DISASTER

MANAGEMENT

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI IN FULFILLMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF
MASTER OF COMMERCE
IN
(MANAGEMENT)
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BY
NIRMALA ALLWYN CRASTO
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
DR. SUBHASH DSOUZA

ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ARTS & COMMERCE

SATPALA, VIRAR (WEST)

CERTIFICATE
I certify that the Project entitled DISASTER MANAGEMENT
submitted to Mumbai University in partial fulfillment for the award
of degree of MASTER OF COMMERCE (MANAGEMENT) is a
record of original research work done by NIRMALA ALLWYN
CRASTO, during the period of study 2013-14 in the Department of
Commerce,

Mumbai

University

under

my

Guidance

and

Supervision and the dissertation has not formed the basis for the
award of any Degree/ Diploma/ Association/ Fellowship or other
similar title to any other Candidate of any University.

SIGNATURE OF
THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT GUIDE
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SIGNATURE OF
STUDENT

Place:
Date:

DECLARATION
I, NIRMALA ALLWYN CRASTO, hereby declare the Project
Work entitled DISASTER MANAGEMENT submitted to
Mumbai University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award

of

the

degree

of

MASTER

OF

COMMERCE

(MANAGEMENT) is original work done by me under the

supervision and guidance of DR.SUBHASH DSOUZA it has not
formed the basis for the award of any Degree/ Diploma/
Association/ Fellowship or other similar title to any Candidate in
any University.

Signature
NIRMALA ALLWYN CRASTO

Place:
Date:

INDEX

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SR.NO.

TOPIC

DEFINITION OF DISASTER

II

TYPES OF DISASTER

III

REASON: NATURAL

IV

HUMAN

BUSINESS

DEFINITIONJ

FROM

DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
VI

CYCLE GENERAL

VII

PHASSES AND PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY

VIII

RISK FACTORS

IX

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

CLIMATE CHANGE RISK MANAGEMENT

XI

CYCLE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

XII

CASE STUDY

XIII

CONCLUSION.

XIV

BIBILOGRAPHY.

DEFINITION OF DISASTER
disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities.
Disaster is defined as a crisis situation causing wide spread damage which far exceeds our
ability to recover. Thus, by definition, there cannot be a perfect ideal system that prevents
damage, because then it would not be a disaster. It has to suffocate our ability to recover.
Only then it can be called as disaster.
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Disasters are not totally discrete events. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and
severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by
technological and scientific advances. It has been established there is a definite pattern in
their occurrences and hence we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we
cannot reduce the extent of damage itself.

Types of Disaster
Disasters are mainly of 2 types,
1. Natural disasters. Example earthquakes, floods, landslides, etc.
2. Man-made disasters. Example war, bomb blasts, chemical leaks, etc.
The phases of all disasters, be it natural or man-made, are the same. The disasters often differ
in quantity of damage caused or in quality of the type of medical consequences. For example
earthquakes cause a lot of physical injury and fractures, floods cause drowning deaths and
infections, chemical leaks cause toxic manifestations, etc.
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1 Natural Disaster
These types of disaster naturally occur in proximity to, and pose a threat to, people, structures or
economic assets. They are caused by biological, geological, seismic, hydrologic, or meteorological
conditions or processes in the natural environment (e.g., cyclones, earthquakes, tsunami, floods,
landslides, and volcanic eruptions).
a Cyclones, Hurricanes or Typhoons
Cyclones develop when a warm ocean gives rise to hot air, which in turn creates convectional air
currents.

Cyclones occur when these

conventional air currents are being displaced. The term hurricane/typhoon is a regionally specific
name for a tropical cyclone. In Asia they are called typhoons; in the Indian and Pacific Oceans
they are called cyclones; and over the North Atlantic and Caribbean Basin, they are called
hurricanes.
Tropical warning procedures:
i Small crafts and fishing boats: approx 25-35mph winds.
ii Wind advisory for the public: approx. 25-35mph winds.
iii Gale watch: when a mature tropical cyclone has a significant probability to threaten a part of the
country within 48 hours.
iv Gale force warning: issued when wind speeds are expected to reach gale force intensity of (3447knots) within the next 24 hours.
v Storm watch: if a post tropical cyclone disturbance is a notable to threat to an area or the entire
country within a 24 to 48 hour timeframe, a storm watch statement would be included with the gale
warning.
vi Storm warning: issued every three (3) hours when the average wind speeds are expected to reach
storm force intensity of 48-63 knots within the next 12 to 24 hours.
vii Cyclone watch: issued when tropical cyclone winds is expected to reach cyclone force winds of
above 63 knots (or 70 mph) in 24 to 48 hours.
viii Cyclone warning: issued every three (3) hours, when wind speeds are expected to exceed 63 knots
within the next 12 to 24 hours.

b Earthquakes
An earthquake is a trembling or shaking movement of the earths surface, resulting from plate
movements along a fault-plane or as a result of volcanic activity. Earthquakes can strike suddenly,
violently, and without warning at any time of the day or night. The following terminologies are
associated with earthquakes: epicenter, fault, magnitude and seismic waves.
For practical purposes, earthquakes are usually defined by their magnitude (or quantitative energy
released) which is measured using a logarithm scale of 1 10. This logarithm scale is referred to as
the Richter scale. The magnitude is determined by analyzing seismic data obtained from
seismometers.
The intensity of an earthquake is measured using the Modified Marcella Intensity (MMI) Scale, which
is dete

c Tsunami
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A tsunami is an ocean wave generated by a submarine earthquake, volcano or landslide. It is

also known as a seismic sea wave, and incorrectly as a tidal wave. Storm surges (or Galu
Lolo) are waves caused by strong winds1.
The largest earthquake event recorded in Samoa was on 26 June 1917, measuring 8.3 on the
Richter scale. The event originated in Tonga (approximately 200km south of Apia) and it
triggered a tsunami of four to eight (4-8) metre run-ups in Satupaitea, Savaii. The tsunami
arrived less than ten (10) minutes from its point of origin, meaning it travelled at Tsunami
was known in Samoa as a Galu Afi but the National Disaster Advisory Committee (DAC) has
now adopted SNAMI as its Samoan translation. a speed of more than 1,000km/hr. Hence,
when an earthquake occurs, you must heed the tsunami warning, for example, people living
in low-lying coastal areas must relocate to higher and safer grounds immediately.

d Floods
This phenomenon occurs when water covers previously dry areas, i.e., when large amounts of
water flow from a source such as a river or a broken pipe onto a previously dry area, or when
water overflows banks or barriers.
Floods can be environmentally important to local ecosystems. For example, some river floods
bring nutrients to soil such as in Egypt where the annual flooding of the Nile River carries
nutrients to otherwise dry land. Floods can also have an economic and emotional impact on
people, particularly if their property is directly affected. Having a better understanding of
what causes flooding can help people to be better prepared and to perhaps minimize or
prevent flood damage.

e Landslides
The term landslide refers to the downward movement of masses of rock and soil. Landslides
are caused by one or a combination of the following factors: change in slope gradient,
increasing the load the land must bear, shocks and vibrations, change in water content,
ground water movement, frost action, weathering of shocks, removal or, or changing the type
of vegetation covering slopes.
Landslide hazard areas occur where the land has certain characteristics which contribute to
the risk of the downhill movement of material. These characteristics include:
i A slope greater than 15 percent.
ii Landslide activity or movement occurred during the last 10,000 years.
iii Stream or wave activity which has caused erosion, undercut a bank or cut into a bank to
cause the surrounding land to be unstable.
iv The presence or potential for snow avalanches.
v The presence of an alluvial fan which indicates vulnerability to the flow of debris or
sediments.
vi The presence of impermeable soils, such as silt or clay, which are mixed with granular soils
such as sand and gravel.
Landslides can also be triggered by other natural hazards such as rains, floods, earthquakes,
as well as human-made causes, such as grading, terrain cutting and filling, excessive
development, etc. Because the factors affecting landslides can be geophysical or human-made, they
can occur in developed areas, undeveloped areas, or any area where the terrain has been altered for
roads, houses, utilities, buildings, etc.

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2 Human-Made Disasters
These are disasters or emergency situations of which the principal, direct causes are
identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from technological disasters this
mainly involves situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property,
basic services and means of livelihood as a result of war, civil strife or other conflicts, or
policy implementation. In many cases, people are forced to leave their homes, giving rise to
congregations of refugees or externally and/or internally displaced persons as a result of civil
strife, an airplane crash, a major fire, oil spill, epidemic, terrorism, etc.
B. SPEED OF ONSET
1 Sudden onset: little or no warning, minimal time to prepare. For example, an earthquake,
tsunami, cyclone, volcano, etc.

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2 Slow onset: adverse event slow to develop; first the situation develops; the second level is
an emergency; the third level is a disaster. For example, drought, civil strife, epidemic, etc.
The main hazards a region is, or may be vulnerable to, will depend on the geographic location
of the country. In Samoa, for example, the main hazards which may turn into disasters are:
Cyclones
Earthquakes
Tsunami
Flooding
Landslides
Epidemics

Implications of disasters on your region and environment

Cyclones have been a frequently occurring disaster in Samoa for the past decade; the impact
of each occurrence has been devastating. The following list identifies a few of the unpleasant
impacts:
Infrastructure damage
Telecommunication loss
Flooding
Landslides
Power disruption remained qualitatively by physical observations of the earthquakes
impact.

Business Definition for: Disaster Management

the actions taken by an organization in response to unexpected events that are
adversely affecting people or resources and threatening the continued operation of the
organization.
Disaster management includes:
The development of disaster recovery plans,( for minimizing the risk of disasters and for
handling them when they do occur,) and the implementation of such plans.
Disaster management usually refers to the management of natural catastrophes such as fire,
flooding, or earthquakes. Related techniques include crisis management, contingency
management, and risk management.
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Disaster/emergency management is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It

involves preparing for a disaster before it happens, disaster response (e.g. emergency
evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), as well as supporting, and rebuilding
society after natural or human-made disasters have occurred.
In general, any Emergency management is the continuous process by which all individuals,
groups, and communities manage hazards in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of
disasters resulting from the hazards.
Actions taken depend in part on perceptions of risk of those exposed.
Effective emergency management relies on thorough integration of emergency plans at all
levels of government and non-government involvement. Activities at each level (individual,
group, community) affect the other levels. It is common to place the responsibility for
governmental emergency management with the institutions for civil defense or within the
conventional structure of the emergency services. In the private sector, emergency
management is sometimes referred to as business continuity planning.

Other terms used for disaster management include:

-Emergency Management which has replaced Civil defense can be seen as a more general
intent to protect the civilian population in times of peace as well as in times of war.
-Civil Protection is widely used within the European Union and refers to governmentapproved systems and resources whose task is to protect the civilian population, primarily in
the event of natural and human-made disasters.
-Crisis Management is the term widely used in EU countries and it emphasizes the political
and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the civilian
population.
-Disaster risk reduction An academic trend is towards using the term is growing, particularly
for emergency management in a development management context. This focuses on the
mitigation and preparedness aspects of the emergency cycle (see below).

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE- GENERAL

Disaster management cycle includes the following stages/ phases
1. Disaster phase
2. Response phase
3. Recovery/ Rehabilitation phase
4. Risk Reduction/ Mitigation phase
5. Preparedness phase

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Disaster phase The phase during which the event of the disaster takes place. This phase is
characterized by profound damage to the human society. This damage / loss may be that of
human life, loss of property, loss of environment, loss of health or anything else. In this
phase, the population is taken by profound shock.
Response phase This is the period that immediately follows the occurrence of the disaster.
In a way, all individuals respond to the disaster, but in their own ways
Recovery phase When the immediate needs of the population are met, when all medical
help has arrived and people have settled from the hustle bustle of the event, they begin to
enter the next phase, the recovery phase which is the most significant, in terms of long term
outcome. It is during this time that the victims actually realize the impact of disaster. It is now
that they perceive the meaning of the loss that they have suffered.
Risk reduction phase During this phase, the population has returned to predisaster
standards of living. But, they recognize the need for certain measures which may be needed
to reduce the extent or impact of damage during the next similar disaster. For example, after
an earthquake which caused a lot of damages to improperly built houses, the population
begins to rebuild stronger houses and buildings that give away less easily to earthquakes. Or,
in the case of tsunami, to avoid housings very close to the shore and the development of a
green belt- a thick stretch of trees adjacent to the coast line in order to reduce the impact of
the tsunami waves on the land. This process of making the impact less severe is
calledMitigation.
Preparedness phase This phase involves the development of awareness among the
population on the general aspects of disaster and on how to behave in the face of a future
disaster. This includes education on warning signs of disasters, methods of safe and
successful evacuation and first aid measures.
It is worth to note that the time period for each phase may depend on the type and severity of
the disaster.

Phases and professional activities

The nature of emergency management is highly dependent on economic and social conditions
local to the emergency, or disaster. Experts have long noted that the cycle of emergency
management must include long-term work on infrastructure, public awareness, and even
human justice issues. This is particularly important in developing nations.
The process of disaster management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery.
3

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A graphic Representation of the Four Phases in Disaster Management

1-Mitigation
Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether, or to
reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other
phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk. The
implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered a part of the recovery process if
applied after a disaster occurs. However, even if applied as part of recovery efforts, actions
that reduce or eliminate risk over time are still considered mitigation efforts.
Mitigative measures can be structural or non-structural. Structural measures use technological
solutions, like flood levees. Non-structural measures include legislation, land-use planning
(e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks to be used as flood zones), and insurance.
Mitigation is the most cost-efficient method for reducing the impact of hazards. However,
mitigation is not always suitable and structural mitigation in particular may have adverse
effects on the ecosystem.
A precursor activity to the mitigation is the identification of risks. Physical risk assessment
refers to the process of identifying and evaluating hazards. In risk assessment, various
hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, riots) within a certain area are identified. Each hazard poses
a risk to the population within the area assessed. The hazard-specific risk (Rh) combines both
the probability and the level of impact of a specific hazard. The equation below gives that the
hazard times the populations vulnerability to that hazard produce a risk. The higher the risk,
the more urgent that the hazard specific vulnerabilities are targeted by mitigation and
preparedness efforts. However, if there is no vulnerability there will be no risk, e.g. an
earthquake occurring in a desert where nobody lives.

Components of Risk
Management
(natural event)

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(social factors)

Risk Factors
Hazards
potentially damaging exogenous events whose probable characteristics and frequency of
occurrence can be estimated
Vulnerability
intrinsic characteristics of the elements at risk that determine how damaged they would be if
they experienced a hazard event of some level
Dimensions of vulnerability assessment
Physical vulnerability-analyze impacts of events on assets such as building, infrastructure,
agriculture
Social Vulnerability- estimate impacts of events on highly vulnerable groups such as the poor,
coping capacity, status institutional structure designed to help coping, awareness of risk
Economic vulnerability-potential impacts of hazards on economic assets and processes
(business interruption, secondary effects)
Environmental vulnerability-Degraded environmental quality limits the natural resilience to
hazard effects and reduces environmental buffering of effects

Elements at risk: examples

people (communities, countries, the poor)
infrastructure
economic activities/assets
plant/animal species
environmental services . . .
5
2- Preparedness
In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action for when the disaster
strikes. Common preparedness measures include the

communication plans with easily understandable terminology and chain of command

development and practice of multi-agency coordination and incident command

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proper maintenance and training of emergency services

development and exercise of emergency population warning methods combined with
emergency shelters and evacuation plans
stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and equipment

An efficient preparedness measure is an emergency operations center (EOC) combined with a

practiced region-wide doctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparedness measure is
to develop a volunteer response capability among civilian populations. Since, volunteer
response is not as predictable and playable as professional response; volunteers are most
effectively deployed on the periphery of an emergency.
Another aspect of preparedness is casualty prediction, the study of how many deaths or
injuries to expect for a given kind of event. This gives planners an idea of what resources
need to be in place to respond to a particular kind of event.

3- Response
The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first
responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency
services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. They may be supported by a
number of secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.
In addition volunteers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the local Red
Cross branch may provide immediate practical assistance, from first aid provision to
providing food and counseling. A well-rehearsed emergency plan developed as part of the
preparedness phase enables efficient coordination of rescue efforts. Emergency plan rehearsal
is essential to achieve optimal output with limited resources. In the response phase, medical
assets will be used in accordance with the appropriate triage of the affected victims.
Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at an early stage. Depending on injuries
sustained by the victim, outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, the vast
majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72 hours after impact.
Individuals are often compelled to volunteer directly after a disaster. Volunteers can be both a
help and a hindrance to emergency management and other relief agencies.
4-Recovery
The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs
from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions
that must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily
concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re- employment, and the
repair of other essential infrastructure. An important aspect of effective recovery efforts is
taking advantage of a window of opportunity for the implementation of mitigates measures
that might otherwise be

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unpopular. Citizens of the affected area are more likely to accept more mitigate changes when
a recent disaster is in fresh memory.

Phases and personal activities

1- Mitigation
Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks. This includes
an assessment of possible risks to personal/family health and to personal property.
One example of mitigation would be to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g.
in a flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides. Homeowners may not be aware of a
property being exposed to a hazard until it strikes. However, specialists can be hired to
conduct risk identification and assessment surveys. Purchase of insurance covering the most
prominent identified risks is a common measure.

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Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areas includes installation of an

Earthquake Valve to instantly shut off the natural gas supply to a property, seismic retrofits of
property and the securing of items inside a building to enhance household seismic safety. The
latter may include the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the
walls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas houses can be built on poles,
as in much of southern Asia. In areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation of
a generator would be an example of an optimal structural mitigation measure. The
construction of storm cellars and fallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigated
actions.
Mitigation involves Structural and Non-structural measures taken to limit the impact of
disasters.
Structural Mitigation:This involves proper layout of building, particularly to make it resistant to disasters.
Non Structural Mitigation:This involves measures taken other than improving the structure of building.
7
2-Preparedness
Unlike mitigation activities, which are aimed at preventing a disaster from occurring,
personal preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster
occurs, i.e. planning. Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction
of shelters, installation of warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power,
water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans. Two simple measures can help prepare the
individual for sitting out the event or evacuating, as necessary. For evacuation, a disaster
supplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes a stockpile of supplies may be
created. The preparation of a survival kit, commonly referred to as a "72-hour kit", is often
advocated by authorities. These kits may include food, medicine, flashlights, candles and
money.
3-Response
The response phase of an emergency may commence with search and rescue but in all cases
the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected
population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and
organizations. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when
many organizations respond and local emergency management agency (LEMA) capacity has
been exceeded by the demand or diminished by the disaster itself.
On a personal level the response can take the shape either of a home confinement or
anevacuation. In a home confinement a family would be prepared to fend for themselves in
their home for many days without any form of outside support. In an evacuation, a family
leaves the area by automobile (or other mode of transportation) taking with them the
maximum amount of supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter. If
mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation on foot would ideally include carrying
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at least three days of supplies and rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets
being the minimum.
4-Recovery
The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. During
reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the
property.
The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severe epidemics and
may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these
events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the
food as part of normal life. A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin
pills,whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil. One should add vegetables,
fruits, spices and meats, both prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND RISK MANAGEMENT

Terminology
Hazard- A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon and/or human activity which may
cause the loss of life, injury, property damage, social and economic disruption and
environmental degradation
Vulnerability-Set of conditions and processes resulting from physical, social, economic,
environmental factors (and development decisions) which increase the susceptibility of
community (or project) to the impact of hazards
Risk-Probability of harmful consequences and expected loss resulting from interaction between
natural or human hazards and vulnerable conditions.
Physical vulnerability-analyze impacts of events on assets such as building, infrastructure,
agriculture
Social Vulnerability- estimate impacts of events on highly vulnerable groups such as the poor,
coping capacity, status institutional structure designed to help coping, awareness of risk
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Economic vulnerability-potential impacts of hazards on economic assets and processes

(business interruption, secondary effects)
Environmental vulnerability-Degraded environmental quality limits the natural resilience to
hazard effects and reduces environmental buffering of effects

The Cycle of Disaster Management

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What is at risk?
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Possible Socio-Economic Scenarios Needed For Climate Change Impact and Adaptation
Analyses
General
Adaptation capacity
Water resources
Adaptation capacity

Population growth
Economic growth
(economic, technological, institutional)
Water use for agriculture, domestic, industrial
and energy sectors
Land use (for run-off)
(economic, technological, institutional)
Coastal zones
Population density
Economic activity and investments
Land use

Agriculture

Land use
Water use
Food demand
Atmospheric composition and deposition
Agricultural policies (incl. international trade)
Adaptation capacity (economic, technological, institutional)
Human health

Food and water accessibility and quality

Health care (incl. basic)
Demographic structure
Urbanization
Adaptation capacity (economic, technological, institutional)

Case Study: Gujarat Earthquake

2001 Bhuj Earthquake: Preliminary Report from IITKanpur
A Powerful Earthquake of magnitude 6.9 on Richter-Scale rocked the Western
Indian State of Gujarat on the 26thof January, 2001. It caused extensive
damage to life & property. This earthquake was so devastating in

its scale

and suffering that the likes of it had not been experienced in past 50 years.
Leaving thousands seriously injured, bruised and handicapped; both
physically, psychologically and economically
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The epicenter of the quake was located at 23.6 north Latitude and 69.8 east
Longitude, about 20 km
Northeast of Bhuj Town of the Kutch district in Western Gujarat. At a depth of
only 23 kms below surface this quake generated intense shaking which was
felt in 70% region of India and far beyond in neighbouring Pakistan and Nepal
too. This was followed by intense after shocks that became a continued source
of anxiety
for the populace.
The Seismicity of the affected Area of Kutch is a known fact with a high
incidence of earthquakes in recent times and in historical past. It falls in
Seismic Zone V. The only such zone outside the Himalayan Seismic
Belt. In last 200 years important damaging earthquakes occurred in 1819,
1844, 1845, 1856, 1869,1956 in the same vicinity as 2001 earthquake.
Twenty-one of the total 25 districts of the state was affected in this quake.
Around 18 towns, 182 talukas and 7904 villages in the affected districts have
seen large-scale devastation. The affected areas even spread up to 300 km
from the epicentre. In the Kutch District, four major urban areas Bhuj, Anjar,
Bachau and Rapar suffered near total destruction. The rural areas in the region
are also very badly affected with over 450 villages almost totally destroyed.
In addition, wide spread damages also occurred in Rajkot, Jamnagar,
Surendranagar, Patan and Ahmedabad districts. Other Urban areas such as
Ganhidham, Morvi, Rajkot and Jamnagar have also suffered damage to major
structures, infrastructure and industrial facilities. Ahmedabad the capital was
also severely affected.
Gujarat Earthquake is very significant from the point of view of earthquake
disaster mitigation in India. The problems observed in this disaster are no
different from other major recent earthquakes in the world. The issues in the
recovery and reconstruction phase are: the proper understanding risk among
different stakeholders, training and confidence building among the
professionals and masons with appropriate development planning strategies.
This quake has provided numerous examples of geo-technical and structural
failures. The traditional wisdom of design and construction practises of
engineered buildings prevalent in this country came under criticism for the
first time. It has triggered comprehensive understanding on what needs to be
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done in this regard. issues in the recovery and reconstruction phase are: the
proper understanding risk among different stakeholders, training and
confidence building among the professionals and masons with appropriate
development planning strategies.
This quake has provided numerous examples of geo-technical and structural
failures. The traditional wisdom
of design and construction practises of engineered buildings prevalent in this
country came under criticism for the first time. It has triggered comprehensive
understanding on what needs to be done in this regard.

Chamoli (Himalaya, India) Earthquake of 29 March 1999

The Chamoli earthquake of 29 March 1999 in northern India is yet another
important event from the viewpoint
of Himalayan seismotectonics and seismic resistance of non-engineered
constructions. The earthquake
occurred in a part of the Central Himalaya, which is highly prone to
earthquakes and has been placed in the highest seismic zone (zone V) of India.
There has been a bitter controversy during the recent years regarding
the seismic safety of a 260-m-high rock-fill dam under construction at Tehri,
about 80 km west of the
epicenter. Fortunately, there are no major cities in the meizoseismal region and
the population density is the
second lowest in the state. The earthquake caused death of about 100 persons
and injured hundreds more.
Maximum MSK intensity was up to VIII at a few locations.
The quake was felt at far-off places such as Kanpur (440 km south-east from
the epicenter), Shimla (220 km
north-west) and Delhi (280 km south-west). Maximum death and damage
occurred in the district of Chamoli
where about 63 persons died and over 200 injured; about 2,595 houses
collapsed and about 10,861 housewere partially damaged. In all, about 1,256
villages were affected. A few buildings at the far away mega-city of

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Delhi sustained non-structural damages. No instances of liquefaction were

reported. Longitudinal cracks in
the ground were seen in some locations in the affected area. were partially
damaged. In all, about 1,256 villages were affected. A few buildings at the far
away mega-city of
Delhi sustained non-structural damages. No instances of liquefaction were
reported. Longitudinal cracks in the ground were seen in some locations in the
affected area. were partially damaged. In all, about 1,256 villages were
affected. A few buildings at the far away mega-city of
Delhi sustained non-structural damages. No instances of liquefaction were
reported. Longitudinal cracks in
the ground were seen in some locations in the affected area. were partially
damaged. In all, about 1,256 villages were affected. A few buildings at the far
away mega-city of
Delhi sustained non-structural damages. No instances of liquefaction were
reported. Longitudinal cracks in
the ground were seen in some locations in the affected area.
Emergency Response
Fortunately, the number of fatalities in the earthquake was relatively less at
about 100 as compared to
about 800 in the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake. Interestingly, at the time of
earthquake a popular movie was
being screened by a TV channel and many people who were awake could
easily escape. The area has major
Hindu shrines and draws huge tourist traffic during May to October; the
timing of this earthquake was
fortunately during the lean tourist season. Hence, the task of search and rescue
operations was easier and
was carried out by the local people. Army and paramilitary personnel were
also called-in to help in relief
operations the very next day. Some cash compensation, food rations, and cloth
tents were provided by the
state government. By March the winter is over, and hence, cloth tents were
sufficient for temporary shelters.
Food and other supplies had to be air-dropped to numerous villages which
were normally inaccessible by
motorable roads or cut-off due to landslides. Due to poor accessibility, relief
operations were quite challenging
and caused dissatisfaction in remote villages which could not be attended to on
time. The headquarters for Chamoli district is at Gopeshwar, 10 km by road
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from Chamoli. Since Gopeshwar did not experience major damages, the entire
administrative machinery could function effectively. However, frequent visits
by senior politicians and administrators from the state and central governments
may have significantly diverted attention of the district officials. Damage
assessment for individual houses was initiated by the revenue officials
immediately after the earthquake. This was also a difficult task due to the
inaccessibility of many villages leading to some complaints about the fairness
in damage assessment.
Significant aftershock activity, which included a few events of M >5, created
a lot of fear amongst the people and they hesitated to sleep indoors even when
their dwellings had little or no damage. Speculations about an impending large
earthquake added to the fear and panic. Massive forest fires, which are
common during this time of the year, drove some wild animals towards the
villages adding to the insecurity. Impending monsoons in the next two months
remained a major concern; slope failures and additional damage to partially
damaged
houses were feared
The earthquake occurred on March 29th at 12:35 am (local time) near the
town of Chamoli in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India (Figure 1). The
earthquake magnitude was calculated as mb=6.3, MS=6.6 by USGS, and as
mb=6.8, MS=6.5 by the India Meteorological

Department (IMD). The

preliminary locations of
the epicenter by the different agencies are 30 49.2 N, 79 28.8 E by USGS; and
30 17.82 N, 79 33.84 E by IMD. Distances in this report refer to the USGS
location. Recorded aftershocks and the damage pattern suggest that the zone of
activity was close to Chamoli; this region also showed a maximum intensity of
VIII on the MSK scale. USGS estimated the focal depth at 12 km.
The quake was felt at far-off places such as Kanpur (440 km southeast of the
epicenter), Shimla northwest) and Delhi (280 km southwest). Maximum death
and damage occurred in the district of Chamoli,
where about 63 persons died and over 200 were injured. About 2,595 houses
collapsed and more than10,850 were partially damaged. In all, about 1,256
villages were affected. A few buildings at the distant city of Delhi sustained
nonstructural damage. No instances of liquefaction were reported. Linear
cracks in the ground were seen in some locations in the affected area.
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Nonstructural damage to some buildings in far-off Delhi clearly underlines

the potential for a major disaster there. Considering the political and social
significance of such an eventuality, efforts should be directed towards
effective earthquake disaster mitigation and management in the Indian capital.
The September 29, 1993, M6.4 Killari, Maharashtra Earthquake in Central
India.
Most of the world seismicity is concentrated along the plate boundaries.
However, a significant number of earthquakes, including some large and
damaging ones, do occur within the plates. Our understanding of intracratonic
seismogenesis and the hazard it entails is poor, in part because data are scarce.
The 1993 Killari earthquake in central peninsular India is the latest
intracratonic event to be responsible for a large disaster. The positive side of
this tragedy is that it will provide new insights into geologic, engineering and
cultural factors that control the distribution and degree of damage, which will
aid in turn the development
of a more effective hazard reduction program for peninsular India and similar
intrapolate environments. This report summarizes our observations during a
ten-day investigation of the mesoseismal area of the 1993 Killari earthquake.
Several aspects of the earthquake were investigated, ranging from the surface
rupture and related deformation to the pattern of damage to engineered and
traditional structures. Finally, the rescue and reconstruction efforts following
the earthquake brought out important issues that are generally relevant to
earthquake hazard reduction in traditional rural settings; these are also briefly
discussed.

Emergency Response
The affected area does not suffer from floods and was considered Aseismic.
The only natural disaster known in the area is drought. Hence, the earthquake
took the people and administration by surprise. It took the administration 2 to
4 days to effectively organize rescue and relief operations. What then followed
appeared to be well-organized and effective. Civilian as well as military
authorities cooperated in the effort. Since the reconnaissance team did not visit
the affected areas of Karnataka, the discussion here is based on the response in
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the districts of Latur and Osmanabad only. Of all the villages devastated by the
quake, only the village of Killari had a wireless connection with the district
police headquarters at Latur. Within minutes, the information about the
devastation in Killari was conveyed to Latur and from there to the state
headquarters at Bombay. Immediately, about 20 policemen stationed at Ausa
(28 km) were rushed to Killari, followed by district level administrators
(District Collector, Superintendent of Police, etc). About 50 policemen were
also dispatched from Latur (42 km). Immediate search and rescue was
conducted by the survivors and the limited police rescue teams. As the day
progressed, information about equally severe devastation from nearby villages
started reaching Killari. By early next morning (Oct. 1), the Indian army took
over the task of search and rescue. By the afternoon of the day of the
earthquake, many curious onlookers had arrived in the area. This led to traffic
jams and hampered the task of search and rescue. Beginning Oct. 2, entry to
the affected area was controlled to allow entrance only to governme
personnel and members of volunteer organizations. The task of search and
rescue became extremely difficult due to the heavy rains, which immediately
followed the earthquake and the enormous quantities of the rubble. In places
2-3 m of rubble has to be removed to extricate the bodies. The narrow village
streets were choked by fallen rubble, which further hampered rescue
operations.
Mass cremations that were held on the first two days after the earthquake
were done without adequate record keeping. This led to confusion about the
actual number of deaths. At one time, the newspapers were reporting up to
30000 dead, new . Later it was discovered that about 9000 fatalities actually
occurred.

Recovery Medical Aid

number of injured in Maharashtra was about 15500. About 50 mobile teams of
doctors were pressed into service; at least doctor was s made available at
each of the affected villages. The 125 beds civil hospital at Latur had to
convert the nearby Rajasthan School into a hospital ward to care for about 300
indoor patients. On the other hand, the rural medical college and hospital at
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Ambe Jogai, which is only 60km from Latur, had a 510-bed capacity but only
had 86 patients maximum at any given time. On the whole, in a few days,
there were more government and private doctors available than could be used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahuja H.L., Macro economics, theory and policy, revised
eidition: S. Chand
Bhatai H. L. , International economics, vikas publishing
house pvt. Ltd.
Raj Kumar , international economics excel books, new
Delhi.
Soldersten Bo

and Reed Geoffrey ,international

economics.
WWW.GLOOGLE.COM

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