico-chemicalcharacterstics
of groundwater at Tarikere,Karnataka. They compared the values with BIS and WHO
and inferred that the areas near the industrial estate shower higher TDS, total hardness
and nitrates.
Anusha et al., (2006) studied the physico-chemical parameters of
groundwater samples from borewells and dug wells at Nacharam industrial area of
Hyderabad, India and found that pollutants were above the acceptable limits.
Tatawat and Chandel (2006) studied the groundwater quality of Jaipur
city experienced degradation due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. Eleven
ground water samples were collected from Jaipur City, Rajasthan (India) from
different hand pumps to study the chemical parameter, such as pH, EC, Total
Hardness Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Carbonate, Bicarbonate,
Sulphate, and Chloride, with the help of standard method of APHA during premonsoon (April 2006 to June 2006).
Mukherjee and Nelliyat (2006) examined the effects of disposal of
industrial effluents on the groundwater at Mettupalem in Tamilnadu. They found that
the population has stopped using groundwater due to pollution.
Jadeja and Thakur (2006) studied the quality of groundwater in the
industrial area of Dharmapur in Porbandar city of Gujarat, by examining various
physico-chemical and bacteriological characterstics. TDS was above the desirable
limit. All the samples were rated as unacceptable for their taste on the basis of total
hardness.
Ground water samples were collected from different locations in Churu
tehsil, Rajasthan (India) by Sinha (2007), for their physico-chemical studies. On
comparing the results against drinking water quality standards laid by Indian Council
of Medical Research (I.C.M.R.), they found that most of the water samples are non
potable for human beings because of having much higher TDS values.
39

Ibrahim Bathusha (2007) collected Ground water samples from 18

wards of Coimbatore

City north zone, among which 2 samples were collected

from 2 different locations from each ward, total 36

samples. Water

quality

assessment was carried out for various physico-chemical parameters. Correlation

coefficients were determined to identify the highly correlated and interrelated
water quality parameters.
Srinivasa Rao et al., (2007) studied the temporal changes in groundwater
quality in the industrialized areas of Visakhapatnam, between 1982 and 2006. The
most remarkable finding is the increasing sulphate contamination during these 25
years.
On 26th December, 2004 tsunami had major impact on the quality of
groundwater along the south east coast of India, but especially in the tsunamiaffected areas of the Nagapatinam district of Tamilnadu. Major pollution resulted
primarily from increases in the salinity of groundwater. Samples of

groundwater

were collected from 11 wells in this area and analyzed chemically and the results
observed by Ravi Sanker (2008) showed significant variations in water quality
parameters.
Pathak and Gopal (2008) enumerated pollution indicator bacteria such as
coliform, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci using a multiple-tube fermentation
method in 100 treated drinking water samples from 20 locations in residential,
commercial and industrial areas of a tropical city during summer. 34% of the samples
were bacteriologically nonpotable. Maximum coliform-contaminated (27%) samples
were derived from industrial areas, which samples contaminated with fecal coliform
(23%) and fecal streptococci (20%) originated from commercial areas. Coliform
identified as E.coli Klebsiella sp, enterobacter sp and citrobacter sp were present in
29%, 26%, 24% and 15% of samples respectively.
Environmental monitoring of drinking water sources at Angul
Talcher Industrial area studies conducted by Basanta Kumar Sahu (2008)
reveals that dug wells are more polluted than the tube wells. It may be
mentioned that though the dug well sources were fit in terms of their water

40

quality indices, they cannot be considered safe for human consumption because
of high coliform counts.
Karunakaran (2008) collected ten Groundwater samples at different
locations in and around Namakkal were analyzed for their physicochemical and
microbial characteristics. Groundwater suitability

for

domestic and

irrigation

purposes was examined by using WHO and BIS standards, which indicate the
groundwater in a few areas, were not much suitable for domestic and
agriculture purposes.
Bishnoi and Malik (2008) studied the quality of groundwater in the
environmentally degraded localities of paniput city in Haryana. They attribute the
high levels of chemical constituents to geological factors, poor sewage and
indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes. Correlation coefficient analysis showed a
positive and significant correlation of electrical conductivity with total dissolved salts,
total hardness, sulphate and total alkalinity. Total hardness was positively and
significantly correlated with magnesium and sulphate. Further, total alkalinity was
found to be positively and significantly correlated with bicarbonate. Fluoride was
higher than permissible limits in most of the samples.
Gadhave (2008) presented this paper to find quality of water samples
and to find out the magnitude of health problems in industrial area Shrirampur.
The natural quality of ground water tends to be degraded by human activities.
Six sampling points were selected for the study. The parameters studied were pH,
Total hardness, Chlorides, Sulphates, Calcium and the ion concentrations were
expressed in mg/L.
Kavita (2008), collected Ground water samples from 60 locations
iduring premonsoon and postmonsoonseasons.Groundwater sampleswere tested for11
physicochemical parameters

following the standard methods

Comparison of observed and estimated values

based on water quality indices

revealed that drinking water at almost all the locations

contaminated, except a few

locations, where

and procedures.

were found to be highly

it was found to be moderately

contaminated for both the monsoons.

41

Ground water samples were collected by Gupta (2009) from different

locations in the radius of 25 km. of Kaithal city, Haryana (India), were analyzed for
their physicochemical characteristics. On comparing the result s against drinking
water quality standards laid by ICMR and WHO, it is found that some of the
water samples are non-potable for human being due to high concentration of
one or the other parameter .
Agarwal (2009) examined the quality of groundwater in Dudu town in
Rajasthan and found levels of conductivity and TDS exceeding the acceptable limits.
In some of the cases, the groundwater was not only non-potable but unsuitable for
irrigation also. The alarming depletion of groundwater resources and deterioration in
quality has been highlighted. It is also reported that after rainfall, the EC and TDS
values decreased, whereas alkalinity and total hardness increased.
Various samples of groundwater were collected from different areas in and
around the Punnam village of Karur District, India and analyzed for their
physicochemical characteristics by Raja (2009).The results of this analysis were
compared with the water quality standards of WHO and CPHEEO. In this analysis
most of the physicochemical parameters were found above the prescribed standards.
Characterization of the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater from
fifteen different locations in Ambala, Haryana (India) was carried out by Prem Singh
(2009). To assess the quality of ground water each parameter was compared with the
standard desirable limits prescribed by WHO, BIS and ICMR. Systematic calculation
was made to determine the correlation coefficient r amongst the parameters. It is
concluded that the water quality of water supply systems in different locations of
Ambala is of medium quality and can be used for domestic use after suitable
treatment.
Water quality of four open wells representing four localities around the
Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd industrial area, Chavara, Quilon district was
studied by Shaji (2009) for a period of six months to assess the suitability of the
well waters for domestic purposes. The study revealed that the third and fourth
wells are free from heavy metal pollution, all the wells are having bacterial
contamination and the values of BOD, COD, TDS and phosphate exceeded the
42

maximum permissible limits and the dissolved oxygen was much lower than the
desirable limit in all the well waters. Hence all the four well waters are found
unsuitable for domestic purposes as it is confirmed by water quality index.
Gupta et al., (2009) tested ground waters which were taken from the
various places in and around Kaithal City town (Haryana , India) and the analysis
reports that the water quality like pH, EC, Cl-, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Hardness lies
within the maximum permissible limit prescribed by WHO and ICMR. Except few
parameters like DO, few samples were reported with lower DO than the permissible
level, but this value does not have any impact for the water to use for drinking
purpose. According to this report, the ground water in and around HCTM College,
water works areas are suitable for drinking, agriculture and industries and really it is
not harmful to human beings.
Physicochemical characteristics of ground water (Two open well, two bore
well) and municipal water in Amalner town were analyzed by Patil and Patil (2010)
during November 2007-February 2008. The results were compared with standards
prescribed by WHO and ISI 10500-91. Total 15 parameters were analyzed. It was
found that the underground water was contaminated at few sampling sites and Dekhu
road showed physicochemical parameters within the water quality standards and the
quality of water is good and it is fit for drinking purpose.
For the study of different samples of ground water Kiran Mehata (2010)
collected samples from the locations of Vadgam taluka of Gujarat state of India and
analyzed for their physic-chemical parameters for concentrations of ions. Its quality
was compared with drinking water standards of ICMR and EU (1998). Correlation coefficient (r) were also calculated for these water quality characteristics and found Fe is
positively correlated with many other parameters.
Groundwater samples were taken from 13 different locations of Kotputli
town by Ranjan Agrawal (2010). The quality analysis has been made through
different physico chemical characters. Comparative studies of samples in different
seasons were conducted and were found that there is no appreciable change in the
different parameters during rainy season. It was also analyzed that Electrical
Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were decreased in the rainy season,
43

and Alkalinity, Total Hardness were increased after the rainfall. A systematic
calculation of the correlation coefficient has also been carried out between different
analyzed parameters.
The

detailed physic-chemical characteristics of groundwater resources

from different litho logical units in the Siliguri subdivision of Darjeeling district have
been evaluated for 18 parameters by Khondaker Emamul (2010).The study reveals
that groundwater is hard and contains more iron percentage than the permissible
limit. The rapid soil erosion and the associated runoff were caused
geomorphologic conditions,

deforestation

by

due to shifting cultivation, and

climatic factors, which are probably responsible for the low concentration of
groundwater.
The Study of Jothi venkatachalam (2010) brings an acute awareness
among the people about the quality of ground water

by analyzing various

physico-chemical characters. A systematic correlation and regression study

showed significant linear relationship among different pairs of water quality
parameters.
Groundwater samples were collected from eleven stations of Jaipur city
during monsoon season by Dinesh Kumar Tank (2010) and were analyzed for
physico-chemical parameters to assess

the hydrochemistry

of

groundwater .

Comparison of the concentration of the chemical constituents with WHO (world

health organization) drinking water standards of 1983, the status of groundwater
is better for drinking purposes. Results indicate that nitrate concentrations are in
an alarming state with respect to the use of ground water for drinking purposes.
Rejit (2010) studied groundwater quality of Nedumkandam panchayat by
an integrated approach of traditional water quality analysis and Geographical
Information Systems (GIS). Fourteen wells were identified from the study area and
samples were collected and analyzed for various water quality parameters. All
parameters except PH, cadmium, and fecal coli forms were within the limit of drinking
water quality standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 1983).
Based on the WQI values, the study area was divided into poor, moderate, and good
water quality zones.
44

systematic study has been carried out by Srinivasa Rao (2010 ) to

explore the Physico chemical characteristics

of ground water in Greater

Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) area .Water samples from 32

bore wells ,16 open wells and two reservoirs at various locations in GVMC
area were

collected and analyzed for PH ,EC ,D.O ,TH ,CaH ,MgH Total

alkalinity and Nitrate .The water samples near the sea are more chloride
concentrations than the samples far away from the sea .From this he
concludedthat the intrusion of salt water into ground water was due to the over
pumping of the ground water along the sea coast.
Ground water samples collected from different locations around sugar
factory area within the range of 4 kms by Ratnakant Sheth (2010). Ground water
from nine different spots were collected and analyzed for their physical
characteristics. Water quality index for different groundwater sources at industrialized
area was also calculated and found water samples were in the category of Good-Very
poor.
Remia et al., (2010) analyzed the physical and chemical characteristics of
drinking water in the selected areas of Koundampalayam panchayat in Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu in India. The values of all the physical and chemical characteristics of the
water samples collected from all three zones were as per the standard limits
prescribed by the various agencies. Some parameters like total solids, calcium,
magnesium and chlorides crossed the standard limits.
Veena Choudary et al., (2010) studied the groundwaters of northwest
Rajasthan, India and found fluoride, boron and nitrate contamination.
Jayalakshmi et al., (2011) studied the physico-chemical parameters of
water and waste water in and around Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh. They found that
the some of the waters are slightly polluted while waste water at certain sites was
highly polluted as a result of contamination with industrial, agricultural and domestic
wastes.
SathishKumarand Ravichandran (2011) assessed the quality of
groundwater in Cheyyar basin in Tamilnadu and found it to be severely polluted,
mainly due to industrial effluents.
45

Lalitha Kumari (2011) conducted experiments for physico-chemical

parameters of Bore and open wells in and around salt pans of Oolapalem and Ooguru
of Prakasam district. The findings clearly indicate that the saline effluents polluted the
water and it is not suitable for human beings and also for agricultural activities.
Hiremath, et al, (2011) analyzed seasonally the physico-chemical
parameters of 36 samples from different sources in Karnataka. Parameters like pH,
conductivity, TDS, total hardness, sulfate and chloride were studied and compared
with WHO standards. The investigation revealed that the water quality of sources and
some of the water samples are unfit for drinking.

Parihar et al 2012 evaluated the physico-chemical & microbiological

characteristics of 16 drinking water samples in Gwalior, M.P India. Electrical
conductivity, TDS, total aerobic microbial count & MPN were maximum in one
sample. pH hardness & Do were observed higher in 3 samples. Enteric pathogen
E.coli and Enterobacter were found in 9 samples. No coliforms were observed in 7
samples. These results showed that maximum samples were not suitable for drinking
purpose.
Narasimha, et al, (2012) assessed the physico-chemical parameters of
drinking water (pH, conductivity, TDS, total hardness and chloride). The chloride
content in 27.7% of groundwater samples is above the WHO standards. The physicochemical quality of drinking water varied drastically among different sites. 39% of
samples exceeded the desirable limit of WHO standards.
Singh, et al (2012) had analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of
ground water used for drinking, domestic & irrigation in the village Lutfullapur, U.P
India. A number of groundwater samples showed levels of electrical conductivity,
alkalinity, chloride, calcium, Na & K exceeding their permissible limits.

46

Microbial Contamination of water sources findings

International findings
The ground water samples near the septic tank disposal system in
northeastern and eastern New York were investigated by Chen (1987) for nutrients
and fecal coli forms.

Seventeen out of 23 samples were found to be highly

contaminated within 30.5 m of the discharge point of the septic systems. Eleven of
those samples were collected from less than 122 cm below the ground level. The
depth of the ground water table and the distance from the discharge point of sewage
were the main factors influencing the pattern and severity of ground water
contamination.
A bacteriological survey was performed on 155 untreated rural ground
water samples including drilled wells, dug wells and springs in northwest Virginia
USA by Sworobuk et al., (1987). A total of 48% and 62% of the samples contained
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci respectively. Water sources from shallower
older wells and lacking adequate casing characteristically were found to be heavily
contaminated with bacteria indicative of lack of sanitation.
In the study conducted by Simchen et al., (1990) some 302 cases of
diarrhea occurred in the studied population. The incidence of diarrhea in people aged
0-18 years during the baseline year and through the period of the epidemic was due to
allegedly contaminated spring that had been implicated previously as a source of
contaminated water and was closed for some weeks previously during 1988. The
human source of the contamination was probably the free-flowing sewage from the
nearby town of Tarshicha.
Payment et al., (1991) (North America) carried out a randomized
intervention trial. 299 eligible households were supplied with domestic water filters
(reverse-osmosis) that eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants from their
water and 307 households were left with their usual tap water without a filter. The
estimated annual incidence of gastrointestinal illness was 0.76 among tap water
drinkers compared with 0.50 among filtered water drinkers (p<0.01). It is estimated
that 35% of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among the tap water drinkers were
47

water related and preventable. Their results raise questions about the adequacy of
current standards of drinking water quality to prevent water-borne endemic
gastrointestinal illness.
Bacteriological analyses were performed in the Sahelian area, France by
Gullemin et al., (1991). About 7.7% of bore-holes, 13.5% concrete wells and 66% of
the traditional wells found to be polluted with total coliform, faecal coliform and
faecal streptococci. After stepwise logistic regression analysis the link with each
factor persisted independently. The unsanitary conditions of the proximal
environment (P<0.001), hazards in re-priming (P<0.001) leaks in the pump (P<0.05)
and the absence of efficient system to keep cattle away from the water supply area
(P<0.05) seemed to contribute to the non portability of water.
Madison and Ghiorse (1993) presented generalized model for the
relationship between geological stratography and microbiological parameters. In
going across the horizons, the bacterial abundance decreases in direct proportion with
nutrient levels.
Le Chevallier et al., (1996) found that the occurrence of coliform bacteria
was significantly higher when water temperatures were > 150C. at a summer water
temperature ( 200C). The efficacy of chlorine concentrations tested was found to be
two or three times lower as compared to that found at a winter temperature (50C).
Grabow, (1996) investigated the water quality assessment and control,
and stated that water borne diseases are most important concern about the quality of
water and also that the pathogens involved included a wide variety of viruses,
bacteria, and protozoan parasites. The prevalence of various water- borne pathogens
changes with selective pressure changes.
Natural Protection of Spring and Well Drinking Water against Surface
Microbial Contamination Parameters for Parasites was studied byStephen Edberg et
al., (1997). Parasitic diseases associated with drinking water transmission prompted a
re-evaluation of source water monitoring criteria for public health protection. The
field of microbial indicators was reviewed and each candidate sentinel evaluated in
terms of its sensitivity, specificity, and technical feasibility. In addition, a clear
distinction was made between source water monitoring and monitoring in the
distribution system. Of all potential candidate microbial sentinels, Escherichia coli
are deemed the most efficacious for public health protection. Based on a conservative
estimate of its half-life in groundwater for 8 d, it is recommended that at least two
48

samples be obtained during this half-life. In addition to E. coli, two water quality
indicator sentinels, which are not necessarily direct public health threats, should also
be monitored at the same frequency. These are the total coliform group and the
Enterococci. If E. coli is present in any source water sample, the borehole and any
directly connected borehole should be embargoed. If either total coliforms or
enterococci are detected, only that individual borehole should be taken off line and
not used until the situation is remediated and the cause of the fecal contamination
eliminated. Clostridium perfringens spores serve as a useful long-lived indicator.
However, their perseverance in a sample should not be considered a direct public
health threat because spores may far outlive pathogens. As a parasite indicator, C.
perfringens should have the same importance as a positive coliform or Enterococcus
analysis. Coliphages do not yet fulfill enough of the criteria to be routinely employed.
Biological monitoring should be coupled with physicochemical monitoring to
establish a long-term history of the source. Because all natural waters vary in the
amounts of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, test methods should be employed that
are refractory to them. A combination of rigorous source protection and extraordinary
source monitoring serve as sufficient multiple barriers for parasite protection.
A detailed assessment of the microbial quality of some selected well water
samples of Crewe, UK was carried out by Fewtrell et al., (1998) for total coliforms,
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. The microbial quality of water samples was
generally poor with about 50% of the supplies failing to meet the required standards.
Bad sanitation and leaching from waste disposal might be the major cause of
contamination.
The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality
in Oak Creek demonstrated by Christine Crabill et al., (1999) .in this study show
that sediment agitation by recreational activity and storm surges associated with the
summer storm season are responsible for the impact to water quality and not
recreational users directly, as suggested by previous studies. Sources of fecal
pollution in the Oak Creek watershed may include grazing cattle, natural animal
populations, septic tanks failed municipal sewage and recreational users.
Chandio (1999) suggested that applications of nitrogen-phosphorouspotassium (NPK) fertilizers have been increasing in Pakistan over the last few
decades, with applications of nitrogen fertilizers reaching and excess of 2 million tons
by the late 1990s. As a result, high concentration of NO3-.N has been reported to be
49

common in ground water source in Karachi-Pakistan. Concentration of NO3-were

mostly less than 6mg/L in hand-dug wells and tube from canal-irrigated areas of
Pakistan, although concentrations up to 210mg/L nitrate were found to have been
directly contaminated by sewage.
Sridhar (2000) examined the physico-chemical quality of ground water of
Nigerian Urban centers and found high concentrations of various ions because of
contamination of drinking water pipelines with sewage disposal.
Studies by Norton and Lechevallier (2000) showed characteristic
changes in bacterial population through potable water treatment and distribution. It
appears to be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause
any shift in the composition of the bacterial population that would favour
opportunistic pathogens.
Gottlich et al., (2001) investigated fungal flora in ground water derived
from public drinking water distribution system, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
E.coli or other coliform bacteria was observed in the water. Common opportunistic
and allergenic Aspergillus species were encountered only rarely.

The fungal flora

was dominated by a limited number of species of Acremonium, Exophiala,

Penicillium and particularly Phialophora some of them occurred throughout the
entire drinking water system.
Kortatsi (2001) Suggested that Ground waterprovision is sometimes
unsustainable because of poor water productivity of wells, drying of wells after
prolonged drought and sometimes due to poor water quality. These problems are
usually caused by the lack of understanding of the hydrological regime.
Ikem (2002) Evaluated ground water samples collected near to waste
disposal sites in Ibadan and Lagos, Nigeria. The water quality is unfit for drinking
because of the presence of high concentrations of inorganic ions.
Carter et al., (2002) studied the relationships between levels of
heterotrophic bacteria and water quality parameters in a drinking water distribution
system. Orange and yellow pigmented bacteria were the dominant expressions in all
bulk fluid and biofilm samples. The fraction of pigmented bacteria in bulk fluid
samples was greatest at the standpipe. Pigmentation percentages were found to be
uncorrelated with standard physical and chemical parameters of water quality in
distribution systems.

50

Kaye Power et al., (2002) examined Water Board within Sydneys

drinking water distribution system. Identification of bacteria isolated on m-Endo broth
indicated Klebsiella oxytoca as the principal coliform involved. High number of
Aeromonas hydrophilla were isolated.
Colford et al., (2002) studied characteristic changes in bacterial
population through potable water treatment and distribution. Therefore it appears to
be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause a shift in
composition of the bacterial population that favor opportunistic pathogens. There is
no clear cut evidence that heterotrophic bacteria as such pose a public health risk
particularly when they are ingested by healthy people via drinking water.
Kistemann et al., (2002) investigated microbial load of drinking water,
bacterial colony, Escherichia coli, Coliform, fecal streptococci and Clostridium
perfringens counts increased considerably during extreme runoff events. Parasitic
contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and
Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial
shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs
results from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are
considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse
systems.
Demir (2003) studied ground water quality in Kesan area, Turkey. After
analyzing physico-chemical and microbiological drinking water quality parameters,
he found the ground water source were unfit for drinking and need some treatment.
Bradley et al., (2003) studied the spread of Vibrio cholrae around the
world and also the factors that determine its seasonal peaks in endemic areas. Since
1997, fortnightly surveillance in 4 widely separated geographic locations in
Bangladesh has been performed to identify patients with cholera and to collect
environmental data. These data were correlated with environmental factors, to
develop a model for prediction of cholera outbreaks. Human faecal material is
considered to be greater risk to human health as it is more likely to contain human
enteric pathogen
Scott, (2003),.Howard et al (2003) observed variations in water quality in
shallow protected springs in Kampala to assess the causes of microbial; contamination
and found large temporal and special variation. They found that local recharge of
faecal contaminated surface water is the principal source of contamination.
51

Ho et al., (2003) studied chemical and microbiological qualities of the

East River (Dongjiang) which accounts to about 80% of drinking water in Hong
Kong, which is located in the mainland side of China. Microbiological survey
revealed that pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Vibro sp., Giardia lamblia and
Crytosporidium parvum appeared occasionally in water samples. The water supplies
department of Hong Kong is recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring
program to cover pathogenic bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs.
Thomas Clasen et al., (2003) studied Thermo Tolerant Coliforms (TTC) from the
stored household water supplies of 100 households in 13 towns and villages in the
Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. At the non-improved sources, the arithmetic mean
TTC load was 407/100ml at the point of distribution, rising to mean count of
882/100ml at the household level. Water from the improved sources met WHO
guidelines, with no fecal contamination. 92.9% of stored household samples
contained some level of TTC, 76.5% contained more than the 10 TTC per 100ml
threshold set by the sphere project for emergency conditions. They need to extended
drinking water quality beyond the point of distribution to the point of consumption.
Nogueira et al (2003) evaluated the microbiological quality of treated and
untreated water samples and found that the highest number of water samples
contaminated by total coliforms (83%) and fecal coliforms(48%) were found in
untreated waters. Among the treated water samples examined, coliform bacteria were
found in 171 of the 1,033 sampling reservoirs. More than 17% of the treated potable
water contained coliforms TC and FC were seasonally influenced in treated water. It
was observed that warm weather had high percentage of contaminated samples. TC &
FC positive samples declined with decrease in temperature.
Pavlov et al(2004) reported that HPCs are commonly used to assess the general
microbiological quality of drinking water. In this study, 339 bacterial colonies were
isolated randomly from selected, treated and untreated drinking waters in South
Africa. The most commonly isolated

genera were Aeromonas, Bacillus,

Corynebacterium, Klebsiella, Moraxella, Pseudomonas, Vibrio and Staphylococcus.

These findings are in agreement with some epidemiological studies, which indicated
an association between HPCs in drinking water and the incidence of gastroenteritis in
consumers
Miriam Paul et al (2004) investigated the possible deterioration in the
microbiological quality of ground water in drilled wells close to leaky sewer systems
52

in Rastah of southwest Germany. Increase in the total number of colony-forming units

provided evidence that leaky sewer systems elevate faecal indicator concentrations in
groundwater.
Wakida and Lerner (2005) studied the groundwater at Nottingham and
found that non-agricultural sources of nitrate are quite significant. Leaky sewers and
waste disposal sites are found to contribute to nitrate load in the aquifers.
Hunter et al., (2005) conducted a study in Wales and the Northwest
region of England from February 2001 to May 2002 and found that sources of
drinking water and treatments vary, but overall, the microbiological quality of the
water is excellent, as only 0.05% of water samples were positive for Escherichia coli.
Pusch et al (2005) detected enteric viruses and bacterial indicators in German
environmental waters. A German mining lake and the supplying surface waters, which are
located downstream of a sewage plant, were examined regarding their microbiological
and virological quality. Between October 2002 and September 2003, specific PCR
methods were used to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in 123 water specimens
drawn at different sites downstream of the waste water treatment plant and in 9 samples
from the sewage plant influent. Cell culture methods showed that 3 out of 18 PCR
positive samples contained infectious entero viruses. Even though microbiological
parameters such as Escherichia coli, enterococci and coliphages indicated acceptable
microbiological water quality, the virological data of this study suggest the possibility
that surface waters may be a source for enteric viral infections.
Natasha Potgieter et al 2005 assessed the microbiological quality of 125 drinking water
samples in South Africa. The frequency of isolation of E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella and
C.jejuni was 70%, 5%, 5% and 2% respectively. The total coliforms ranged from 4.9X10 2
to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml, fecal coliforms from 2.6X102 to 3.7X103CFU/100ml and fecal
streptococci from 3.1X103 to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml in tap water stored in household
containers.
Surbeck et al., (2006) observed the flow independent nature of faecal
indicator bacteria and F+ coliphages is consistent with the idea that these
contaminations are ubiquitously present on the surface of the urban landscape and
rapidly partition into the surface water as the landscape is wetted by rainfall.
Almasri (2007) found evidence of deterioration of ground water quality
from nitrate contamination indicating that the nitrate levels routinely exceed the

53

maximum contaminant level of 10mg/L NO3- in many aquifer system in Palestine

that underline agriculture-dominated water sheds.
Ola et al., (2007) analyzed for some physical and chemical parameters as
well as changes in microbial population during storage. Suspended particles became
noticeable and the smell of water samples became unpleasant after 12 weeks of
storage. Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia,

Proteus sp. Streptococcus

faecalis and Micrococcus sp were the bacteria species encountered in stored water
samples. E.coil was the most frequently encountered. The presence of these bacterial
species has significant health implications. Total viable counts in water samples
increased from 3.8 x 105 cfu/ml on day 0 to 42. 0x 105 cfu/ ml by the 16th week of
storage, while coliforms increased drastically from week two to week six of storage
after which the population began to drop. The samples contained coliforms cast a
doubt over the portability status of water supplied to the communities in the area
under study.
Samples of tap, well, stream, and wastewaters were collected form
Abeokuta and Ojota state and analyzed microbiologically using standard methods.
Okonko et al., (2007).reportedthat the total viable counts for all the water samples
were generally high exceeding the limit of 1.0x102 cfu/ml for water. The MPN count
ranged from 9.3 to 44 MPN/ 100ml. the fecal colifrom counts on EMB agar plate
ranged between 5 and 48 cells, also exceeding the standard limit for water. The
isolated organisms were identified to be Staphlococcus aureus, Salmonella species,
Escherchia coli, Pseudomonas aerugionosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus
species,

Proteus

species,

Kleslella

species,

Flavobacterium

species

and

Acinetobacter species.
Naaz Abaas et al 2007 determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was
3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Tista Prasaiet et al 2007 conducted a study to evaluate the quality of
drinking water of Kathmandu valley. A total of 132 drinking water samples were
randomly collected from 49 tube wells, 57 wells, 17 taps and 9 stone spouts in
different places of Kathmandu valley. The samples were analyzed for
54

microbiological parameters. Total plate and coliform count revealed that 82.6% and
92.4% of drinking water samples found to cross WHO guideline values for drinking
water. During the study, 238 isolates of enteric bacteria were identified of which
26.4% were E. coli, 25.6% were Enterobacter, 23% were Citrobacter, 6.3% were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 5.4% were Klebsiella, 4.0% were Shigella, 3.0% were
Salmonella, 3.0% were Proteus vulgaris, 3.0% were Serratia and 1.0% were Vibrio
cholera.
Naaz Abaas, et al.,(2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN)
was 3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Kassenga 2007 investigated the microbiological quality of bottled and
plastic-bagged drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 130 samples
representing 13 brands of bottled water were analyzed for total coliforms, fecal
coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria. These were compared with 61 samples of tap
water. Heterotrophic bacteria were detected in 92% of the bottled water samples
analyzed. Total and fecal coliform bacteria were present in 4.6% and 3.6%
respectively. Microbiological quality of tap water was found to be worse compared
with bottled water, showing the presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms with
49.2% and 26.2% respectively.
Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the bottled
mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The positive
samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%. The
recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water
when compared with tap water from municipal supplies.
Nurcihan Hacioglu et. al., (2008) investigated monthly variation of
comparison of data with WPCR. It is seen that waters of Biga stream at the sites
1,2and 3 belonged to class 4, for parameter BOD and fecal coliform and belonged to
class 3 for parameter total coliform. In that area a great potetential risk of infection of
waters from the Biga Stream.
Taulo et al (2008) studied microbiological quality of water, associated
management practices and risks at source, transport and storage points in a rural
community of Lungwena,Malawi. Sampling points revealed a significant difference
55

(p=0.042) higher than that of Salmonella spp. The microbiological quality of water
was found to be poor as a result of both poorwater management and environmental
sanitation practices.
Al-Futaisi et al (2008) established that, urbanization, industrialization and
agriculture manifest in contamination of water sources in the Barka catchment of
Oman. They found saline water intrusion into the coastal aquifers and high nitrate
content and bacteriological population in the other areas due to anthropogenic
influence.
Adekunle (2008) examined the impact of industrial effluents on the
quality of well water in the Asa Dam industrial estate in Nigeria and observed high
turbidity, discolouration due to oily film and high bacterial count, due to dissolved
mineral salts, industrial effluents and organic matter, respectively.
Shittu et al., (2008) studied well water, stream water and river water used
for drinking and swimming purpose in Abeokutta, Nigeria. The results obtained were
compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water. The
samples complied with bacteriological standards as Total coliform counts generally
exceeded 1,600 MPN/ ml, and pathogen count such as Salmonella- Shigella counts
and Vibrio chelerae counts were very high. The presence of pathogens in water for
drinking and swimming purposes is of public health significance considering the
possibility of the presence of other bacteria, protozoa and enteric viruses that are
implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases and the low infectious dose for
these water borne pathogens.
Abdul Hussain Shar et al., (2008) analyzed the drinking water of Khairpur city. All
the water samples were contaminated (100%) with total coliform and fecal coliforms.
The counts were higher than the maximum microbial contaminant level established by
WHO. It was observed that pH was within the limits of WHO standards (6.5-8.5) and
the residual chlorine was not detected in any sample of drink and water.
Eschcol et al (2009) hypothesized that fecal contamination occurs mainly
during storage due to poor water handling. In their study 92% (47/51) of samples
tested at supply points were chlorinated and bacterial contamination was found in 2
samples. Samples collected from household storage containers showed an increase in
contamination in 18/50 houses (36%). Hence it was revealed that the biggest health
impact that can be made is at the household level
56

Lena Fadhil Hamza (2009), determined the efficiency of filter water for
pathogens. The results showed that some filters are not safe in elimination of bacteria
from water, as they have shown E.coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus fecalis and Vibrio cholerae. It revealed that the efficacy of
filters, time of usage and cleaning of devices were unable to remove the microbial
contamination from the drinking waters totally.
Jakhrani (2009) stipulated that one of the major source of ground water
contamination is the surface impoundments used by municipalities and industries,
which dispose of waste water without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by
farmers for agriculture purpose. Ground water quality is deteriorated because of
higher concentrations of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as
compared to WHO standards.
Syed Hafizur (2009),considering the hypothesis shallow tube-well water
might be contaminated by microorganisms from a nearby open pit latrine, studied
litho-stratigraphy, physico-chemical properties along with microbial contamination
level of shallow tube-well water and socio-economic aspects related to sanitation of a
rural village (Gakulnagar, Bangladesh). Values of all parameters were found
within the tolerable limits, except coli form, in very few samples, where pit latrines
were adjacent to the tube-well. Values of total coli form bacteria showed an inverse
relationship with the distance between the tube-well and the pit latrine.
The antibiotic resistance patterns of coagulase negative staphylococci
(CNS) isolated from a drinking water treatment plant (WTP), a drinking water
distribution network, responsible for supplying water to the consumers (WDN), and a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), responsible for receiving and treating domestic
residual effluents. Genotyping and the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis
demonstrated a higher diversity of species both in the WTP (6 species/19 isolates) and
WWTP

(12

species/47

(6species/172isolates). Staphylococcus

isolates)

than

in

the

WDN

pasteuri and Staphylococcus

epidermidis prevailed in the WTP and WDN and Staphylococcus saprophyticus in the
WWTP. Staphylococci with reduced susceptibility (resistance or intermediary
phenotype) to beta-lactams, tetracycline, clindamycin and erythromycin were
observed in all types of water and belonged to the three major species groups. The
highest resistance rate was found against erythromycin, presumably due to the
presence of the efflux pump encoded by the determinant msrA, detected in the
57

majority of the resistant isolates. This study by Catia

Faria et al.,

(2009)demonstrates that antibiotic resistant CNS may colonize different types of

water, namely drinking water fulfilling all the quality standards.

Addo et al, (2009) conducted a bacteriological examination of 7 brands of

bottled water in Ghana. Using the MPN index for various combination of positive and
negative results, an MPN value of less than two (<2) total and fecal coliform were
recorded for all the 70 samples of bottled water. The results showed that the
bacteriological quality of the 7 brands of water samples analyzed was within the
acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines and therefore safe for human consumption.
Umezawa et al (2009) investigated the status of nitrate, nitrite and
ammonium contamination in the water systems, the mechanisms controlling their
source, pathways and distribution. Their study in three Southeast Asian cities revealed
that leaky sewers are the major source of these nutrient contaminants.
Addo et al., (2009) conducted a bacteriological examination of 7 brands of
bottled water in Ghana. Using the MPN index for various combination of positive and
negative results, an MPN value of less than two (<2) total and fecal coliform were
recorded for all the 70 samples of bottled water. The results showed that the
bacteriological quality of the 7 brands of water samples analyzed was within the
acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines and therefore safe for human consumption.
Abdul Hannan et al., (2010) evaluated the microbial analysis of 100
samples of drinking water from Lahore by Membrane Filter Technique. It was found
that E.coli was grown from 42% samples and coliform organisms were grown from
54% specimens. It was alarming that 59% of drinking water was unsatisfactory for
human consumption.
Ramirez(2010) , from his observations concluded that well water samples
having Coli form values were lower than the maximum permissible limit
indicated within the Mexican Ecological

Criteria of Water Quality . The

concentrations of dissolved solids are increased in wells with lower altitudes.

The water is considered very hard, because of both carbonate and non-carbonate
hardness was detected. The average values of physicochemical parameters were
below the maximum permissible limits indicated in the Mexican official norm.
Madhab Borah, et al, 2010 analyzed the bacteriological quality of drinking
water samples and found that the bacterial levels failed to meet the limits of the water
58

quality standards. Water samples contained varying levels of fecal coliform bacteria
ranging from a Most Probable Number (MPN) of 10 to 2.8X103 CFU/100ml. 78.1%
of samples were contaminated with E.coli.
To assess the Quality of the island, ground water samples were collected by
Chin Yik Lin (2010) from five representative wells at the low lying area of Pulau
Tiga in order to study the physico-chemical parameters. In general, groundwater in
Pulau Tiga is moderate in conductivity and bacteriological analysis showed that the
groundwater quality was poor, with fecal coli form counts exceeding the WHO
permissible limits for drinking water. Coli form in ground water might be originated
from sanitation facilities located too close to the wells.
Obasohan (2010) highlighted the historical perspective of the
relationship between microbes and humans regarding the ranging water between
them, arising from the reckless exploitation of the biosphere by humans and the
resultant revolt by microbes in the form of various pathogenic diseases that now
plague mankind.
Assessment was done on the microbiological quality of water in hand-dug
wells in urban communities in Kumasi, Ghana byMoninuola (2010). A total of 256
water samples were taken from eight wells and examined for fecal coli forms,
enterococci and helminthes. High contamination levels were recorded in the wells,
more so in the wet season. This study shows a stronger influence of poor sanitation
and improper placement of wells on water quality compared to improvements made
from lining and protection of wells.
Muhammad Saeed Anwar (2010)studied a total of 530 water samples
collected from different localities of whole of the Lahore city, representing areas
with different socio-economic conditions. Among 530 water samples, 197 samples
(37.2%) were positive for bacterial contamination. It was observed that bacterial
contamination was maximum in areas with low SEC (43.6%), followed by
intermediate SEC (36.5%) and high SEC (22.9%). He concluded that bacterial
contamination is severe in Lahore.
A site survey , hydrologic assessment and sample analysis of indicator
bacteria in surrounding surface and ground waters, gives an idea on chemical
impacts of open dump sites on ground water quality .Consequently, field
logistics, sampling infrastructure and site data amassed for the chemical

59

evaluation study can be leveraged for use in the proposed microbial evaluation
study according to Schnabel., (2010).
Noel Sammon et al., (2010) studied drinking water quality, the potential
of water borne spores as a source of nosocomial fungal infection. The most commonly
recovered genera were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fuserium. This
study has demonstrated that numerous micro-fungal genera, including those that water
supply which are opportunistic human pathogens, populate a typical treated municipal
water supply in sub-tropical Australia.
The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is one of the most developed and densely
populated regions in China. Quantifying the amount of pathogens in the source of
drinking water is important for improving water quality. Results showed that external
environmental factors, such as precipitation, location, as well as the internal
environmental factors, i.e., physicochemical properties of the water, were closely
related with the distribution of coliforms. Seasonally, the coliform bacterial
concentrations in wet season were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those
in dry season. Spatially, coliform bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and
industrial areas were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in remote areas.
Correlation analyses by Huachang Hong et al.,(2010).showed that the
levels of coliforms had close relationships with pH, temperature, suspended solid,
organic and inorganic nutrients in water. Principal components analysis further
demonstrated that total coliforms in the reservoirs were closely related with water
physicochemical properties, while fecal coliforms were more associated with external
input brought in by seasonal runoff.
Sunette Walter (2010) reported that the presence of HPC bacteria in
drinking water distribution systems is usually not considered harmful to the general
consumer. However, precautions must be taken regarding the immune compromised.
He studied on the isolation, identification and characterization of HPC and other
bacteria from biofilm and bulk water samples from two sampling points. Application
of enrichment and selective media allowed for the isolation of 12 different bacterial
morphotypes. He also reported that the greatest diversity of bacteria was detected
early autumn 2008, while the lowest diversity occurred during mid-winter 2007.

60

RajiniKurup et al., (2010) determined the microbial and physico-chemical

parameters of water samples from Georgetown, Guyana. In the microbial analysis
the most prevalent species in biofilm and water samples within the study was
Lactobacillus sp. and the least prevalent species was Salmonella sp. The physicochemical analysis report presents values of parameters below the standards of WHO.
Turbidity was high in all the tested samples. On the whole the water samples show
poor quality both in terms of physico-chemical and biological parameters.
Edema et al., (2011) investigated the bacteriological quality of 108 commercial
sachet packed drinking water samples for pathogenic bacteria. Results showed that
87% of the sachet packed water samples examined contained Salmonella and E. coli,
indicative of fecal contamination and inadequate water treatment. E.coli counts used
as indicator of hygiene criteria were present in the range of 98 and 106 CFU/100ml of
water. Salmonella were between 2.12X10^1. These findings indicate that sachetpacked water samples examined do not meet the microbiological standards for
drinking water quality. Monitoring should be done on a regular basis.
Emile Jemgoua, et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were
below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the
water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was
proposed.
A study was conducted by Javed Ali et al., (2011).to evaluate the quality
of drinking water in Khyber Agency valley, which has always been crucial with
reference to public health importance. Quality assessment of drinking water were
carried out by determining, total plate count, total coliform bacteria, total fecal
coliform, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The total plate count (TPC) was found in
the range of 3600-190 CFU/ml which indicated that none of the samples were found
in drinking water according to the WHO standards (100 CFU/ml). All the samples
were found contaminated with total coliform bacteria and unfit for human
consumption according to WHO standards. Total fecal coli form bacteria present in
80% samples. E. coliwere present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were
contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus.
Milkiyas Taboret al., (2011) studied the bacteriological and physicochemical quality of drinking water and investigated the hygiene and sanitation
61

practices of the consumers in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia from OctoberDecember,

2009. Water samples were collected from 35 private taps and 35 household water
containers for bacteriological analysis. The turbidity, PH, temperature and turbidity
were measured immediately after collection. . Finally, the hygiene-sanitation practices
of the consumers were surveyed using interview. Twenty seven (77.1%) of the
household water samples had high total coliforms counts. Twenty (57.1%) household
water samples and 9 (25.7%) of the tap water samples had no residual free chlorine.
Sixteen (45.7%) household water samples had very high risk score to thermotolerant
coliforms. Eight (22.9%) tap water samples had low risk score for total coliforms
whereas 21(60%) tap water had very low risk score for thermotolerant coliforms.
Twelve (34.3%) of the consumers collect water without contact with their hand and
9(25.7%) wash their hands with soap after visiting toilet. Water supplies at tap and
household water containers were contaminated with bacteria. Poor sanitation, low
level of hygiene, uncontrolled treatment parameters are the causes for contamination.
Control of physico-chemical parameters and promoting good hygiene and sanitation
are recommended.
Humphrey et al., (2011) studied the E.coli levels, in the coastal areas of
North Carolina, on four occasions between March 2007 and February 2008, and found
that groundwater E. coli densities near on-site wastewater systems were highest
during shallow water periods. They recommend increasing the vertical separation
distance from drain field trenches to seasonal high water table for improving shallow
groundwater quality.
Lugoli et al., (2011) investigated the microbiological contamination of
groundwater in the Salento peninsula of southeastern Italy and concluded that the risk
factors in this region arise mainly from anthropogenic activities, especially tourism
and agriculture. They observed widespread pollution from salt and microbial
contamination, the latter in 100% of the samples. Further, the water was found
unsuitable even for irrigation in a high percentage of cases (31.8),with high salt
concentrations, probably due to excessive extraction of water for intensive irrigation,
especially in summer.
Djuikom et al., (2011) carried out a bacteriological study over five months
to assess the water quality of seven wells located in Bepanda in Douala town of
62

Cameroon in Western Africa .They found that as long as any source of pollution
exists , water is of bad quality irrespective of the depth . They conclude that many
factors influence the groundwater quality: the type of pollution source(s) , the distance
separating the well and the pollution sources(s) , the maintenance of the well , the
nature of the ground , and many anthropogenic influences .
Akinbile et al., (2011) studied the impact of waste dumps on the quality of
groundwater in Akure , Nigeria and found high levels of contamination by heavy
metals and bacteria . The pollution was found related to the distance from the dump
sites.
Emile Jemgoua et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were
below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the
water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was
proposed.
Javed Ali et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water from Khyler agency,
Pakistan. It was found that the total plate count (TPC) was in the range of 3600-190
CFU/ml, which indicated that none of the samples were in accordance with the WHO
standards (100CFU/ml). Total faecal coliforms were present in 80% samples E.coli
were present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were contaminated with
staphylococcus aureus.
Gwimbi (2011) had examined the microbial content of 35 water samples
from different water sources. In his study 97% total coliforms and 71% E.coli were
detected. The concentration levels of total coliforms and E.coli were above the
permissible limits of the WHO drinking water quality guidelines in each case. He
observed that protected sources had significantly less number of colony forming
units[CFU] per 100ml of water sample compared to unprotected sources. His
findings suggest source water protection and good hygiene practices can improve the
quality of household drinking water where disinfection is not available.
Obi and George (2011) analyzed seven bore well waters by microbiological
and physico-chemical parameters in Nigeria. Five bacterial species namely
Enterobacteraerogenes, E.coli, Streptococci fecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated. The total HPC gave a range of 4.7x104 to
1.82x105cfu/ml, with a mean of 7.89x104cfu/ml. The total coliform count gave a
63

range of 4.1x103 to 8.6x103cfu/ml with a mean 6.24x103cfu/ml. Fecal coliform was

in 57.1% of water samples. The physico-chemical parameters fell within acceptable
limits except for nitrate [65-20mg/l] which is above WHO guidelines. These findings
show that the water samples did not meet WHO standards for drinking. Thus, the
bore well water should be treated before drinking.
Mrityunjoy Acharjee et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water
from houses in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Among 18 samples of water taken, two samples
were treated with chlorine. They found that all the other water sources were found to
be contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E.coli, Klebsiella sp. ,
Salmonella sp. , Shigella sp. , Vibrio sp. and Aeromonas sp. Several biochemical
tests were performed for confirmation of suspected organisms. They found that
treated water samples were found to be microbiologically accepted than untreated
samples.
Azizullah et al., (2011) reported that water pollution is one of the major threats to
public health in Pakistan. Drinking water sources, both surface and ground waters are
contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country.
Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated.
Human activities like improper disposal of municipal, industrial effluents and
agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of
water quality.
Memon et al., (2011) assessed the drinking water quality of canal, shallow
pumps, dug wells and water supply schemes in Pakistan, by measuring the physical,
chemical and microbiological parameters as the Southern Sindh Province of Pakistan
deteriorating due to dumping of industrial and urban waste. They reported that all
four water bodies exceeded WHO minimum permissible limits for turbidity (24%,
28%,

96%,

69%),

coliform

(96%,

77%,

92%,

81%)

and

electrical

conductivity(100%, 99%, 44%, 63%) respectively. However, the turbidity was lower
in underground water i.e,24% and 28% in dug wells and shallow pumps as compared
to open water i.e, 96% and 69% in canal and water supply schemes respectively. In
dug wells and shallow pumps, limits for TDS, alkalinity, hardness and sodium
exceeded respectively by 63% and 33%, 59% and 70%, 40% and 27% and 78% and
26%. Some common diseases found in the study area were gastroenteritis, diarrhea
and vomiting, kidney and skin problems.

64

Pant (2011) assessed the quality of groundwater in the Kathmandu valley,

Nepal by physical, chemical and microbiological parameters. It was found that the
total coliform bacteria enumerated in groundwater significantly exceeded the drinking
water quality standard and observed maximum coliform [267 cfu/100ml] in shallow
wells. The electrical conductivity and turbidity were found to be 875ms/cm and 55
NTU respectively, which are above the WHO recommendations for drinking water
guidelines. However, Ph value was measured within the acceptable limit. Chloride
and total hardness concentrations were found to be within the recommendations of
WHO drinking water quality guidelines.
Ukpong et al., (2012) analyzed the physico-chemical and bacteriological
parameters of drinking water. They found pH, temperature, electrical conductivity,
alkalinity, DO, TDS, TSS, nitrate and phosphate were within in the desirable limits
of WHO. The total coliform count of the water samples ranged from 0 to
38CFU/100ml. The most frequently occuring bacteria were E.coli (27%),
Clostridium perfringens (20%) while the least found were B.subtilis (3%), Proteus
vulgaris.
Roohul Amin et al., (2012), studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological
analysis of drinking water of Peshawar. They found that the pH values were within
the permissible limits while the TSS of 5 samples was above the permissible limits.
In bacteriological analysis, except one sample collected from the tube well, most of
the samples were positive for total coliforms. Six samples of drinking water from
distribution system were positive for fecal coliforms and 4 samples positive for
E.coli.
Baig et al., (2012) had analyzed the physico-chemical and microbiological water
quality parameters of different water samples in flash flooding in Pakistan. They
found that the samples were microbiologically unfit for drinking due to the presence
of Escherichia coli, Shigella, Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus [RANGE 18-96
+/- 14 CFU/100ml]. However, they found that the Ph, conductivity, TDS, total
hardness and nitrate of all the samples were within WHO permissible limits.
Kumar et al., (2012) analyzed the physico-chemical parameters like PH,
temperature; DO and COD of seven water samples and found that the levels were
within the standard limits. The microbial analysis showed the presence of

65

Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Clostridium,

Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella sp. and E.coli which are highly pathogenic.
Timilshina et al., (2012) assessed the microbial count of heterotrophs and total
coliforms of bottled water in Kathmandu valley. They found that 90% samples
showed the heterotophic bacterial count above the acceptable range (<50 CFU.ml)
and 63.3% samples showed the total count crossing the WHO guidelines (0
CFU/ml). The presence of heterotrophs and coliforms in the bottled water is a serious
concern for public health.
Roohul Amin et al in 2012, studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological
analysis of drinking water of Peshawar. They found that the pH values were within
the permissible limits while the TSS of 5 samples was above the permissible limits.
In bacteriological analysis, except one sample collected from the tube well, most of
the samples were positive for total coliforms. 6 samples of drinking water from
distribution system were positive for fecal coliforms and 4 samples positive for
E.coli.
Manji et al., (2012), investigated the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus,
coliforms and E.coli strains in both treated and untreated rural water supplies in
Nigeria. The isolation of S. aureus, Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
present enough evidence that water from these sources are unfit for human
consumption. Water sources failed to meet the standards for drinking water.
Martin et al 2012 analyzed the microbial quality of sachet and tap water
in Enugu state, Nigeria. For sachet water, E.coli and S. fecalis were isolates included
coliform and clostridium sp. An average of 66% clostridium sp was recovered from
all the tap water of 3 different locations. This study reports that the microbial quality
may vary rapidly and pathogen concentration may increase disease risks leading to
outbreaks of waterborne diseases.
Alvies (2013) evaluated the microbiological quality of different
commercial mineral water brands, wells and reservoir supplies in some areas of
Brazil. 18 samples of each source were analyzed. The results revealed that one sample
of mineral water and one sample collected from the reservoir supply had been
contaminated by a bacterium of total coliform group and there were found one

66

bacterium/100 ml of water. None of the water samples showed contamination by fecal

coliforms.

Indian findings:
Verma et al., (1990) conducted a field study aimed at measuring the
personal cost of illness from five major water-related diseases and the work was
undertaken in a rural area of Uttar Pradesh (India) in 1981-82. The diseases included
in the study were enteric fever, actue diarrheal diseases, infective hepatitis,
conjunctivitis and scabies.
Karthikeyan et al, analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of 60 drinking
water samples from Erode district, Tamil Nadu. They observed the levels of pH,
electrical conductivity, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, bicarbonates, Ca, Mg, Nitrate, S, P,
Na and K. The concentration of nitrate, hardness, Ca & Mg in some samples seemed
to be more than the permissible limits. It is inferred from the study that these water
sources can be used for potable purpose only after prior treatment
Bhattacharjee et al (1992) evaluated the total and thermo tolerant coliform
counts in rural drinking water derived from ground water, piped supplies and surface
water for a number of areas in India. To evaluate these counts as indicators of recent
fecal contamination the total coliform and thermo tolerant coliform isolated have been
identified. Thermo tolerant E.coli formed 11.7% of the total coliform and 75.1% of
the thermo tolerant coliform. Citrobacter sp(20.4%) and Klebsiella sp(16.4%) was the
only other organism frequently encountered.
Jais et al., (1993) studied and assessed the bacteriological quality of
ground and surface water of Vijjaipur for E.coliforms and faecal coliforms. About
25% of the tube well samples were found to be contaminated by coliforms
particularly in the months of June and July.
Somasundaram et al(1993) studied the water quality for the aquifers in
the urban areas of Madras city and reported gross pollution of surface and
groundwater, with high levels of nitrates, heavy metals and micro organisms. They
suggest that this situatation is a result of factors such as inadequate sanitation,
industrial discharges and spillages and dumps.
Sharma et al., (1994) studied the ground water sources adjacent to the
sewage channel in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh for their microbial quality. About 69%
67

of the total samples, especially bore well water, were found to be contaminated. They
suggest that this might be due to the seepage from the sewerage channel and soak pits
near the bore wells, as well as the excessive extraction of the ground water through
bore wells which might have created vacuum thereby increasing the chances of
suction of contaminated waters.
Narain Rai and Sharma (1995) studied the bacterial contamination of
groundwater in rural areas of U.P. Total aerobic heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total
coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and Escherichia coli Type-1 (ECI) were
estimated in fifteen well water samples collected from rural areas of Barailly and
Nainital districts. Maximum THB, TC, FC, and ECI were 28,000/ml,,4460 and 305
per 100 ml of water respectively while a few samples were free from ECI. The
presence of FC and ECI revealed the insanitary conditions of the wells.
Kataria (1997) investigated total coliform count in the drinking water
sources of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Maximum Probable Number (MPN) in the study
area exceeded the WHO limit at different sampling stations as these were located in
low lying areas. Higher values in summer and monsoon indicated a higher degree of
pollution.

E.coli and total bacteria count was investigated by Rai et al (1998).in the
tube wells sources of Khagaria in Bihar. Very high MPN number at different stations
was attributed to the low landscape and stagnant ions present permanently in water
bodies throughout the study area.
From the microbial counts like TVC FC and FS, Das (2000) evaluated that
the rivers and canal at Cuttack are grossly polluted carrying high potency of microbes
and the concentration level reached an extreme level during the summer season
making the water unsuitable even for bathing
Garg (2003) studied the water quality of well and borewell of 10 selected
locations of Chitrakoot region.
Thakur et al (2003) opined that faecal contamination and sewage
contamination were the cause of high bacterial loads in the water samples of Jorhat
city. Water from the surface sources was found to be more polluted than the ground
sources.
68

Highest load of Colifrom of faecal origin was observed in the down stream
site of river Thamirabarani at Ambassamuudram,byUmamaheswari, (2004) which
may be due to frequent contamination by the excreta of humans, animals and birds.
The incidence of low count of coliform and streptococci of faecal origin in the
upstream site may be due to the continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious
organic matter and continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious organic matter and
continuous uses of detergents, antiseptics, soaps etc.
Sundari

and

Dheivamani

(2004)

conducted

experiments

on

microbiological quality of drinking water in and around Chidambaram Taluk of

Cuddalore district and found pathogenic contents.
From an experimental study by Ramani Vimala et al (2006) it was
revealed that poor quality of water may be attributed to the seepage of sewage
carrying a lot of pathogens into the ground water. By setting a treatment plant either at
domestic level or on a large scale by municipality may control the presence of
bacteria in the drinking water.
The investigation conducted by Senthilkumar et al (2006) on ground
water quality in Thanjavur city revealed that the MPN index showed positive
correlation with the nutrients. The drainage of domestic sewage in the well
surroundings, stagnation of waste water around tube wells, broken & cracked
platforms are accounted for high faecal contamination of groundwater.
The drinking, borewell and sewage water in the Sanmugasikamani
Nadar(S.N) street, Naivatti Nadar (N.N) street and Thiruthangal area of Sivakasi has
been studied Radha Krishnan et al.,(2007). The bacterial parameters like standard
plate count (SPC), total coliform count (TCC), faecal coliform count (FCC), faecal
streptococcal count (FSC). Most of the physicochemical characters of drinking and
borewell water were within the ISI permissible level. However in water samples from
all the sites, bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO.
Introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for
the bacterial contamination. The boiling of water is therefore advisable before
consumption. The physicochemical and bacterial characters of the sewage water were
unworthy. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize the water bourne
diseases.
Dash et al (2007) studied the bacteriological quality of the groundwater
and surface water in the rural areas around Angul-Talcher industrial zone in Orissa.
69

252 samples from seven locations around the industrial zone were analyzed/ /+
bimonthly from July2001 to May 2003. Water from all the dug wells and 30 of the
tube well were found unfit for human consumption, whereas 70% of tube wells were
found to provide safe drinking during winter and summer.
Radha Krishna et al (2007) cocnducted experiments on the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of drinking, borewell and sewage water in
three different places of Sivakashi. Most of the physico-chemical characters of
drinking and borewell water were within permissible limits of BIS, whereas bacterial
count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO. They concluded that the
introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for
the bacterial contamination.
Roy and Thakuria (2007) conducted experiments on the drinking water
quality in schools of Bongaioan district of Assam. Water samples from 15 different
schools were studied for their bacteriogical and physico-chemical parameters
including heavy metals. The anions viz., sulphate, chloride and fluoride and heavy
metal viz., arsenic, lead and chromium were within the permissible limits, while
mercury was present in 20% and copper and iron in 33.3% of the water samples
studied. Sixty-seven percent of water samples were acidic, while in 40% of the
samples turbidity was above the permissible limits. Water samples, particularly from
ring wells, have been found bacterialogically contaminated.
Anchal Sood et al., (2008) studied assessment of bacterial indicators in river
Ganga. The study confirmed the presence of bacterial indicators of fecal origin at
various altitudes in every stretch of Gangetic river system. The results of
bacteriological analysis of water revealed that the situation is alarming. The lower
regions of Gengetic river system of Uttarakhand facing sever anthropological
activities, mostly due to religious belief were heavily polluted. A huge bacterial gene
pool was obtained after study which was indicative of immense bacterial diversity in
the region.
Lalitha (2008) carried out experiments on microbiological quality of
drinking water in Warangal city and reported that ground water from deeper aquifers
had lesser microbial contamination.
Jain et al.,(2008) collected hydro-chemical and bacteriological data of
ground water and spring water at Nanital in Utterakhand. They report the absence of

70

bacteriological contamination in ground water, while six of the 28 spring water

samples had 10 coliform per 100ml.
Surindra Suthar et al (2009) studied the bacterial contaminations in

drinking water samples collected from some rural habitations of northern

Rajasthan, India. A total of ten bacterial species were identified from drinking

water samples. The bacteria belonging to the family entrobacteriaceae

(Coliforms) showed the maximum occurrences in water samples. This data

suggested that drinking water quality deterioration in rural habitations of this

region was due to poor sanitation.

Surendra Suthar et al 2009 determined the bacterial contaminations in drinking

water samples of Rajasthan, India. A total of 10 bacterial species such as E.coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella sp, Proteus vulgaris,
Alcaligenes fecalis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus lactis
and Micrococcus luteum were identified from drinking water samples. The bacteria
belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae showed the maximum occurrences in
water samples. The data suggested that the drinking water quality deterioration in
rural habitations was due to poor sanitation and unawareness about hygiene.
Prasanna Reddy et al 2009 detected coliforms in water samples collected from
mobile vendors, protected well and municipal tap water supplied from Jeedimetla,
Hyderabad by MPN method. The study revealed that the number of coliforms was
very high (>1500) in water samples collected from mobile vendors. The bacteria
identified were Escherichea coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus. Bacteriological examination showed that the water collected from mobile
vendors and groundwater was not potable while the municipal tap water was found to
be safe for drinking.

71

Jiban Singh et al (2009) studied ground water in the newly

developed and old parts of Bangalore city, where municipal, domestic and
industrial effluents are channelized in to an open sewerage system. Most of the

wells situated within 2km radius of this open sewerage networks were found to
be loaded with total and faecal coliforms. The average counts of total and faecal

coliforms were 82 and 14 CFU/100ml from the open wells and 63 and 34

CFU/100ml from the bore wells, respectively. They conclude that proximity of
contaminating surfaces and interaction with surface water are some of the

factors controlling the presence and transport of coliform bacteria in ground

water.

AlOtaibi 2009 analyzed 95 water samples of bottled, desalinated, surface and

well waters randomly. The bacteriological examination of water samples showed that
the total coliform count (MPN/100ml) was not detected in any samples taken from
bottled water, while it was detected in desalinated, surface and well waters with
12.9%, 80.0% and 100% respectively. Fecal coliforms were detected in desalinated,
surface and well waters with 3.23%, 60% 87.88% respectively. About 6.45% of
desalinated water, 53.33% of surface water and 57.58% of well water was found
positive for fecal streptococci.
Zeenat et al 2009 carried out a study to determine the bacteriological quality
of different bottled waters. 75 samples of bottled mineral water belonging to three
domestic brands and 25 samples of one imported brand were analyzed for HPC
bacteria and fecal coliforms. Among the domestic brands 7% of the samples were
positive for fecal coliforms. All imported bottled mineral water samples were within
WHO standards. While the overall quality of the product was generally good, there is
a need to enforce stringent quality standards for the domestic bottlers to ensure the
safety of consumers.

72

Vijaychandran and Byragi Reddy (2010) studied the microbial

quality of borewell and stream water in Visakhapatnam city, Andhra Pradesh,

India and reported that the contamination level was higher in monsoon and
post-monsoon seasons. Sixteen bacteriological genera were identified. Heavy
metal resistant bacteria were identified and studied.

Nagapal et al., (2011) reported thatmicrobiological health risks are of

major concern during construction of Dam reservoir. Therefore, drinking water was
examined for the presence/absence of Salmonella, Citrobactor, Escherichia and
Vibrio species in the Indira Sagar/ Omkareshwar Project (ISP/OSP) affected areas and
Rehabilitation/Resettlement (RR) colonies of Sardar Sarover Project (SSP) in Madhya
Pradesh. V. cholerae and V. parahaemolytica were positive in 24 and 6 water samples
respectively. Salmonella and Citrobactor species were found in 21water samples.
Drinking water samples of most of the villages located at bank of Narmada River
were positive with Vibrio species. While Salmonella and Citrobactor species were
present in the drinking water of the nearby villages, Rehabilitation/Resettlement
colonies and command areas of the river/ canal. Seasonal variation was also observed
in the presence/absence of tested microbes in different survey. Thus, there may be the
role of reservoir water in the groundwater microflora change in the nearby areas.
Hiremath, et al, (2011) analyzed seasonally the physico-chemical parameters
of 36 samples from different sources in Karnataka. Parameters like pH, conductivity,
TDS, total hardness, sulfate and chloride were studied and compared with WHO
standards. The present investigation revealed that the water quality of sources and
some of the water samples are unfit for drinking.
Mohan Krishna Reddy et al (2012) assessed the status of urban drinking
water quality of Lucknow city in India. Samples were collected from the piped
supplies as well as groundwater sources from different localities of residential,
commercial and industrial areas during pre-monsoon for estimation of coliform and
fecal coliform bacteria, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and heavy metals. Bacterial
contamination was found to be more in the samples from commercial areas than
residential and industrial areas. OCPs were found to be present in most of the samples
from study area. The total organochlorine pesticide levels were found to be within the
European Union limit in most of the samples. Most of the heavy metals estimated in
73

the samples were also found to be within the permissible limits as prescribed by
World Health Organization for drinking water. Thus these observations show that
contamination of drinking water in urban areas may be mainly due to municipal,
industrial and agricultural activities along with improper disposal of solid waste. This
is an alarm to safety of public health and aquatic environment in tropics.
Palit et al., (2012), investigated the potentiality of different water sources
in urban slums in Kolkata. Out of 517 water samples collected from different sources,
stored water (washing) showed higher prevalence of fecal coliform (58%) when
compared with stored water (drinking) samples (28%) and tap water (8%)
respectively. Among different sources, stored water (washing) samples had the
highest non-permissible range of physico-chemical parameters. Fecal coliform levels
in household water containers (washing) were comparatively high 7% stored water
(washing) samples were found to be harboring Vibrio Cholera. This attempt
highlights the transmission of diseases via fecal-oral route.
Neha Bhatnagar et al, 2012 evaluated the levels of fecal coliform in
water distribution network in Jaipur. They found that residual chlorine was present in
permissible limits in all areas, however, showing the presence of microbes &
coliform. Out of 12 sites showed, 8 sites were found to have coliform bacteria
showing the possibility of contamination of water supply by sewage discharges due to
leakage in pipes. It is possible that microbes may enter through damaged pipes. So
water should be protected from contamination.
Koul Nishitha et al., (2012) determined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of tap water samples collected from selected sites of
Gurgaon, Haryana. It was found that the pH, DO, TDS, total hardness, nitrate and
sulfate levels of the water samples seemed to be within the permissible limits of WHO
standards. However, 30.7% of Total coliforms were detected in the water samples.
While the fecal bacteria were not found in any of the samples. Thus, due to presence
of total coliforms, the water is unfit for consumption.

74

Water Quality Index

The Water Quality Index

(WQI) for the ground waters of K.R

Puram industrial area in Bangalore was studied by Sankar2000 . The WQI for
these 30 samples ranged from 20.20 to 309.75 with an average value of
104.67 . The high value of WQI at these stations has been found to be mainly
from the higher values of Iron ,Nitrate ,TDS ,Total hardness and fluorides in
the ground water .
Ground water quality in two well-developed cities of Haryana, viz.
Hisar and Panipat was assessed by Kaushik (2002).for drinking purpose based
on water quality parameters, with respect to different land-use areas viz.
residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural. Water quality index based
on 9 parameters showed that at Panipat, underground water in all the land-use
zones was fit for consumption (WQI < 50), whereas at Hisar, water in
agricultural areas was good in quality, but that in other areas varied in
magnitude of pollution (WQI > 50 to 100).
Murali (2002) concluded that the ground water quality of different wards
of Coimbatore east zone was suitable after examining various physico-chemical
parameters. The water quality index (WQI), calculated for five parameters of these
samples, ranged between 75 and 100. The results show that the water is suitable
for domestic purposes.
Physico-chemical characteristics of bore wells of industrial areas of
Visakhapatnam were monitored by Ramakrishna Rao (2004). Water Quality
Index calculated from ten physicochemical parameters taken together varied
from 50.0 - 97.41. The water was not confirming to drinking standards and
hence it is suggested to take all the necessary precautions before the waters are
sent into public distribution system.
Yogendra (2007) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of an urban
water body ,Gopishettykere ,in Shimoga town Karnataka in order to ascertain
the quality of water for public consumption. In this study , Water Quality Index
was determined on the basis of various Physico Chemical parameters and was
categorized based on water quality rating scale .
Prachi Thambe (2008) studied the bacteriological quality of rural water
supplies and improved water management through increased community
75

participation. 313 water samples from different sources, such as well, tank,
community stand post, hand pumps, percolation lakes, and streams and from
households were collected from 6 villages in Maharashtra, India over a one year
period. Overall, 49.8% of the 313 samples were polluted whereas 45.9% of the
samples from piped water supply were polluted. The quality of groundwater was
generally good compared to open wells. No major diarrheal epidemics were
recorded. As a result of a continuous feedback of bacteriological findings to the
community, perceptions of the people changed with time. An increased awareness
was observed through active participation of the people.
The water quality index (WQI) for the ground water of Tumkur taluk was
determined by Ramakrishnaiah (2009). For calculating the WQI, 12 parameters have
been considered. The WQI for these samples ranges from 89.21 to 660.56. The high
value of WQI has been found to be mainly from the higher values of iron, nitrate, total
dissolved solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate and manganese in the groundwater.
The analysis reveals that the groundwater of the area needs some degree of treatment
before consumption.
Rajankar (2009) calculated

Water quality index (WQI) for different

ground water sources i.e. dug wells bore wells and tube wells at Khaperkheda region,
Maharashtra (India). Twenty two different sites were selected in post monsoon, winter
and summer season. The calculated WQI showed fair water quality rating in post
monsoon season which then changed to medium in summer and winter seasons for
dug wells, but the bore wells and hand pumps showed medium water quality rating in
all seasons where the quality was slightly differs in summer and winter season than
post monsoon season.
Rizwan (2009) assesed the water quality index (WQI) for the river water of
Angul district of Orissa. The samples (n=12) were collected from various location of
river Brahmani and their tributaries. The highest value of WQI of the samples was 89
in monsoon season while the lowest value was 50 in summer season. The lower value
of WQI has been found mainly due to the higher values of BOD, Coli form and
slightly lower value of DO in the river water during summer.
Charmaine Jerome and Anita Pius (2010) concluded that Groundwater
is an essential and vital component of our life support system. Groundwater samples
from selected bore wells were analyzed for important physico-chemical attributes and
from the data obtained, the water quality index (WQI) was calculated. The WQI
76

values ranged from 49.2 to 409.94. The Pearson correlation was performed to find the
relationship between WQI and quality of life. It was observed that the correlation
coefficient r was -0.499(p<0.001).
The water quality index (WQI) was calculated by Gunvant (2010) for the
assessment of ground water quality near to the dye user industry. Various
physicochemical parameters have been calculated in all the samples. In some of the
parameters the concentration observed were found to be above the permissible limits
of WHO, BIS and ICMR. Drinking water was found to be severely contaminated at
all the sites of study.
In his work Sundar kumar (2010) has estimated the ground water quality
of Rajam Mandal, which is located on the east coast of Srikakulam district of
Andhrapradesh, India. More than 170 samples of the ground water were collected
manually from the bore wells which were approximately equally distributed all over
31 villages of Rajam Mandal. The data base obtained from water quality testing was
used as attribute data base for preparation of thematic maps showing distribution of
various water quality parameters and Water Quality Index.
A study was conducted to assess the spatio-temporal variation in water of
Sabarmati River and Kharikat canal at Ahmadabad by Rita Kumar (2010). An
assessment of various physico-chemical characteristics of water was carried for a
period of 12 months. Statistical analysis among various physicochemical parameters
and WQI has been carried out. Spatial and temporal variation was observed in river
with increasing value of various parameters from upstream to downstream and
relatively high pollution load at two sites of Kharicut canal.
Physico Chemical analysis of well and bore well water samples was
carried out from eight sampling sites of Guntur rural area for the month of
February 2010. The analysis of different parameters were carried out as per
standard methods by Chandaluri Subba Rao . The results obtained on WQI
from different sampling stations were found to be varied from 38.3 to 42.6.
A study conducted by Yadav (2010) deals with the statistical analysis and
study of water quality index to assess hardness of groundwater in derailing tensile of
Tonk district of Rajasthan state. The study has been carried out to examine its
suitability for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose. The presence of problematic
salts contains in groundwater due to local pollutants and affected the groundwater

77