Innovative approaches in processing and packaging of milk and milk products

Developments in Edible Films and Coatings

Sangita Ganguly1, P. Narender Raju2 and P.S. Minz3
1

2,3

Research Scholar, Scientist

Dairy Technology Division, Dairy Engineering Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
Email: pnr.ndri@gmail.com
3

INTRODUCTION
The concept of using an edible film or coating to extend the shelf life of fresh foods and protect
them from harmful environment is not a novel one. The idea derives from the natural protective
coating such as the skin of some fruits and vegetables. Edible packaging consists of edible
films, sheets, coating and pouches. Edible films and sheets are stand-alone structures that are
preformed separately from the food and then placed on or between food components or sealed
into edible pouches, whereas edible coatings are then placed on or between food components
or sealed into edible pouches. Whereas edible coatings are thin layers of edible materials
formed directly onto the surface of food (Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010). The edible films
comprise of thickness of <254 m, whereas edible sheets include upto thickness of 254 m.
The edible packaging materials offer multifunction, like offer a selective barrier barrier to retard
the migration of moisture, gas transport, oil and fat migration and solute transport; improve the
mechanical handling properties of foods; improve the mechanical integrity or handling
characteristics of the food; retain volatile flavour compounds and carry food additives such as
antioxidants and antimicrobials (Falguera et al., 2011). The greatest benefits of edible
packaging materials are their inherent bio-degradability, which is also one of their greatest
limitations. However, the edible coatings and films are not meant to, nor could they ever,
replace non-edible, petrochemical based packaging materials for prolonged storage of foods.
The utility of edible films lies in their capacity to act as an adjunct for improving overall food
quality, extending shelf life and improving economic efficiency of packaging materials.
ADVANTAGES OF EDIBLE PACKAGING MATERIALS
The advantages of edible film over traditional petrochemical-based polymeric packaging
materials have been listed as follows (Gennadios, 2002):
i. They can be consumed with packaged product, leaving no residual packaging to be
disposed of.
ii. Even if the films are not consumed, they are bio degradable and contributribute to the
reduction of environmental pollution.
iii. The edible packaging materials can enhance the organoleptic properties of packaged foods
provided that various food additives (flavourings, colourings, sweetners etc.) are
incorporated into them.
iv. They can be carrier of nutrients like vitamins, minerals etc.
v. They can be used for indivisual packaging of small portions of food, particularly products
that currently are not indivisually packaged for practical reasons such as peas, beans, nuts
and strawberries.
vi. They can be applied inside heterogenous foods at the interfaces between different layers of
components and tailored to prevent deteriorative intercomponent moisture and solute
migration in foods such as pizzas, pies and candies.
vii. They can be very conveniently used for microencapsulation of food flavouring and leavening
agents to efficiently control their addition and release into the interior of foods.
viii. They can function as carriers for antimicrobial and antioxidants agents and be used at the
surface of foods to control the diffusion rate of preservative substances from surface to the
interior of the food.
ix. They could be used in multilayer food packaging materials together with inedible films, in
which case the edible films would be the inner layers in direct contact with the food.
215

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

1,2

Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Dairy Processing

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

BIOPOLYMERS USED FOR EDIBLE FILM MAKING

The majority of edible films and coatings contain at least one component that is high molecular
weight polymer, particularly if a self-supporting film is desired. Long-chain polymeric structures
are required to yield film matrices with appropriate cohesive strength when deposited from a
suitable solvent. Increased structural cohesion generally results in reduced film flexibility,
porosity and permeability to gases, vapours and solutes. As polymer chain length and polarity
increase, cohesion is enhanced. A uniform distribution of polar groups, along the polymer chain
increases cohesion by increasing the likelihood of inter chain hydrogen bonding and ionic
interactions. A variety of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids derived from plants and animals
have been utilized, either alone or in mixtures, to produce edible films and coatings (Fig.1) and
the materials of edible films has described below.

Edible Films or Coatings

Essential Components

Polysaccharide
s

Proteins

Optional Components

Composite
materials
Multicomponents

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Plasticizers
Emulsifiers
Antimicrobials
Antioxidants
Pigments

Lipids
1. Starch
2. Cellulose
3. Hemicellulose
4. Chitosan
5. Gums

1. Collagen
2. Milk protein
3. Plant protein

1. Waxes
2. Vegetable and mineral oils
3. Edible Resins
4. Mono, di and triglycerides
Fig.1. Components of Edible Films and Coatings

Polysaccharides
A variety of polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, chitin etc.) and their derivatives have been
evaluated for potential use as edible packaging because they are abundant, low cost and easy
to handle. Polysaccharides possess good film forming properties. Polysaccharide films exhibit
good mechanical as well as gas barrier properties and are efficient barriers against oil and
lipids. However, the films offer little resistance to water migration and their functional properties
are greatly affected by humidity.
a) Starch
Starch is the main polysaccharide energy storage material in the plant kingdom. It is a mixture
of amylose and amylopectin. Due to its linear nature, amylose forms coherent, relatively strong,
216

Innovative approaches in processing and packaging of milk and milk products

b) Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant, naturally occurring polymer. To produce plastic materials from
cellulose, a chemical modification involving substitution of cellulose hydroxyl functions by
acetate or methyl functions (etherification) need to be performed. The objective of modification
is to decrease the intensity of the hydrogen bonds. The degree and type of substitution and
polymer chain affect permeability, mechanical properties and solubility. The most common
cellulose ethers are methyl cellulose (MC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose (HPMC) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and all have good film forming
properties. MC has excellent film-making properties, high solubility, efficient O2 and lipid barrier
properties. They have been used commercially to form edible films that provide barriers to O 2,
oil and moisture, with MC and HPMC finding use as batter ingredients to lessen oil uptake and
moisture loss during deep-fat frying.
c) Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose have been used for edible food coatings based on -glucan extracts from hulled
barley, hull-less barley and oats, and corn hull or maize bran arabinoxylan, xylans from
birchwood, grass and corncob have been used as additives in wheat gluten to form potentially
edible composite films.
d) Chitosan
Chitin, after cellulose is one of the most abundant polysaccharides produced in nature and is
abundant in the cell walls of insect cuticles. Chitosan is a versatile, nontoxic, nonantigenic
hydrophilic polysaccharide derived from chitin by deacetylation with alkalis; typical commercial
chitosan is about 85% deacetylated. Chitosan films can be formed by casting acidic aqueous
solutions, the film properties is strongly dependant on molecular weight and degree of
acetylation. Chitosan has broad antimicrobial activity, is most effective against yeast and
molds, followed by gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The antimicrobial activity of is
due to release of protonated glucosamine fractions from the biopolymer into the food. Chitosan
can bind trace metals, thus preventing microbial growth and toxin production. Some workers
(Friedman and Juneja, 2010) suggested that low molecular weight chitosans below pH 6.0
present optimal conditions for achieving desirable antimicrobial and antioxidative-preservative
effects in liquid and solid foods. The effects of chitosan coatings on fresh cut products such as
strawberries, carrot, mango, cantaloupe, pineapple and mushroom have been observed to
retard microbial growth and enhance their shelf life (Tamer and Copur, 2010).
e) Gums
Alginates are extracted from brown seaweeds, the film produced by the evaporation of water
from the alginate solution are impervious to oils and greases, good barrier to O 2 but have high
water vapour permeabilities. Alginate coatings effectively lessen desiccation in enrobed meats
by acting as a sacrificing agent and because of their good O2 barrier properties, can protect
foods against oxidation.
Carrageenan is a collective term for polysaccharides extracted from certain species of red
seaweed, it has been applied to a variety of foods to carry antimicrobials and reduce moisture
loss, oxidation and disintegration.

217

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

free standing films in contrast to amylopectin films that are brittle and non-continuous. To
enhance water solubility, partial etherification of high-amylose starch with propylene oxide can
be performed to yield hydroxypropylated derivatives. Amylose, high-amylose starch and
hydroxypropylated high-amylose starch have been used as protective edible coatings on foods
and encapsulating agents to provide an O2 or lipid barrier and to improve appearance, texture
and handling. Edible starch flims and coatings are commonly used in bakery, confectionary and
meat products. Dextrins are a group of low-MW carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of
starch are often used to make various types of coatings on confections as well as edible glues
and sealants. The dextrin products can be soluble in cold water and have fair film formation
properties and good adhesive properties. An aqueous coating of dextrins is applied as
chocolate coatings to retard flavour spoilage.

Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Dairy Processing

Agar is a galactose polymer and is derived from red seaweeds. It forms strong gels, agar
coatings containing water- soluble antibiotics and the bacteriocin nisin have been used on fresh
foods.

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

Pectin are water soluble, anionic polymers. Pectinate coating can retard water loss from
enrobed food by acting in a sacrificial manner when moisture evaporates from their gel matrix
rather than dehydrating the food. Pectin coating have been observed to retard lipid migration
and improve handling and appearance of foods.
Lipids
Lipid compounds can be used as protective coatings rather than forming coherent films.
However, they can provide gloss and can act as a moisture barrier due to their low polarity.
Waxes (esters of a long chain fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol) including natural waxes such
as carnauba wax, candelilla wax, rice bran wax, bees wax and synthetic waxes such as paraffin
and petroleum wax, as well as mineral and vegetable oils, have been used commercially as
protective coatings for fresh fruits and vegetables. Wax coatings are more resistant to moisture
transfer than other lipid and non-lipid edible coatings. Wax, fat and oil based coatings are
difficult to apply due to their thickness and greasy surface, may confer waxy or rancid taste.
Mono, di and triglycerides are the mono, di and trimesters of glycerine with fatty acids and have
been used as coatings. Acetylated glycerol monostearate coatings are slightly more permeable
to water vapour than PA and PS films and significantly more permeable than LDPE films; they
are less permeable to O2 than PS films. Certain problems have been observed with acetylated
monoglyceride edible coatings, including a tendency to crack and flake during refrigerated and
frozen storage, to pick up foreign odours and exhibit and acidic or bitter aftertaste. Unsaturated
glycerides and acetylated glycerides may be susceptible to oxidation. Edible resins such as
shellac, terpene resin and wood resin are used to impart gloss to foods. Shellac has been
extensively used as an edible coating for confectionary and fresh produce.
Proteins
Films and coatings are made from animal and plant proteins including collagen, gelatine, wheat
gluten, corn zein, soy protein, whey protein (WP) and casein. Due to their inherent hydrophilicity
and incorporation of hydrophilic plasticizers such as glycerin and sorbitol (for flexibility), they
have limited resistance to water vapour. Protein based films generally have good mechanical
and optical properties, are good barriers against the transport of O2, CO2, aroma and lipids but
have high WVP. Physical, chemical and enzymatic cross-linking treatments can be used to
improve the barrier as well as mechanical properties. When used as coatings on fresh foods,
protein materials are susceptible to proteolytic enzymes present in these foods. Some people
are allergic to specific protein fractions of milk, egg, peanut, wheat etc., so use of protein films
and coatings must be clearly indicated on the label.
A. Animal Protein
a) Collagen
Collagen sausage casings are made from regenerated corium layer of beef hides; gelatine is
derived from partial hydrolysis of collagen. Collagen film film overwrap on refrigerated and
thawed beef reduces exudation without significantly affecting colour or lipid oxidation. Collagen
based films have been proposed for processed meats to reduce shrink loss, increase juiciness,
allow for easy removal of nets after cooking or smoking and absorb fluid exudates for a variety
of cooked meat products. Gelatin coatings can O2, moisture and oil migration or carry bioactive
ingredients. Gelatin is widely used as an encapsulating agent in hard and soft gel capsules for
moisture or oil based food ingredients and dietary supplements.
b) Milk protein
Milk proteins used as edible films and coatings are made from casein as well as WP. WP films
and coatings have been used as protective barriers to reduce O2 uptake and rancidity in
roasted peanuts and frozen salmon, as well as disintegration of fragile freeze-dried foods.
Incorporation of ascorbic acid into WP films confers an O2- scavenging function and such films
reduce OTR and retard lipid oxidation in coated peanuts, baby formula, peanut butter and

218

Innovative approaches in processing and packaging of milk and milk products

mayonnaise (Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010). WP isolate reduced fat uptake in fried chicken
breasts by 30%.

B) Plant Protein
Cereal proteins used to form edible films include corn zein (made from prolamin) and wheat
gluten (a mixture of prolamin and glutenin). Zein is one of a few proteins used as a
commercially successful finishing agent imparting surface gloss and acting as an O2, lipid
and/or moisture barrier for nuts, candies, confectionary products and other foods. Edible films
and coatings have also been made from globulin protein fractions of soybeans and peanuts,
rice protein, sorghum protein.
Composite Materials
Multicomponent or edible composite packaging materials have been developed by blending biocomponents for specific applications with the aim of taking advantage of complementary
functional properties or to overcome their respective flaws. Edible films based on
polysaccharides and proteins are generally efficient gas barriers and have moderately good
mechanical properties at low RH. Protein and polysaccharides give water-sensitive films with
poor moisture-barrier performance. Hydrophobic lipids are effective against moisture migration
but their mechanical properties are much inferior to those hydrocolloid films due to their nonpolymeric nature. Most composite films studied are composed of lipid layer supported by a
polysaccharide or protein layer, or lipid material dispersed in polysaccharide or protein matrix.
The lipid components in the formulation reduce water transmission while the other components
serve as selective gas barriers and provide strength and structural integrity.
Multicomponent films are formed by two basic techniques. The coating technique involves
casting or laminating a lipid onto a dried edible base film to form a bilayer or laminated film. The
emulsion technique involves adding a lipid to a film-forming solution prior to casting and
creating an emulsified film.
Compared to LDPE, polysaccharide and protein films are poor moisture barriers. However,
when they are combined with edible waxes or fatty acid relatively good moisture barrier
properties are obtained. Protein films appear to be better O2 barrier than polysaccharide or lipid
films. Considerable data are available on the water vapour and O2 permeabilities of edible films
(Krochta, 2009).
EDIBLE FILMS AND COATINGS ADDITIVES
A number of materials can be incorporated into edible films to enhance structural, mechanical
and handling properties or to provide active functions to the films.
a) Plasticizers
Plastisizers are generally added to edible films to improve film flexibility and durability. These
include mono, di, or oligosaccharides such as glucose, fructose-glucose syrups and sucrose;
polyols such as glycerol, sorbitol, lipids and derivatives such as phospholipids, fatty acids etc.
b) Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are essential to achieve sufficient surface wettability to ensure proper surface
coverage and adhesion to the coated surface as well as for the formation and stabilization of
well-dispersed lipid particles in composite emulsion films. Common emulsifiers include
acetylated monoglyceride, lecithin, glycerol monopalmitate, glycerol monostearate, polysorbate
60, polysorbate 65, sodium lauryl sulphate, sorbitan monostearate etc. In addition many
proteins have emulsifying properties owing to their amphiphilic nature.
c) Antimicrobials
The primary advantage of antimicrobial edible films is that it can reduce post-processing
contaminations on food surface. Edible films or coatings can act as carriers of antimicrobial and
219

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

c) Other animal protein

Animal proteins other than collagen and milk protein used for development of edible films and
coatings are fish myofibrillar protein, egg white protein, keratin etc.

Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Dairy Processing

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

antifungal agents and can enhance the shelf life of foods. The most commonly used
antimicrobials are organic acids, chitosan, nisin, Lactoperoxidase, some plant extract and their
essential oils. In selecting an antimicrobial, its effectiveness against target microorganism and
possible interactions among the antimicrobial, the film forming biopolymer and other food
components present must be considered. Controlling the antimicrobial release from edible films
is very important, and, therefore, measurement of diffusion coefficients of the antimicrobials in
edible films is necessary prerequisite.
d) Antioxidants
Antioxidants are added to edible films to delay the start or slow the rate of oxidation reactions.
Primary antioxidants are free radical acceptors that delay the initiation or propagation step of
autoxidation, for example butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), propyl gallate etc. Secondary or
preventive antioxidants retard oxidation by several different actions including chelating prooxidant metals, deactivating singlet O2, absorbing UV radiation, Scavenging O2 or promoting
antioxidant activity of primary antioxidants, for example, citric acid, ascorbic acid etc. Numerous
plants have been identified as sources of natural phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity
like rosemary, thyme, sage etc. The antioxidant containing edible films and coating could
enhance shelf life of fatty foods by retarding or delaying oxidation.
METHODS TO ENHANCE THE PROPERTIES OF EDIBLE FILMS
Many approaches have applied to improve the barrier properties of edible films by modifying
properties of protein by chemical, enzymatic or physical method. The methods primarily focus
on improving the mechanical strength and moisture barrier properties.
Chemical method
Chemical treatments with acid, alkali or cross-linking agents (glyoxal, glutaradehyde and
formaldehyde etc.) have been extensively used to improve the properties of films. Hydrolyzed
protein results in grater greater solubility at high pH and high temperature. Denatured protein
results formation of less flexible and transparent but more moisture resistant films (Guilbert,
1986).
Enzymatic treatments
The enzymatic treatments improve protein film functionality by modifying polymer network
through the cross-linking of polymer chains. The enzyme transglutaminase is used widely as
cross-linking agents. Addition of covalent bonds by the use of transglutaminase increased the
films integrity and heavy duty capacity as well as its capacity to stretch.
Combination with hydrophobic materials
Protein and polysaccharides based films are having good oxygen barrier properties but are poor
moisture barrier due to their hydrophilic character. Combination of hydrophobic lipid with these
films can improve their moisture barrier properties. High melting point lipids, such as beeswax
or carnauba wax are generally used. A composite film made of a protein and a lipid can be
divided into laminates and emulsion.
Application of irradiation
To improve the functional properties of protein films, ionizing radiation have been tried. Gammairradiation affects proteins by causing conformational changes, oxidation of amino acids and
rupture of covalent bond and formation of protein free radicals. Cross-linking induced through
gamma irradiation was found to improve both barrier and mechanical properties of edible films
and coatings based on protein. Gamma irradiation was observed to improve water vapour
permeability, chemical stability and resistance to microbial and enzymatic biodegradation
(Ouattara et al., 2002).
APPLICATION OF EDIBLE FILMS
i. Edible coatings and films can act as moisture barrier to prevent moisture loss from product
and maintain freshness of fruits and vegetables, frozen products etc.

220

Innovative approaches in processing and packaging of milk and milk products

ii. Edible films and coatings can act as gas barrier to delay fruit O2 uptake from environment
and reduce ripening rate. Gas barrier properties can reduce rancidity in peanuts by reducing
O2 concentration.
iii. Edible films can act as flavour carrier in addition to provide a protection to aroma loss.
iv. Application of antioxidants in edible films and coatings can reduce lipid oxidation in frozen
meat, salmon etc.
v. Edible films or coatings containing antimicrobial compounds can reduce surface microbial
load and can enhance shelf life of cheese, fish, chicken, meat etc.
Table 1. Application and functions of edible films and coatings in food products
Films or coating materials

Functions

Milk

Corn zein+ Nisin

Antimicrobial

Cheese
Cheese based
dessert
Apples

Corn zein + Lauric acid

Antimicrobial

WPC + Corn zein +Chitosan

Antimicrobial

Casein-AM

Banana Fruit

WPI

Tomatoes

HPMC+ acetic acid

Frozen salmon

Casienate-AM

Fish

Casein + Glucose oxidase

Dried chicken

WPI

Processed meats

Chitosan+ acetic/ propionic

Moisture barrier
Reduce ripening
rate
Antimicrobial
Reduce moisture
loss and rancidity
Antimicrobial
Reduce mechanical
loss
Antimicrobial

Breakfast cereal

WPI

Moisture barrier

Peanut, Walnut

WPI

Reduce rancidity

Cooked sweet corn

Wheat gluten + Sorbic acid

Antimicrobial

Flavour (d-limonene)

WPI

Aroma barrier

WPI- whey protein isolate; WPC- whey protein concentrate; HPMC-hydropropylmethylcellulose

CONCLUSIONS
The use of edible films or coatings on various food products continues to expand. The many
potential benefits of edible films and coatings as carriers of antimicrobial agents, flavours,
antioxidants, colouring agents, vitamins, probiotics and nutraceuticals justify continued research
in this arena of active packaging. However, the application of edible films and coatings in India
is still at infancy. Data available in the regard of application of edible films and coatings on dairy
products especially indigenous dairy products are scanty. Research is necessary to increase
understanding of film composition-structure-function relations and thus establish food
applications. In addition, new legislations and standards in favour of edible materials seem to be
very helpful to spur market growth.
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Janjarasskul, T. and Krochta, J.M. (2010). Edible packaging materials. Annual Review of Food Science
and Technology. Vol.1: 415-448.
Falguera, V., Qunitero, J.P., Jimenez, A., Munoz, J.A., Ibarz, A. (2011). Edible films and coatings:
Structures, active functions and trends in their use. Trends in Food Science and Technology. Vol.22:
292-303.
Tamer, C. and Copur, O.U. (2010). Chitosan: An edible coating for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Acta
Horticulturae. Vol.877: 619-626.

221

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 July to 8 August, 2013

Foods