Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Study Material
Go to Unit (Click on)
ols
Unit No.
Unit - 1
To
UNIT - 1
rit
er
an
d
Unit 1
Fr
ee
Unit - 2
Unit - 2
ito
rw
ith
Unit 2
Unit - 3
Ed
UNIT - 3
UNIT - 4
Unit 4
UNIT - 5
Unit 5
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
Unit 3
Unit - 4
Unit - 5
Defectology
yM
ate
ria
l
an
dT
oo
ls
ill
PD
F
Types of Discontinuities
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
It should be clear that a discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. Any imperfection that
is found by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it can be identified and
evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of the part or to the requirements
of the specification. A certain discontinuity may be considered to be a defect in some
cases and not a defect in some other cases because the defenetion of defect changes
with the type of component, its construction, its materials and the specifications or
codes being used.
Li
br
ary
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during the initial casting process
(when the metal is casted into ingots for further processing) and also it includes the
discontinuities that are produced when metal is casted as parts of any given shape. The
initial casting discontinuities are usually removed by chopping the ingots but some of
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 1 of 12
1 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
them remain and further change their shape and nature during the subsequent
manufacturing operations.
Cold Shut
oo
ls
Pipe
PD
F
St
Shrinkage Cavities
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
br
ary
PD
F
ill
Li
Hot tears occurs when low melting point materials segregate during
solidification and thus when they try to shrink during solidification
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 2 of 12
2 of 356.
cracks and tears will develop because the surrounding material has already solidified.
yM
ate
ria
l
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Nonmetallic Inclusions
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
br
ary
Segregation
Li
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during hot or cold forming
processes (extrusion, forging, rolling, drawing, welding, etc.). Also, some of the
inherent discontinuities in the material could propagate and become significant.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 3 of 12
3 of 356.
Seams
yM
ate
ria
l
dT
oo
ls
Laminations are thin flat subsurface separations that are parallel to the surface of
plates. They may result from inherent discontinuities (pipe, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
that are flattened during the rolling process.
rit
er
an
Stringers
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Stringers are elongated subsurface discontinuities that are found in bars (they run in
the axial direction). They result from the flattening and lengthening of nonmetallic
inclusions during the rolling process.
Ed
ito
Cupping
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Cooling cracks may occur on the surface of bars after rolling operations due to stresses
developed by uneven cooling. They run in the axial direction (similar to seams) but
unlike seams, they do not have surface oxidation.
Li
Page 4 of 12
4 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
External bursts occur when the forming section is too severe or the sections are thin.
Slugs
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
ee
Gouging
PD
F
St
Hydrogen Flakes
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
br
ary
PD
F
ill
Welding Discontinuities
Li
Several types of discontinuities result from welding operations. Only the discontinuities
associated with fusion welding processes (arc welding, gas welding, etc.) are presented
here.
Cold Cracks
Cold cracks, also known as delayed cracks, are hydrogen induced surface
or subsurface cracks that appear in the heat affected zone or the weld
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 5 of 12
5 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
metal during cooling or after a period of time (hours or even days). The sources of
hydrogen which leads to this type of cracks may include moisture in the electrode
shielding, the shielding gas or base metal surface, or contamination of the base metal
with hydrocarbon (oil or grease).
Hot Cracks
Hot cracks include several types of cracks that occur at elevated temperatures in the
weld metal or heat affected zone. In general, hot cracks are usually associated with
steels having high sulfur content. The common types of hot cracks include:
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Solidification Cracks: This type occurs near the solidification temperature of the
weld metal. They are caused by the presence of low melting point constituents
(such as iron sulfides) that segregate during solicitation then the shrinkage of the
solidified material causes cracks to open up.
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Centerline Crack is a longitudinal crack along the centerline of the weld bead.
It occurs because the low melting point impurities move to the center of the
wield pool as the solidification progresses from the
weld toe to the center, then shrinkage stresses of
the solidified material causes cracking along the
centerline. The likelihood of centerline cracking
increases when the travel speed is high or the
depth-to-width ratio is high.
Crater Crack which occurs in the crater formed at
the termination of the weld pass. Crater cracks are
mostly star shaped and they are caused by three
dimensional shrinkage stresses. The likelihood of
crater cracks increases when welding is terminated
suddenly.
Li
Liquidation Cracks: This type, also known as hot tearing, occurs in the heat affected
zone when the temperature in that region reaches to the melting temperature of
low melting point constituents causing them to liquidate and segregate at grain
boundaries. As the weld cools down, shrinkage stresses causes the formation of
small micro-scale cracks which later might link up due to applied stresses to form a
continuous surface or subsurface crack.
Page No.
Page 6 of 12
6 of 356.
Lamellar Tearing
yM
ate
ria
l
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the
adjacent base metal (or weld metal from previous pass) because the surface of base
metal did not reach to melting temperature during welding. This
typically occurs when welding large components that could
dissipate heat rapidly especially when it is at a relatively low
temperature before welding. Lack of fusion is often seen at the
beginning of the first pass and in such case it is commonly called a
cold start. Also, lack of fusion could occur when the surface a
previous pass is not properly cleaned from slag where slag reduces
the heating of the under-laying surface.
St
Ed
ito
Lack of Penetration
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Li
Page 7 of 12
7 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
clustered together (cluster porosity). In general, porosity can result from the presence
of dirt, rust or moisture on the surface of base or filler metal. Also, it could result from
high sulfur content in the base metal or excessive arc length.
Inclusions
Inclusions refer to the presence of some material, that is not supposed to be present,
in the weld metal.
dT
oo
ls
Slag Inclusions: This type of inclusions mostly happens in shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) and it occurs when the slag cannot float to the surface of the molten metal
and get entrapped in the weld metal during solidification. This could happen when;
the solidification rate is high, the weld pool viscosity is high, an oversized electrode
is used, or slag on the previous pass was not properly removed.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
PD
F
ill
Undercut
St
Ed
ito
Oxide Inclusions: This type of inclusions results from the presence of high melting
point oxides on the base metal which mixes with the molten material during
welding.
br
ary
PD
F
Li
Overlap is the protrusion of the weld metal over the weld toe (due
to lack of fusion). This may be caused by insufficient amperage or
travel speed.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 8 of 12
8 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during grinding, machining, heat
treating, plating and related finishing operations.
Grinding Cracks
Grinding cracks develop at locations where there is a localized heating of the base
metal and they are usually shallow and at right angle to the grinding direction. Such
cracks might be caused by the use of glazed wheels, inadequate coolant, excessive
feed or grinding depth.
oo
ls
Pickling Cracks
ee
rit
er
an
dT
Pickling is chemical surface cleaning operation (using acids) used to remove unwanted
scale. Picking cracks are hydrogen induced cracks caused by the diffusion of the
hydrogen generated at the surface into the base metal. Such cracks mostly occur in
materials having high residual stresses such as hardened or cold worked metals.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Heat treatment cracks mostly occur during quenching especially when harsh media is
used for quenching (such as cold water, oil quenching is less harsh). During quenching
the material at the surface cools immediately upon contacting the liquid while the
material inside take relatively longer time. This difference in cooling rate causes
residual stresses in the component and could also result in cracks at the surface if the
residual tensile stress is higher than the strength of the material. In steels, austenite is
transferred into ferrite and martensite upon cooling. This transformation results in
volume increase and thus causes tensile stresses at the surface layer since the material
at the surface transformed and solidified before material at the core.
Machining Tears
Li
Machining tears result from the use of machining tools having dull or chipped cutting
edges. Such discontinuities serve as stress raisers and can lead to premature failure of
a component especially when it is subjected to fatigue loading.
Plating Cracks
Plating cracks are surface discontinuities that can develop due to the penetration of
hydrogen or hot plating material into the base metal. Also, some plating materials
(such as chromium, copper and nickel) produce residual tensile stress which can reduce
the fatigue strength of a component.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 9 of 12
9 of 356.
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
yM
ate
ria
l
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate or develop while the component
is in service. The service conditions (loading, mechanical and chemical environment,
maintenance) of a component affect its expected life. Although most of service
discontinuities might look somehow similar but they are caused by different failure
mechanisms.
Fatigue Cracks
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 10 of 12
10 of 356.
Creep Cracks
yM
ate
ria
l
When a metal is at a temperature greater than 0.4 to 0.5 of its absolute melting
temperature and is subjected to a high enough value of stress (lower than the yield
strength at room temperature but it is actually higher than the yield strength at the
elevated temperature), it will keep deforming continuously until it finally fractures.
Such type of deformation is called creep and it is caused by the continuous initiation
and healing of slipping dislocation inside the grains of the material.
According to the rate of progress of the deformation, three stages of creep
deformation can be distinguished:
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Li
br
ary
Creep cracks usually develop at the end of the second stage (the beginning of third
stage) and they eventually lead to failure. However, when a component reaches to the
third stage, its useful life is over and thus creep should be detected (by monitoring the
deformation) during the second stage which takes the longest time period of the three
stages. For steels, adding some alloying elements such as molybdenum and tungsten
can enhance creep resistance. Also, heat treatments that produce coarse grains (such
as annealing) can also increase life under creep conditions.
Page 11 of 12
11 of 356.
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
can lead to a sudden failure of ductile materials without any previous plastic
deformation. The cracks usually initiate at the surface due to the presence of
preexisting discontinuity or due to corrosive attack on the surface. Once the cracks
initiate at the surface, corrosive material enters the cracks and attacks the material
inside forming corrosion products. The formation of the corrosion products (which
have a larger volume than original metal) inside the tight cracks
causes a wedging action which increase the stress at the crack
tip and causes the crack to grow. The corrosive environment
varies from material to material; for example saltwater is
corrosive to aluminum and stainless steel, ammonia is corrosive
to copper alloys, and sodium hydroxide is corrosive to mild
steel. The resistance to corrosion can be improved by plating
the surface of a component by appropriate material which does
not react with the environment.
ud
Fr
ee
Hydrogen Cracks
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Hydrogen cracking, also known as hydrogen embrittlement, results from the presence
of hydrogen medium and usually occurs in conjunction with the presence of applied
tensile stress or residual stress. Hydrogen can be already present in the metal due to
previous processes such as electroplating, pickling, welding in moist atmosphere or the
melting process itself. Also, hydrogen can come from the presence of hydrogen
sulfides, water, methane or ammonia in the work
environment of a component. Hydrogen can diffuse in the
metal and initiate very small cracks at subsurface cites
(usually at the grain boundaries) subjected to high values
of stress. The presence of such cracks at several locations
causes ductile materials to show brittle fracture behavior.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Defectology
Page 12 of 12
12 of 356.
Stringers defect:
Li
bra
ry
PD
Fil
lP
DF
Ed
ito
Stu
rw
ith
Fr
ee
dy
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
ate
ria
l
http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/11/sts-133-structural-defectcrack-found-on-et137/
Page No.
13 of 356.
ry
bra
Li
DF
Ed
ee
Fr
er
rit
dy
ith
rw
ito
Stu
lP
PD
Fil
oo
dT
ls
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
14 of 356.
ry
bra
Li
DF
Ed
ee
Fr
er
rit
dy
ith
rw
ito
Stu
lP
PD
Fil
oo
dT
ls
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
15 of 356.
Welding Defects
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld
metal produced due to incorrect welding parameters or wrong
welding procedures or wrong combination of filler metal and parent
metal.
Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld
bead shape, size and desired quality. Defects may be on the surface
or inside the weld metal. Certain defects such as cracks are never
tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible
limits. Welding defects may result into the failure of components
under service condition, leading to serious accidents and causing the
loss of property and sometimes also life.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
M
y
ter
i
r
2. Porosity
W
e
e
r
d
tu
F
Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as ith Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld
metal. These gases are generated from the flux or coating
w
cracks, porosity, solid inclusions, lack of fusion and inadequate
r
o
constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used during welding
penetration, imperfect shape and miscellaneous defects.
dit
or from absorbed moisture in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease
E
F
present on the surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also
1. Cracks
PD
l
source of gases during welding. Porosity may be easily prevented if
l
i
F
work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and
D
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may Pappear
in the weld
grease.Futher, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high
metal or base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary.
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are
Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse
avoided flux and coated electrodes are properly baked.
cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in the weld crater. Cracks
occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of
material. These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during
solidification of weld metal.
S
y
r
a
r
b
i
L
Page No.
16 of 356.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
M
y
nd
a
r
3. Solid Inclusion
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
W
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic
e
Fig
e
r 13.4: Types of Lack of Fusion
material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float
F
on the surface of the solidifying weld metal. During arc welding flux ith Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the
rw
either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the
desired level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a
o
t
i
molten weld metal removing oxides and other impurities in thedform
groove joint. If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root
E
of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal due toF its low
face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are used then it
D or too
P
density. However, if the molten weld metal has high viscosity
results into poor penetration.
ill be released
low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may Fnot
PD
from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
S
y
r
a
r
b
i
L
Page No.
17 of 356.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
M
y
ls
Excessive reinforcement
is formed if high currents, low voltages,
oo
T
slow travel nspeeds
and large size electrodes are used. Excessive
d
a
root penetration
and
sag occur if excessive high currents and slow
r
e
t
i
travel rspeeds are used for relatively thinner members.
d
tu
r
ito
d
FE
S
y
D
r
a
r
lP
l
i
F
PD
th
wi
W
e
e
rDistortion
b
i
L
Page No.
18 of 356.
Casting Defects
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107144/26
The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand
castings
Gas defects
Shrinkage cavities
Molding material defects
Pouring metal defects
Mold shift
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration,
fusion, and swell.
M
y
Gas Defects
o
To
ls
These appear
d as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are
A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the
nerosion
a
caused
by
of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is
molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the
r
e
t
i
caused
r by the molding sand not having enough strength and the
casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes
W
molten
metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care
and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities
e
e
r
of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be
present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole
h F overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets wit
entrapped during heating of molten metal.
or
t
i
Metal penetration
Ed
F
Causes
PD
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the
l
l
i
F
result is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is
The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which
D may be due to
P
coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The
lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of
coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.
the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of
the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive
Fusion
moisture present in the mold.
d
tu
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal,
giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main
reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower
refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Shrinkage Cavities
Swell
Page No.
19 of 356.
Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products
are trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision
of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect.
Pouring Metal Defects
The likely defects in this category are
M
y
nd
a
r
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes
have not been properly aligned.
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
ree
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity
F
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when ith
rw
the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity
o
t
diand
before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect
E
F
should be avoided in casting design.
S
y
PD
l
l
Fi in the mold
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
D
P a discontinuity in
cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming
r
a
r
the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity
through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow
together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too
cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the
part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by
assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough
walls in the casting design.
b
i
L
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower
fluidity of the mold or when the section thickness of the casting is
Page No.
20 of 356.
There are two types of standard specimen's which are generally used for this purpose,
which have been shown below:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Specimen I:
LECTURE 1
Mechanical Properties:
In the course of operation or use, all the articles and structures are subjected to the action
of external forces, which create stresses that inevitably cause deformation. To keep these
stresses, and, consequently deformation within permissible limits it is necessary to select
suitable materials for the Components of various designs and to apply the most effective
heat treatment. i.e. a Comprehensive knowledge of the chief character tics of the semifinished metal products & finished metal articles (such as strength, ductility, toughness etc)
are essential for the purpose.
For this reason the specification of metals, used in the manufacture of various products and
structure, are based on the results of mechanical tests or we say that the mechanical tests
conducted on the specially prepared specimens (test pieces) of standard form and size on
special machines to obtained the strength, ductility and toughness characteristics of the
metal.
ito
d
FE
(1) Static: When the load is increased slowly and gradually and the metal is loaded by
tension, compression, torsion or bending.
S
y
PD
l
l
Fi
D
(3) Repeated or Fatigue: (both static and impact type) . i.e. whenP
the load repeatedly
(2) Dynamic: when the load increases rapidly as in impact
r
a
r
th
wi
ls
nd
a
Specimen e
II:r
rit
W
This
specimen utilizes a rectangular X-section.
e
e
r
d
tu
The conditions under which the mechanical test are conducted are of three types
M
y
o
To
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
varies in the course of test either in value or both in value and direction Now let us consider
the uniaxial tension test.
[ For application where a force comes on and off the structure a number of times, the
material cannot withstand the ultimate stress of a static tool. In such cases the ultimate
strength depends on no. of times the force is applied as the material works at a particular
stress level. Experiments one conducted to compute the number of cycles requires to break
to specimen at a particular stress when fatigue or fluctuating load is acting. Such tests are
known as fatigue tests ]
b
i
L
Uniaxial Tension Test: This test is of static type i.e. the load is increased comparatively
slowly from zero to a certain value.
Standard specimen's are used for the tension test.
lg = gauge length i.e. length of the specimen on which we want to determine the mechanical
properties.The uniaxial tension test is carried out on tensile testing machine and the
following steps are performed to conduct this test.
(i) The ends of the specimen's are secured in the grips of the testing machine.
(ii) There is a unit for applying a load to the specimen with a hydraulic or mechanical drive.
(iii) There must be a some recording device by which you should be able to measure the
final output in the form of Load or stress. So the testing machines are often equipped with
Page No.
21 of 356.
(B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in the sense that
the deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The limiting point B is
termed as Elastic Limit .
A typical tensile test curve for the mild steel has been shown below
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally
recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when load is
removed. These two points are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The
stress at the yield point is called the yield strength.
A study a stress strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the proportional limit
that for most purpose the two may be taken as one. However, it is much easier to locate the
former. For material which do not posses a well define yield points, In order to find the yield
point or yield strength, an offset method is applied.
In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial stress diagram by
off setting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as shown as below and this
happens especially for the low carbon steel.
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
or
t
i
Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen; such
Ed
stresses are often referred to as conventional or nominal stresses.
F
PD
l
l
True stress Strain Diagram:
Fi
D
P
Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always
S
y
r
a
r
takes place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual area of the
specimen at the same instant gives the so called true stress.
SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
b
i
L
(A) So it is evident form the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or elongation is
proportional to the load giving a st.line relationship. This law of proportionality is valid upto a
point A.
or we can say that point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of the graph ceases
or there is a deviation from the linear nature. This point is known as the limit of
proportionality or the proportionality limit.
th
wi
ree
(E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the
metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the
load at the ultimate strength.
The highest point E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a material.
u = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known as Ultimate
Strength or Tensile Strength.
u is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar.
Page No.
22 of 356.
lI = gauge length of specimen after fracture(or the distance between the gage marks at
fracture)
r
a
r
Elastic Action:
d
tu
S
y
The elastic is an adjective meaning capable of recovering size and shape after deformation.
Elastic range is the range of stress below the elastic limit.
b
i
L
ls
e
rit
ito
d
FE
PD
l
l
Fi10% to 40%.
For 50 mm gage length, steel may here a % elongation of the order
of
D
P
lg= gauge length before fracture(i.e. initial gauge length)
M
y
nd
a
r
It is the ratio of the extension in length of the specimen after fracture to its initial gauge
length, expressed in percent.
o
To
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
th
wi
ree
Page No.
23 of 356.
This type of graph is shown by the cast iron or steels with high carbon contents or concrete.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
iThis method consists in pressing a hardened steel ball under a constant load P into a
specially prepared flat surface on the test specimen as indicated in the figures below :
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
or
t
i
Ed
(1) It has been established that lowering the temperature or increasing the rate of
F
deformation considerably increases the resistance to plastic deformation. Thus,
PDat low
temperature (or higher rates of deformation), metals and alloys, which arellductile at normal
Fi
room temperature may fail with brittle fracture.
D
P
The Mechanical properties depend on the test conditions
S
y
r
a
r
(2) Notches i.e. sharp charges in cross sections have a great effect on the mechanical
properties of the metals. A Notch will cause a non uniform distribution of stresses. They
will always contribute lowering the ductility of the materials. A notch reduces the ultimate
strength of the high strength materials. Because of the non uniform distribution of the
stress or due to stress concentration.
b
i
L
th
wi
ree
After removing the load an indentation remains on the surface of the test specimen. If area
of the spherical surface in the indentation is denoted as F sq. mm. Brinell Hardness number
is defined as :
Bhn = P / F
F is expressed in terms of D and d
D = ball diameter
d = diametric of indentation and Brinell Hardness number is given
by
(3) Grain Size: The grain size also affects the mechanical properties.
Then is there is also Vicker's Hardness Number in which the ball is of conical shape.
Hardness:
Goto Home
Hardness is the resistance of a metal to the penetration of another harder body which does
not receive a permanent set.
LECTURE 2
Compression Test: Machines used for compression testing are basically similar to those
used for tensile testing often the same machine can be used to perform both tests.
Page No.
24 of 356.
Shape of the specimen: The shapes of the specimen to be used for the different materials
are as follows:
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
(i) For metals and certain plastics: The specimen may be in the form of a cylinder
Brittle materials in compression typically have an initial linear region followed by a region in
which the shortening increases at a higher rate than does the load. Thus, the compression
stress strain diagram has a shape that is similar to the shape of the tensile diagram.
(ii) For building materials: Such as concrete or stone the shape of the specimen may be
in the form of a cube.
Shape of stress stain diagram
However, brittle materials usually reach much higher ultimate stresses in compression than
in tension.
(a) Ductile materials: For ductile material such as mild steel, the load Vs compression
diagram would be as follows
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
r
ito
d
FE
S
y
D
r
a
r
lP
l
i
F
PD
(1) The ductile materials such as steel, Aluminum, and copper have stress strain
diagrams similar to ones which we have for tensile test, there would be an elastic range
which is then followed by a plastic region.
b
i
L
th
wi
ree
Brittle materials in compression behave elastically up to certain load, and then fail suddenly
by splitting or by craking in the way as shown in figure. The brittle fracture is performed by
separation and is not accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation.
Hardness Testing:
(2) The ductile materials (steel, Aluminum, copper) proportional limits in compression test
are very much close to those in tension.
The term hardness' is one having a variety of meanings; a hard material is thought
of as one whose surface resists indentation or scratching, and which has the ability to indent
or cut other materials.
(3) In tension test, a specimen is being stretched, necking may occur, and ultimately
fracture fakes place. On the other hand when a small specimen of the ductile material is
compressed, it begins to bulge on sides and becomes barrel shaped as shown in the figure
Hardness test: The hardness test is a comparative test and has been evolved mainly from
the need to have some convenient method of measuring the resistance of materials to
scratching, wear or in dentation this is also used to give a guide to overall strength of a
Page No.
25 of 356.
In the Brinell Test, the ball diameter and applied load are constant and are selected to suit
the composition of the metal, its hardness, and selected to suit the composition of the metal,
its hardness, the thickness etc. Further, the hardness of the ball should be at least 1.7 times
than the test specimen to prevent permanent set in the ball.
(i)
Brinell
(ii) Vickers
Disadvantage of Brinell Hardness Test: The main disadvantage of the Brinell Hardness
test is that the Brinell hardness number is not independent of the applied load. This can be
realized from. Considering the geometry of indentations for increasing loads. As the ball is
pressed into the surface under increasing load the geometry of the indentation charges.
(iii) Rockwell
(vi) Shore Scleroscopy
The most widely used are the first two.
In the Brinell test the indenter is a hardened steel ball which is pressed into the surface
using a known standard load. The diameter of resulting indentation is than measured using
a microscope & scale.
The units of Brinell Hardness number in S.I Unit would have been N/mm 2 or Mpa
ito
d
FE
To avoid the confusion which would have been caused of her wise Hardness numbers are
quotes as kgf / mm2
S
y
PD
l
l
Fi
D
In the Brinell hardness test, a hardened steel ball is pressed
P into the flat surface of
r
a
r
a test piece using a specified force. The ball is then removed and the diameter of the
resulting indentation is measured using a microscope.
The Brinell Hardness no. ( BHN ) is defined as
b
i
L
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
Units:
BHN = P / A
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
th
wi
ree
Here what we mean is that the geometry of the impression should not change w.r.t. load,
however the size it impression may change.
Vickers Hardness test:
The Vicker's Hardness test follows a procedure exactly a identical with that of Brinell
test, but uses a different indenter. The steel ball is replaced by a diamond, having the from
of a square based pyramid with an angle of 1360 between opposite faces. This is pressed
into the flat surface of the test piece using a specified force, and the diagonals of the
resulting indentation measured is using a microscope. The Hardness, expressed as a
Vicker's pyramid number is defined as the ratio F/A, where F is the force applied to the
diamond and A is the surface area of the indentation.
Page No.
26 of 356.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
e
rit
d
tu
r
ito
d
FE
S
y
D
r
a
r
lP
l
i
F
PD
In the Vicker Test the indenters of pyramidal or conical shape are used & this overcomes
the disadvantage which is faced in Brinell test i.e. as the load increases, the geometry of the
indentation's does not change
b
i
L
th
wi
ree
Advantage: Apart from the convenience the vicker's test has certain advantages over the
Brinell test.
(i) Harder material can be tested and indentation can be smaller & therefore less obtrusive
or damaging.
Upto a 300 kgf /mm2 both tests give the same hardness number but above too the Brinell
test is unreliable.
Rockwell Hardness Test :
The Rockwell Hardness test also uses an indenter when is pressed into the flat
surface of the test piece, but differs from the Brinell and Vicker's test in that the
measurement of hardness is based on the depth of penetration, not on the surface area of
indentation. The indenter may be a conical diamond of 1200 included angle, with a rounded
apex. It is brought into contact with the test piece, and a force F is applied.
Page No.
27 of 356.
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
Advantages :
Rockwell tests are widely applied in industry due to rapidity and simplicity with which they
may be performed, high accuracy, and due to the small size of the impressions produced on
the surface.
Static tension tests of the un-notched specimen's do not always reveal the susceptibility of
metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined in impact tests. In impact tests
we use the notched specimen's.
d
tu
or
t
i
This specimen is placed on its supports on anvil so that blow of the striker is opposite
Edto the
notch the impact strength is defined as the energy A, required to rupture the specimen,
F
PD
l
l
Impact Strength = A / f
Fi
D
P
th
wi
M
y
ols
o
Impact tests are carried
specimens, and the notches must not be regarded
d T outinonthenotched
simply as a localnreduction
cross sectional area of the specimen, Notches and , in
a
fact, surface rirregularities
of many kind give rise to high local stresses, and are in practice,
e
t
a potential
ir source of cracks.
W
e
e
r
IMPACT STRENGTH
S
y
r
a
r
Where f = the cross section area of the specimen in cm2 at fracture & obviously at notch.
The impact strength is a complex characteristic which takes into account both toughness
and strength of a material. The main purpose of notched bar tests is to study the
simultaneous effect of stress concentration and high velocity load application
b
i
L
Impact test are of the severest type and facilitate brittle friction. Impact strength values
cannot be as yet is used for design calculations but these tests as rule provided for in
specifications for carbon & alloy steels. Further, it may be noted that in impact tests fracture
may be either brittle or ductile. In the case of brittle fracture, fracture occurs by separation
and is not accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation as occurs in the case of ductile
fracture.
The specimen may be of circular or square cross section arranged either as a cantilever
or a simply supported beam.
Page No.
28 of 356.
Creep: Creep is the gradual increase of plastic strain in a material with time at constant
load. Particularly at elevated temperatures some materials are susceptible to this
phenomena and even under the constant load, mentioned strains can increase continually
until fractures. This form of facture is particularly relevant to the turbines blades, nuclear
rectors, furnaces rocket motors etc.
The general from of strain versus time graph or creep curve is shown below.
M
y
nd
a
r
o
To
ls
l
a
i
r
e
t
a
e
rit
d
tu
W
solution:
ito
d
FE
th
wi
ree
S
y
PD
l
l
i operation
The general form of Vs t graph or creep curve is shown below for two
Ftypical
conditions, In each case the curve can be considered to exhibit four D
principal features
P
r
a
r
(a) An initial strain, due to the initial application of load. In most cases this would be an
elastic strain.
(b) A primary creep region, during which he creep rate ( slope of the graph ) dimensions.
(c) A secondary creep region, when the creep rate is sensibly constant.
(d) A tertiary creep region, during which the creep rate accelerate to final fracture.
It is obvious that a material which is susceptible to creep effects should only be subjected to
stresses which keep it in secondary (st.line) region throughout its service life. This enables
the amount of creep extension to be estimated and allowed for in design.
b
i
L
Practice Problems:
PROB 1: A standard mild steel tensile test specimen has a diameter of 16 mm and a gauge
length of 80 mm such a specimen was tested to destruction, and the following results
obtained.
Load at yield point = 87 kN
Extension at yield point = 173 x 166 m
Page No.
29 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
Visual Inspection
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
(NDT)
Page No.
30 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
l
r
te
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
31 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
Magnifying Glass
The eye can not focus sharply on objects closer than
approximately 250 mm.
ols
M
y
d
n
ra
To
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
32 of 356.
l
ia
Magnifying Mirror
Fillet gauges / Weld gauge
Fillet gauges measure
(weld rounded
Flatness
b
i
L
n
ra
rit
d
u
t
S
y
Concavity
M
y
ls
o
To
r
te
D
ll P
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
it
Ed
Fi
D
P
inward)
r
a
r
Page No.
33 of 356.
VT:
Uses of Weld Gauge
d
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
34 of 356.
l
ia
Microscope
Bore-scope endoscopes or endoprobes
r
te
Endoscope:
ols
o
T
nd
a
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pv5Eg1PwLE
er
rit
W
End probe:
ee
r
F
th
i
w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OVWq6wG3Ic
ti or
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
Ed
DF
P
Flexible Fiber Optic ilBorescope
working lengths are
l
F
normally 60 to 365PD cm with diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm
Video Image-scope
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
35 of 356.
l
ia
Borescope
M
y
ls
n
ra
o
To
r
te
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
36 of 356.
l
ia
Endoscope
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
37 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
Basic Inspection
Techniques/Practices
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
br
ary
Li
Preparation
In order to conduct a thorough inspection, a great
deal of paperwork and/or reference information must
be accessed and studied before actually proceeding
to the aircraft to conduct the inspection. The aircraft
logbooks must be reviewed to provide background
information and a maintenance history of the particular
aircraft. The appropriate checklist or checklists must
be utilized to ensure that no items will be forgotten or
overlooked during the inspection. Also, many additional publications must be available, either in hard
copy or in electronic format to assist in the inspections.
These additional publications may include information
provided by the aircraft and engine manufacturers,
appliance manufacturers, parts venders, and the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA).
8-1
Page No.
38 of 356.
Aircraft Logs
Aircraft logs, as used in this handbook, is an inclusive term which applies to the aircraft logbook and all
supplemental records concerned with the aircraft. They
may come in a variety of formats. For a small aircraft,
the log may indeed be a small 5" 8" logbook. For
larger aircraft, the logbooks are often larger, in the form
of a three-ring binder. Aircraft that have been in service
for a long time are likely to have several logbooks.
ria
l
yM
ate
ols
er
an
d
To
rit
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
The aircraft logbook is the record in which all data concerning the aircraft is recorded. Information gathered
in this log is used to determine the aircraft condition,
date of inspections, time on airframe, engines and
propellers. It reflects a history of all significant events
occurring to the aircraft, its components, and accessories, and provides a place for indicating compliance
with FAA airworthiness directives or manufacturers service bulletins. The more comprehensive the
logbook, the easier it is to understand the aircrafts
maintenance history.
PD
Checklists
ary
br
Li
8-2
Page No.
39 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
9. Miscellaneous.
ols
er
an
d
To
Publications
ud
Fr
ee
rit
rw
ith
DF
St
Ed
ito
ll P
ary
PD
Fi
br
Li
7. Propeller group.
a. Propeller assembly for cracks, nicks, bends,
and oil leakage.
Aeronautical publications are the sources of information for guiding aviation mechanics in the operation
and maintenance of aircraft and related equipment.
The proper use of these publications will greatly aid
in the efficient operation and maintenance of all aircraft. These include manufacturers service bulletins,
manuals, and catalogs; FAA regulations; airworthiness
directives; advisory circulars; and aircraft, engine and
propeller specifications.
Manufacturers Service Bulletins/Instructions
Service bulletins or service instructions are two of several types of publications issued by airframe, engine,
and component manufacturers.
The bulletins may include: (1) purpose for issuing
the publication, (2) name of the applicable airframe,
engine, or component, (3) detailed instructions for
service, adjustment, modification or inspection, and
source of parts, if required and (4) estimated number
of manhours required to accomplish the job.
Maintenance Manual
The manufacturers aircraft maintenance manual
contains complete instructions for maintenance of all
systems and components installed in the aircraft. It
contains information for the mechanic who normally
8-3
Page No.
40 of 356.
ria
l
Airworthiness Directives are Federal Aviation Regulations and must be complied with unless specific
exemption is granted.
Airworthiness Directives may be divided into two
categories: (1) those of an emergency nature requiring
immediate compliance upon receipt and (2) those of a
less urgent nature requiring compliance within a relatively longer period of time. Also, ADs may be a onetime compliance item or a recurring item that requires
future inspection on an hourly basis (accrued flight time
since last compliance) or a calendar time basis.
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
Overhaul Manual
The manufacturers overhaul manual contains brief
descriptive information and detailed step by step
instructions covering work normally performed on a
unit that has been removed from the aircraft. Simple,
inexpensive items, such as switches and relays on
which overhaul is uneconomical, are not covered in
the overhaul manual.
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
yM
ate
Airworthiness Directives
A primary safety function of the FAA is to require
correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft,
aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other
products of the same design. The unsafe condition may
exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other
causes. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 39, Airworthiness Directives, defines
the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. The
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are published to notify
aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe
conditions and to prescribe the conditions under which
the product may continue to be operated.
ary
Li
br
The contents of ADs include the aircraft, engine, propeller, or appliance model and serial numbers affected.
Also included are the compliance time or period, a
description of the difficulty experienced, and the necessary corrective action.
Type Certificate Data Sheets
The type certificate data sheet (TCDS) describes the
type design and sets forth the limitations prescribed
by the applicable CFR part. It also includes any other
limitations and information found necessary for type
certification of a particular model aircraft.
Type certificate data sheets are numbered in the upper
right-hand corner of each page. This number is the
same as the type certificate number. The name of the
type certificate holder, together with all of the approved
8-4
Page No.
41 of 356.
ols
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Routine/Required Inspections
To
er
an
d
rit
yM
ate
ria
l
rw
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
ary
PD
Fi
br
Li
Page No.
42 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-6
Page No.
43 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-7
Page No.
44 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-8
Page No.
45 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-9
Page No.
46 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-10
Page No.
47 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
8-11
Page No.
48 of 356.
yM
ate
To
ols
Progressive Inspections
Because the scope and detail of an annual inspection
is very extensive and could keep an aircraft out of
service for a considerable length of time, alternative
er
an
d
Annual/100-Hour Inspections
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 91 discusses the basic requirements for annual
and 100-hour inspections. With some exceptions, all
aircraft must have a complete inspection annually.
Aircraft that are used for commercial purposes and are
likely to be used more frequently than noncommercial
aircraft must have this complete inspection every 100
hours. The scope and detail of items to be included in
annual and 100-hour inspections is included as appendix D of 14 CFR part 43 and shown as Figure 8-2.
ria
l
Fr
ee
rw
ith
ud
rit
Appendix D to Part 43Scope and Detail of Items (as Applicable to the Particular Aircraft)
To Be Included in Annual and 100-Hour Inspections
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
PD
Fi
ary
br
Li
8-12
Page No.
49 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
er
an
d
rit
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
To
ols
DF
St
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
br
Li
Figure 8-2. Scope and detail of annual and 100-hour inspections. (continued)
8-13
Page No.
50 of 356.
ria
l
ols
To
er
an
d
Fr
ee
rw
ith
ud
rit
91.409Inspections.
yM
ate
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
ary
PD
Fi
br
Li
8-14
Page No.
51 of 356.
Continuous Inspections
Continuous inspection programs are similar to progressive inspection programs, except that they apply
to large or turbine-powered aircraft and are therefore
more complicated.
yM
ate
ria
l
ols
er
an
d
To
rit
21 10 Compression
21 20 Distribution
Fr
ee
The following abbreviated table of ATA System, Subsystem, and Titles is included for familiarization purposes.
rw
ith
ud
21 30 Pressurization Control
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
Li
br
21 40 Heating
21 50 Cooling
21 60 Temperature Control
21 70 Moisture/Air Contaminate Control
The remainder of this list shows the systems and title
with subsystems deleted in the interest of brevity. Consult specific aircraft maintenance manuals for a complete description of the subsystems used in them.
22 AUTO FLIGHT
23 COMMUNICATIONS
24 ELECTRICAL POWER
25 EQUIPMENT/FURNISHINGS
26 FIRE PROTECTION
27 FLIGHT CONTROLS
28 FUEL
29 HYDRAULIC POWER
30 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION
31 INDICATING/RECORDING SYSTEMS
32 LANDING GEAR
33 LIGHTS
34 NAVIGATION
8-15
Page No.
52 of 356.
36 PNEUMATIC
37 VACUUM/PRESSURE
38 WATER/WASTE
ria
l
51 STRUCTURES
52 DOORS
yM
ate
53 FUSELAGE
54 NACELLES/PYLONS
55 STABILIZERS
56 WINDOWS
57 WINGS
ols
61 PROPELLERS
To
65 ROTORS
72 (T) TURBINE/TURBOPROP
rit
ud
Fr
ee
74 IGNITION
ith
75 BLEED AIR
rw
76 ENGINE CONTROLS
ito
77 ENGINE INDICATING
DF
PD
Fi
ary
br
Special Inspections
Li
St
ll P
80 STARTING
Ed
78 ENGINE EXHAUST
79 ENGINE OIL
er
an
d
71 POWERPLANT
8-16
Page No.
53 of 356.
Check for fuel leaks. Any sizeable fuel leak is an indication that an area may have received overloads which
have broken the sealant and opened the seams.
yM
ate
ria
l
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
ud
Fr
ee
Lightning Strike
Although lightning strikes to aircraft are extremely
rare, if a strike has occurred, the aircraft must be carefully inspected to determine the extent of any damage
that might have occurred. When lightning strikes
an aircraft, the electrical current must be conducted
through the structure and be allowed to discharge or
dissipate at controlled locations. These controlled
locations are primarily the aircrafts static discharge
wicks, or on more sophisticated aircraft, null field dischargers. When surges of high voltage electricity pass
through good electrical conductors, such as aluminum
or steel, damage is likely to be minimal or nonexistent.
When surges of high voltage electricity pass through
non-metallic structures, such as a fiberglass radome,
engine cowl or fairing, glass or plastic window, or a
composite structure that does not have built-in electrical bonding, burning and more serious damage to the
structure could occur. Visual inspection of the structure
is required. Look for evidence of degradation, burning
or erosion of the composite resin at all affected structures, electrical bonding straps, static discharge wicks
and null field dischargers.
Flood Damage
Like aircraft damaged by fire, aircraft damaged by
water can range from minor to severe, depending
on the level of the flood water, whether it was fresh
or salt water and the elapsed time between the flood
occurrence and when repairs were initiated. Any parts
that were totally submerged should be completely
disassembled, thoroughly cleaned, dried and treated
with a corrosion inhibitor. Many parts might have
to be replaced, particularly interior carpeting, seats,
side panels, and instruments. Since water serves as an
electrolyte that promotes corrosion, all traces of water
and salt must be removed before the aircraft can again
be considered airworthy.
Li
Fire Damage
Inspection of aircraft structures that have been subjected to fire or intense heat can be relatively simple
if visible damage is present. Visible damage requires
repair or replacement. If there is no visible damage,
the structural integrity of an aircraft may still have
been compromised. Since most structural metallic
Seaplanes
Because they operate in an environment that accelerates corrosion, seaplanes must be carefully inspected
for corrosion and conditions that promote corrosion.
Inspect bilge areas for waste hydraulic fluids, water,
dirt, drill chips, and other debris. Additionally, since
seaplanes often encounter excessive stress from the
pounding of rough water at high speeds, inspect for
loose rivets and other fasteners; stretched, bent or
cracked skins; damage to the float attach fitting; and
general wear and tear on the entire structure.
Aerial Application Aircraft
Two primary factors that make inspecting these aircraft
different from other aircraft are the corrosive nature of
some of the chemicals used and the typical flight profile. Damaging effects of corrosion may be detected in
a much shorter period of time than normal use aircraft.
Chemicals may soften the fabric or loosen the fabric
tapes of fabric covered aircraft. Metal aircraft may need
to have the paint stripped, cleaned, and repainted and
corrosion treated annually. Leading edges of wings and
other areas may require protective coatings or tapes.
Hardware may require more frequent replacement.
8-17
Page No.
54 of 356.
General Techniques
Before conducting NDI, it is necessary to follow
preparatory steps in accordance with procedures specific to that type of inspection. Generally, the parts or
areas must be thoroughly cleaned. Some parts must
be removed from the aircraft or engine. Others might
need to have any paint or protective coating stripped. A
complete knowledge of the equipment and procedures
is essential and if required, calibration and inspection
of the equipment must be current.
ols
To
rit
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection can be enhanced by looking at the
suspect area with a bright light, a magnifying glass,
and a mirror (when required). Some defects might
be so obvious that further inspection methods are not
required. The lack of visible defects does not necessarily mean further inspection is unnecessary. Some
defects may lie beneath the surface or may be so small
that the human eye, even with the assistance of a magnifying glass, cannot detect them.
er
an
d
yM
ate
For an aircraft that does not currently meet airworthiness requirements because of an overdue inspection,
damage, expired replacement times for time-limited
parts or other reasons, but is capable of safe flight,
a special flight permit may be issued. Special flight
permits, often referred to as ferry permits, are issued
for the following purposes:
ria
l
rw
Ed
ito
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Borescope
Inspection by use of a borescope is essentially a visual
inspection. A borescope is a device that enables the
inspector to see inside areas that could not otherwise be
inspected without disassembly. An example of an area
that can be inspected with a borescope is the inside of
a reciprocating engine cylinder. The borescope can be
inserted into an open spark plug hole to detect damaged
pistons, cylinder walls, or valves. Another example
would be the hot section of a turbine engine to which
access could be gained through the hole of a removed
igniter or removed access plugs specifically installed
for inspection purposes.
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
ary
Nondestructive Inspection/Testing
Li
br
8-18
Page No.
55 of 356.
yM
ate
Interpretation of Results
The success and reliability of a penetrant inspection
depends upon the thoroughness with which the part
was prepared. Several basic principles applying to
penetrant inspection are:
ria
l
ols
To
rit
er
an
d
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
br
Li
The size of the indication, or accumulation of penetrant, will show the extent of the defect and the brilliance will be a measure of its depth. Deep cracks will
hold more penetrant and will be broader and more brilliant. Very fine openings can hold only small amounts
of penetrants and will appear as fine lines. Figure 8-4
shows some of the types of defects that can be located
using dry penetrant.
8-19
Page No.
56 of 356.
Pits of porosity
yM
ate
ria
l
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
False Indications
With the penetrant inspection, there are no false indications in the sense that they occur in the magnetic
particle inspection. There are, however, two conditions which may create accumulations of penetrant
that are sometimes confused with true surface cracks
and discontinuities.
br
ary
Basic Principles
When an alternating current is passed through a coil,
it develops a magnetic field around the coil, which in
turn induces a voltage of opposite polarity in the coil
and opposes the flow of original current. If this coil
is placed in such a way that the magnetic field passes
Li
8-20
Page No.
57 of 356.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic detection equipment makes it possible to
locate defects in all types of materials. Minute cracks,
checks, and voids too small to be seen by x-ray can
be located by ultrasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test
instrument requires access to only one surface of the
material to be inspected and can be used with either
straight line or angle beam testing techniques.
Two basic methods are used for ultrasonic inspection.
The first of these methods is immersion testing. In this
method of inspection, the part under examination and
the search unit are totally immersed in a liquid couplant,
which may be water or any other suitable fluid.
yM
ate
The magnitude and phase of this counter field is dependent primarily upon the resistance and permeability of
the specimen under consideration, and which enables
us to make a qualitative determination of various
physical properties of the test material. The interaction
of the eddy current field with the original field results
is a power change that can be measured by utilizing
electronic circuitry similar to a Wheatstone bridge.
ria
l
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
There are three basic ultrasonic inspection methods: (1) pulse echo; (2) through transmission; and
(3) resonance.
DF
Amplifier
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
Oscillator
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Meter
Probe
Sample part
8-21
Page No.
58 of 356.
RF pulser
Transducer
Amplifier
Flaw
2
Rate generator
3
Flaw
Specimen
Flaw
Speciman
yM
ate
Timing circuit
ria
l
T
Transducer
1
in relation to the front and back surfaces of the specimen. [Figure 8-8]
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Pulse Echo
Flaws are detected by measuring the amplitude of signals reflected and the time required for these signals to
travel between specific surfaces and the discontinuity.
[Figure 8-7]
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
Fr
ee
Li
br
ary
Through Transmission
Through transmission inspection uses two transducers,
one to generate the pulse and another placed on the
opposite surface to receive it. A disruption in the sound
path will indicate a flaw and be displayed on the instrument screen. Through transmission is less sensitive to
small defects than the pulse-echo method.
Resonance
This system differs from the pulse method in that the
frequency of transmission may be continuously varied.
The resonance method is used principally for thickness
measurements when the two sides of the material being
tested are smooth and parallel and the backside is inaccessible. The point at which the frequency matches
the resonance point of the material being tested is the
thickness determining factor.
8-22
Page No.
59 of 356.
ria
l
Coaxial cable
Material
Quartz crystal
yM
ate
Defect
ols
Reflective wave
To
er
an
d
rit
T=
Reflecting
surface
Wavelength
2
F = F1 (Fundamental frequency)
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Transducer
incident wave
Material
under test
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
ary
br
Li
8-23
Page No.
60 of 356.
H. F.
Oscillator
Motor
ria
l
CRT
Tuning
capacitor
Transducer
ols
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
To
er
an
d
rit
yM
ate
Material
Contacts
Fr
ee
Horizontal
time-base
generator
8-24
Page No.
61 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
Development of Indications
When a discontinuity in a magnetized material is open
to the surface, and a magnetic substance (indicating
medium) is available on the surface, the flux leakage at the discontinuity tends to form the indicating
medium into a path of higher permeability. (Permeability is a term used to refer to the ease with which a
magnetic flux can be established in a given magnetic
circuit.) Because of the magnetism in the part and the
adherence of the magnetic particles to each other, the
indication remains on the surface of the part in the form
of an approximate outline of the discontinuity that is
immediately below it.
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Li
8-25
Page No.
62 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Longitudinal magnetization
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Solenoids produce effective magnetization for approximately 12 inches from each end of the coil, thus accommodating parts or sections approximately 30 inches
in length. Longitudinal magnetization equivalent to
that obtained by a solenoid may be accomplished by
wrapping a flexible electrical conductor around the
part. Although this method is not as convenient, it has
8-26
Page No.
63 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
ols
rit
er
an
d
To
Identification of Indications
The correct evaluation of the character of indications
is extremely important but is sometimes difficult to
make from observation of the indications alone. The
principal distinguishing features of indications are
shape, buildup, width, and sharpness of outline. These
characteristics are more valuable in distinguishing
between types of discontinuities than in determining
their severity. Careful observation of the character of
the magnetic particle pattern should always be included
in the complete evaluation of the significance of an
indicated discontinuity.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Magnetizing Methods
When a part is magnetized, the field strength in the part
increases to a maximum for the particular magnetizing force and remains at this maximum as long as the
magnetizing force is maintained.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
br
In the continuous inspection method, the part is magnetized and the indicating medium applied while the
magnetizing force is maintained. The available flux
density in the part is thus at a maximum. The maximum
value of flux depends directly upon the magnetizing
force and the permeability of the material of which
the part is made.
Li
8-27
Page No.
64 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
Fatigue crack
To
ols
er
an
d
Fr
ee
Pressure spring
Contact plate
Movable head
Contact plate
ith
ud
Ammeter
rit
Nozzle
Push button
br
Pump switch
ary
PD
Fi
Fixed head
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
Solenoid
Rheostat
Li
Short-circuiting
switch
Circulating
pump
Solenoid switch
8-28
Page No.
65 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
To
er
an
d
rit
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ols
Longitudinal magnetization is produced by the solenoid, which moves in the same guide rail as the movable head and is connected in the electrical circuit by
means of a switch.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
br
This unit is only a source of magnetizing and demagnetizing current and does not provide a means for
supporting the work or applying the suspension. It
operates on 200 volt, 60 cycle, alternating current and
contains a rectifier for producing direct current when
required. [Figure 8-20]
Li
The magnetizing current is supplied through the flexible cables. The cable terminals may be fitted with
prods, as shown in the illustration, or with contact
clamps. Circular magnetization may be developed by
using either the prods or clamps.
Page No.
66 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
ols
To
er
an
d
rit
ud
Demagnetizing
The permanent magnetism remaining after inspection
must be removed by a demagnetization operation if
the part is to be returned to service. Parts of operating mechanisms must be demagnetized to prevent
magnetized parts from attracting filings, grindings, or
chips inadvertently left in the system, or steel particles
resulting from operational wear.
Fr
ee
ith
rw
ito
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
Radiographic
X and gamma radiations, because of their unique ability
to penetrate material and disclose discontinuities, have
been applied to the radiographic (x-ray) inspection of
metal fabrications and nonmetallic products.
Radiation
br
ary
PD
Li
Void
Specimen
Film
Black
area
White
area
Gray
area
White
area
Black
area
After processing
8-30
Page No.
67 of 356.
yM
ate
ols
Experience has shown that, whenever possible, radiographic interpretation should be conducted close to the
radiographic operation. When viewing radiographs, it
is helpful to have access to the material being tested.
The radiograph can thus be compared directly with
the material being tested, and indications due to such
things as surface condition or thickness variations can
be immediately determined.
ud
Fr
ee
rw
ith
St
Film characteristics
Ed
ito
DF
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
br
To
rit
er
an
d
Film Processing
After exposure to x-rays, the latent image on the film is
made permanently visible by processing it successively
through a developer chemical solution, an acid bath,
and a fixing bath, followed by a clear water wash.
Li
Radiographic Interpretation
From the standpoint of quality assurance, radiographic
interpretation is the most important phase of radiography. It is during this phase that an error in judgment
can produce disastrous consequences. The efforts of the
whole radiographic process are centered in this phase;
the part or structure is either accepted or rejected.
Conditions of unsoundness or other defects which are
overlooked, not understood, or improperly interpreted
can destroy the purpose and efforts of radiography and
can jeopardize the structural integrity of an entire aircraft. A particular danger is the false sense of security
imparted by the acceptance of a part or structure based
on improper interpretation.
ria
l
Radiographic Inspection
Radiographic inspection techniques are used to locate
defects or flaws in airframe structures or engines with
little or no disassembly. This is in marked contrast to
other types of nondestructive testing which usually
require removal, disassembly, and stripping of paint
from the suspected part before it can be inspected. Due
to the radiation risks associated with x-ray, extensive
training is required to become a qualified radiographer.
Only qualified radiographers are allowed to operate
the x-ray units.
8-31
Page No.
68 of 356.
ria
l
yM
ate
To
ols
Inspection of Composites
rit
er
an
d
Composite structures should be inspected for delamination, which is separation of the various plies, debonding
of the skin from the core, and evidence of moisture and
corrosion. Previously discussed methods including
ultrasonic, acoustic emission, and radiographic inspections may be used as recommended by the aircraft
manufacturer. The simplest method used in testing
composite structures is the tap test.
Tap Testing
Tap testing, also referred to as the ring test or coin
test, is widely used as a quick evaluation of any accessible surface to detect the presence of delamination or
debonding. The testing procedure consists of lightly
tapping the surface with a light hammer (maximum
weight of 2 ounces), a coin or other suitable device.
The acoustic response or ring is compared to that
of a known good area. A flat or dead response
indicates an area of concern. Tap testing is limited to
finding defects in relatively thin skins, less than 0.080"
thick. On honeycomb structures, both sides need to be
tested. Tap testing on only one side would not detect
debonding on the opposite side.
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Material strength is also affected by flaw size. A metallic component of a given area is designed to carry a
certain load plus a safety factor. Reducing this area by
including a large flaw weakens the part and reduces the
safety factor. Some flaws are often permitted in components because of these safety factors; in this case,
the interpreter must determine the degree of tolerance
or imperfection specified by the design engineer. Both
flaw size and flaw shape should be considered carefully,
since small flaws with sharp points can be just as bad as
large flaws with no sharp points.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
br
Radiation Hazards
Radiation from x-ray units and radioisotope sources is
destructive to living tissue. It is universally recognized
that in the use of such equipment, adequate protection
must be provided. Personnel must keep outside the
primary x-ray beam at all times.
Li
Electrical Conductivity
Composite structures are not inherently electrically
conductive. Some aircraft, because of their relatively
low speed and type of use, are not affected by electrical
issues. Manufacturers of other aircraft, such as highspeed high-performance jets, are required to utilize
various methods of incorporating aluminum into their
structures to make them conductive. The aluminum
is imbedded within the plies of the lay-ups either as a
8-32
Page No.
69 of 356.
ols
er
an
d
25 to 50% T
rit
Approx. 12 T
100%
Penetration
Leg 2 to 3 T
To
Bead width
3 to 5 T
Reinforcement
1
4 to 12 T
yM
ate
ria
l
ud
Fr
ee
rw
ith
Figure 8-23. (A) Butt weld and (B) fillet weld, showing width and depth of bead.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
Inspection of Welds
br
Li
8-33
Page No.
70 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
To
er
an
d
rit
ud
Fr
ee
ols
ith
rw
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
A bad weld with irregular edges and considerable variation in the depth of penetration is shown in D of Figure
8-24. It often has the appearance of a cold weld.
8-34
Page No.
71 of 356.
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplists NDT methods where its
earliest versions (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to the 19th century. This
method is used to reveal surface discontinuities by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent
dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the ability
of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface
discontinuity by capillary action. After a period of time
called the "dwell time", excess surface penetrant is
removed and a developer applied. This acts as a blotter
that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal
its presence.
rit
er
an
dT
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Li
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its popularity
can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. It can
be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough
or porous. Materials that are commonly inspected using this method include; metals,
glass, many ceramic materials, rubber and plastics.
However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the
surface of the sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of fusion, etc.).
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 1 of 20
72 of 356.
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to case depending
on several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of
the component being inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the
component and the condition and environment under which the inspection is
performed. However, the general steps can be summarized as follows:
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is
the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other
contaminants that may prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may
also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit
blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can
smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from entering.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried,
the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in
a penetrant bath.
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect.
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the
part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant producers
or required by the specification being
followed. The times vary depending on
the application, penetrant materials
used, the material, the form of the
material being inspected, and the type
of discontinuity being inspected for.
Minimum dwell times typically range
from five to 60 minutes. Generally,
there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant
is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by
experimentation and may be very specific to a particular application.
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of
the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.
Page No.
Page 2 of 20
73 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
dT
an
er
rit
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
oo
ls
PD
F
ill
PD
F
br
ary
8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part
surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to be
acceptable.
Li
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:
Advantages
Page 3 of 20
74 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Disadvantages
an
dT
oo
ls
ee
Fr
rw
ith
ud
Ed
ito
PD
F
Penetrants
ill
PD
F
St
rit
er
br
ary
Penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the
inspector. The penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics:
Li
- spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
complete and even coverage.
- be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
- remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
- remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the
drying and developing steps.
- be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
- not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
Penetrant materials are not designed to perform the same. Penetrant manufactures
have developed different formulations to address a variety of inspection applications.
Some applications call for the detection of the smallest defects possible while in other
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 4 of 20
75 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
applications, the rejectable defect size may be larger. The penetrants that are used to
detect the smallest defect will also produce the largest amount of irrelevant
indications.
Standard specifications classify penetrant materials according to their physical
characteristics and their performance.
Penetrant materials come in two basic types:
Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
dT
oo
ls
Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they contain a red dye that provides high contrast
against the white developer background.
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems
because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However,
visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order
to make an inspection.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant
from the part. The four methods are:
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Method A - Water Washable: penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing
with water alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that
makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water alone.
Water washable penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying
systems.
Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic: the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts
with the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible.
Method C - Solvent Removable: they require the use of a solvent to remove the
penetrant from the part.
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 5 of 20
76 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
oo
ls
ee
rit
er
an
dT
The procedure for classifying penetrants into one of the five sensitivity levels uses
specimens with small surface fatigue cracks. The brightness of the indication
produced is measured using a photometer.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
Developers
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. Developers
used with visible penetrants create a white background so there is a greater degree of
contrast between the indication and the surrounding background. On the other hand,
developers used with fluorescent penetrants both reflect and refract the incident
ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more
efficient fluorescence.
According to standards, developers are classified based on the method that the
developer is applied (as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid carrier). The
six standard forms of developers are:
Form a - Dry Powder
Li
Page 6 of 20
77 of 356.
Dry Powder
yM
ate
ria
l
Dry powder developers are generally considered to be the least sensitive but they are
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can
be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways; by dipping parts in a
container of developer, by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer, or placing
parts in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around. Since the powder only
sticks to areas of indications since they are wet, powder developers are seldom used
for visible inspections.
Water Soluble
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are
dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The
best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The
part can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is
sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Drying is achieved by placing
the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air dryer with the temperature
21C. Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the entire
surface.
St
Ed
ito
Water Suspendable
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Li
Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically
applied with a spray gun. Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol
spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by
solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required.
Special Applications
Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily used when a
permanent record of the inspection is required.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 7 of 20
78 of 356.
Preparation of Part
yM
ate
ria
l
One of the most critical steps in the penetrant inspection process is preparing the part
for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must be
removed to ensure that defects are open to the surface of the part. If the parts have
been machined, sanded, or blasted prior to the penetrant inspection, it is possible that
a thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface and closed off defects. Also,
some cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can cause metal smearing in softer
materials. This layer of metal smearing must be removed before inspection.
dT
oo
ls
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Ed
ito
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
br
ary
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part
surface. The dwell time is important because it allows the penetrant the time
necessary to seep or be drawn into a defect. Dwell times are usually recommended by
the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The time
required to fill a flaw depends on a number of variables which include:
The surface tension of the penetrant.
The contact angle of the penetrant.
The dynamic shear viscosity of the penetrant.
The atmospheric pressure at the flaw opening.
The capillary pressure at the flaw opening.
The pressure of the gas trapped in the flaw by the penetrant.
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 8 of 20
79 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
The radius of the flaw or the distance between the flaw walls.
The density or specific gravity of the penetrant.
Microstructural properties of the penetrant.
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and is often very specific
to a particular application. For example, the table shows the dwell time requirements
for steel parts according to some of the commonly used specifications.
PD
F
br
ary
The penetrant removal procedure must effectively remove the penetrant from the
surface of the part without removing an appreciable amount of entrapped penetrant
from the discontinuity. If the removal process extracts penetrant from the flaw, the
flaw indication will be reduced by a proportional amount. If the penetrant is not
effectively removed from the part surface, the contrast between the indication and the
background will be reduced.
Li
Removal Method
As mentioned previously, penetrant systems are classified into four types according to
the method used for excess penetrant removal.
- Method A: Water-Washable
- Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
- Method C: Solvent Removable
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 9 of 20
80 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Method C, Solvent Removable, is used primarily for inspecting small localized areas.
This method requires hand wiping the surface with a cloth moistened with the solvent
remover, and is, therefore, too labor intensive for most production situations.
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to over-washing of the part is a
concern, a post-emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. The post-emulsifiable
methods are generally only used when very high sensitivity is needed. Postemulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to breakdown the penetrant and
make it water washable. The part is usually immersed in the emulsifier but hydrophilic
emulsifiers may also be sprayed on the object. Brushing the emulsifier on to the part is
not recommended either because the bristles of the brush may force emulsifier into
discontinuities, causing the entrapped penetrant to be removed. The emulsifier is
allowed sufficient time to react with the penetrant on the surface of the part but not
given time to make its way into defects to react with the trapped penetrant.
Controlling the reaction time is of essential importance when using a post-emulsifiable
system. If the emulsification time is too short, an excessive amount of penetrant will
be left on the surface, leading to high background levels. If the emulsification time is
too long, the emulsifier will react with the penetrant entrapped in discontinuities,
making it possible to deplete the amount needed to form an indication.
The hydrophilic post-emulsifiable method (Method D) is more sensitive than the
lipophilic post-emulsifiable method (Method B). The major advantage of hydrophilic
emulsifiers is that they are less sensitive to variation in the contact and removal time.
Li
Page 10 of 20
81 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
When a solvent removable penetrant is used, care must also be taken to carefully
remove the penetrant from the part surface while removing as little as possible from
the flaw. The first step in this cleaning procedure is to dry wipe the surface of the part
in one direction using a white, lint-free, cotton rag. One dry pass in one direction is all
that should be used to remove as much penetrant as possible. Next, the surface should
be wiped with one pass in one direction with a rag moistened with cleaner. One dry
pass followed by one damp pass is all that is recommended. Additional wiping may
sometimes be necessary; but keep in mind that with every additional wipe, some of
the entrapped penetrant will be removed and inspection sensitivity will be reduced.
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
The use of developer is almost always recommended. The output from a fluorescent
penetrant is improved significantly when a suitable powder developer is used. Also, the
use of developer can have a dramatic effect on the probability of detection of an
inspection.
br
ary
Nonaqueous developers are generally recognized as the most sensitive when properly
applied. However, if the thickness of the coating becomes too great, defects can be
masked. The relative sensitivities of developers and application techniques as ranked
in Volume II of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook are shown in the table below.
Li
Ranking
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Developer Form
Nonaqueous, Wet Solvent
Plastic Film
Water-Soluble
Water-Suspendable
Water-Soluble
Water-Suspendable
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Page 11 of 20
Method of Application
Spray
Spray
Spray
Spray
Immersion
Immersion
Dust Cloud (Electrostatic)
Fluidized Bed
Dust Cloud (Air Agitation)
Immersion (Dip)
Page No.
82 of 356.
Developer
Dry
Soluble
yM
ate
ria
l
The following table lists the main advantages and disadvantages of the various
developer types.
Advantages
Indications tend to remain
brighter and more distinct
over time
Disadvantages
Does not form contrast
background so cannot be
used with visible systems
Easily to apply
dT
oo
ls
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Ed
ito
rw
ith
br
ary
Nonaqueous
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 12 of 20
83 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Quality control of the penetrant inspection process is essential to get good and
consistent results. Since several steps and materials are involved in the inspection
process, there are quality control procedures for each of them.
Temperature Control
dT
oo
ls
The temperature of the penetrant materials and the part being inspected can have an
effect on the results. Temperatures from 27 to 49C are reported in the literature to
produce optimal results. Many specifications allow testing in the range of 4 to 52C.
Raising the temperature beyond this level will significantly raise the speed of
evaporation of penetrants causing them to dry out quickly.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Since the surface tension of most materials decrease as the temperature increases,
raising the temperature of the penetrant will increase the wetting of the surface and
the capillary forces. Of course, the opposite is also true, so lowering the temperature
will have a negative effect on the flow characteristics.
Ed
ito
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Li
Contamination can occur during storage and use. Of course, open tank systems are
much more susceptible to contamination than are spray systems. Regular checks must
be performed to ensure that the material performance has not degraded. When the
penetrant is first received from the manufacturer, a sample of the fresh solution
should be collected and stored as a standard for future comparison. The standard
specimen should be stored in a sealed, opaque glass or metal container. Penetrants
that are in-use should be compared regularly to the standard specimen to detect any
changes in properties or performance.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 13 of 20
84 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant producer or required by the
specification being followed. The only real quality control required in the dwell step of
the process is to ensure that a minimum dwell time is reached. There is no harm in
allowing a penetrant to dwell longer than the minimum time as long as the penetrant
is not allowed to dry on the part.
Emulsifier Path Quality Control
oo
ls
Quality control of the emulsifier bath is important and it should be performed per the
requirements of the applicable specification.
an
dT
Lipophilic Emulsifiers
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
Lipophilic emulsifiers mix with penetrants but when the concentration of penetrant
contamination in the emulsifier becomes too great, the mixture will not function
effectively as a remover. Standards require that lipophilic emulsifiers be capable of
20% penetrant contamination without a reduction in performance. When the cleaning
action of the emulsifier becomes less than that of new material, it should be replaced.
Ed
ito
Hydrophilic Emulsifiers
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Hydrophilic emulsifiers have less tolerance for penetrant contamination. The penetrant
tolerance varies with emulsifier concentration and the type of contaminating
penetrant. In some cases, as little as 1% (by volume) penetrant contamination can
seriously affect the performance of an emulsifier.
Emulsifier Concentration and Contact Time
The optimal emulsifier contact time is dependent on a number of variables that include
the emulsifier used, the emulsifier concentration, the surface roughness of the part
being inspected, and other factors. Usually some experimentation is required to select
the proper emulsifier contact time.
Li
The wash temperature, pressure and time are three parameters that are typically
controlled in penetrant inspection process specification. A coarse spray or an
immersion wash tank with air agitation is often used. When the spray method is used,
the water pressure is usually limited to 276 kPa. The temperature range of the water is
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 14 of 20
85 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
usually specified as a wide range (e.g., 10 to 38C). The wash time should only be as
long as necessary to decrease the background to an acceptable level. Frequent visual
checks of the part should be made to determine when the part has been adequately
rinsed.
Drying Process Quality Control
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
The temperature used to dry parts after the application of an aqueous wet developer
or prior to the application of a dry powder or a nonaqueous wet developer, must be
controlled to prevent drying in the penetrant in the flaw. To prevent harming the
penetrant material, drying temperature should be kept to less than 71C. Also, the
drying time should be limited to the minimum length necessary to thoroughly dry the
component being inspected.
ee
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
br
ary
A dry powder developer should be checked daily to ensure that it is fluffy and not
caked. It should be similar to fresh powdered sugar and not granulated like powdered
soap. It should also be relatively free from specks of fluorescent penetrant material
from previous inspection. This check is performed by spreading a sample of the
developer out and examining it under UV light.
Li
When using the developer, a light coat is applied by immersing the test component or
dusting the surface. After the development time, excessive powder can be removed by
gently blowing on the surface with air not exceeding 35 kPa.
Wet Soluble/Suspendable Developer
Wet soluble developer must be completely dissolved in the water and wet
suspendable developer must be thoroughly mixed prior to application. The
concentration of powder in the carrier solution must be controlled in these developers.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 15 of 20
86 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
The concentration should be checked at least weekly using a hydrometer to make sure
it meets the manufacturer's specification. To check for contamination, the solution
should be examined weekly using both white light and UV light. Some specifications
require that a clean aluminum panel be dipped in the developer, dried, and examined
for indications of contamination by fluorescent penetrant materials.
These developers are applied by spraying, flowing or immersing the component. They
should never be applied with a brush. Care should be taken to avoid a heavy
accumulation of the developer solution in crevices and recesses.
Solvent Suspendable
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Solvent suspendable developers are typically supplied in sealed aerosol spray cans.
Since the developer solution is in a sealed vessel, direct check of the solution is not
possible. However, the way that the developer is dispensed must be monitored. The
spray developer should produce a fine, even coating on the surface of the part. Make
sure the can is well shaken and apply a thin coating to a test article. If the spray
produces spatters or an uneven coating, the can should be discarded.
br
ary
Development Time
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Parts should be allowed to develop for a minimum of 10 minutes and no more than 2
hours before inspecting.
Lighting Quality Control
Li
Page 16 of 20
87 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
However, since natural daylight changes from time to time, the use of artificial lighting
is recommended to get better uniformity. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
possible (halogen lamps are most commonly used). The light intensity is required to be
100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected.
Lighting for Fluorescent Penetrant Inspections
dT
oo
ls
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are excited by UV light of 365nm wavelength and emit
visible light somewhere in the green-yellow range between 520 and 580nm. The
source of ultraviolet light is often a mercury arc lamp with a filter. The lamps emit
many wavelengths and a filter is used to remove all but the UV and a small amount of
visible light between 310 and 410nm. Visible light of wavelengths above 410nm
interferes with contrast, and UV emissions below 310nm include some hazardous
wavelengths.
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Standards and procedures require verification of filter condition and light intensity. The
black light filter should be clean and the light should never be used with a cracked
filter. Most UV light must be warmed up prior to use and should be on for at least 15
minutes before beginning an inspection. Since fluorescent brightness is linear with
respect to ultraviolet excitation, a change in the intensity of the light (from age or
damage) and a change in the distance of the light source from the surface being
inspected will have a direct impact on the inspection. For UV lights used in component
evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000 W/cm2 at 38cm distance from
the filter face. The required check should be performed when a new bulb is installed,
at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight
hours of continuous use.
When performing a fluorescent penetrant inspection, it is important to keep white
light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect
fluorescent indications. Light levels of less than 2 foot-candles are required by most
procedures. When checking black light intensity a reading of the white light produced
by the black light may be required to verify white light is being removed by the filter.
Light Measurement
Li
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer (an instrument that
transfers light energy into an electrical current). Some radiometers have the ability to
measure both black and white light, while others require a separate sensor for each
measurement. Whichever type is used, the sensing area should be clean and free of
any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor. Radiometers are
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 17 of 20
88 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerable over time.
Therefore, they should be calibrated at least every six months.
System Performance Check
er
an
dT
oo
ls
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
Li
Page 18 of 20
89 of 356.
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
size of the defect. However, the crack length alone does not determine whether a flaw
will be seen or go undetected. The volume of the defect is likely to be the more
important feature. The flaw must be of sufficient volume so that enough penetrant will
bleed back out to a size that is detectable by the eye or that will satisfy the
dimensional thresholds of fluorescence. The figure shows an example of fluorescent
penetrant inspection probability of detection (POD) curve as a function of crack length.
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 19 of 20
90 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
When proper health and safety precautions are followed, liquid penetrant inspection
operations can be completed without harm to inspection personnel. However, there is
a number of health and safety related issues that need to be taken in consideration.
The most common of those are discussed here.
Chemical Safety
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
rw
ith
ud
Fr
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Ultraviolet (UV) light has wavelengths ranging from 180 to 400 nanometers. These
wavelengths place UV light in the invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between visible light and X-rays. The most familiar source of UV radiation is the sun
and is necessary in small doses for certain chemical processes to occur in the body.
However, too much exposure can be harmful to the skin and eyes. The greatest threat
with UV light exposure is that the individual is generally unaware that the damage is
occurring. There is usually no pain associated with the injury until several hours after
the exposure. Skin and eye damage occurs at wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter
which is well below the 365 nm wavelength, where penetrants are designed to
fluoresce. Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in penetrant testing are almost always
filtered to remove the harmful UV wavelengths. The lamps produce radiation at the
harmful wavelengths so it is essential that they be used with the proper filter in place
and in good condition.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Page 20 of 20
91 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
ls
n
ra
o
To
r
te
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
92 of 356.
l
ia
Introduction
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
93 of 356.
l
ia
Outline
r
te
M
y
ls
n
ra
o
To
d
u
t
S
y
Considerations
1.
2.
3.
4.
rit
ee
Fr
ith
Component pre-cleaning
w
r
ito
d
Introduction of Fmagnetic
field
E
Dmagnetic media
Application of
ll P
i
F
Interpretation
of magnetic particle indications
PD
r
a
r
b
i
L
Page No.
94 of 356.
Introduction to Magnetism
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
ll
Fi
b
i
L
r
a
r
PD
PD
95 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
96 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
w
tor
D
ll P
i
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
97 of 356.
l
ia
Basic Procedure
M
y
ls
1. Component pre-cleaning
n
ra
o
To
r
te
rit
d
u
t
S
y
ee
Fr
ith
2. Introduction of magnetic
field
w
or
D
ll P
it
Ed
F
PD
r
a
r
b
i
L
Page No.
98 of 356.
l
ia
Pre-cleaning
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
99 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
ols
1. Using a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
that
o
T
d
n
contacts the test piece
ra
e
rit
d
u
t
S
y
eW
2. Flowing an electrical currentrethrough
the specimen
th
wi
r
3. Flowing an electrical current
through a coil of wire around
ito
d
the part or through aF Ecentral conductor running near the
D
part.
ll P
i
F
b
i
L
r
a
r
PD
Page No.
100 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
er
rit
d
u
t
S
y
ee
Fr
A longitudinal magnetic
field has
o
dit
th
i
rw
FE
magnetic lines ofPDforce
that run
l
il
DF
parallel to the Plong
axis of the
part.
A circular magnetic field has
magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the
perimeter of a part.
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
101 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
r
a
r
PD
Flux Leakage
No Flux Leakage
b
i
L
Page No.
102 of 356.
l
ia
Question
?
r
te
M
y
e
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
r
a
r
F
PD
b
i
L
Page No.
103 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
it
Ed
A longitudinal magnetic
field
F
D
is usually established
ll P by
i
F
PD
placing the part near
the
inside or a coils annulus.This
produces magnetic lines of
force that are parallel to the
long axis of the test part.
b
i
L
r
a
r
Portable Coil
Page No.
104 of 356.
r
te
M
y
l
ia
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
105 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
ls
Electric
Current
n
ra
o
To
r
te
Magnetic Field
rit
d
u
t
S
y
W
Circular magnetic fields are produced
by
ee
r
F
passing current through the part
ithor by
w
r
placing the part in a strong circular
ito
d
E
F
magnet field.
D
ll P
i
F
A headshot on a wet horizontal
test unit
PD
and the use of prods are several common
methods of injecting current in a part to
produce a circular magnetic field. Placing
parts on a central conductors carrying
high current is another way to produce the
field.
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
106 of 356.
Application of Magnetic
Media (Wet Versus Dry)
MPI can be performed using either
dry particles, or particles
suspended in a liquid.
ols
o
T
r
te
M
y
d
l
ia
n
ra
rit
d
u
t
S
y
ee
Fr
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
107 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
a
ter
ri
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
108 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
r
te
d
u
t
S
y
ll P
b
i
L
r
a
r
i
DF
Page No.
109 of 356.
l
ia
Interpretation of Indications
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
ee
or
dit
Fr
ti h
E
F
D
b
i
L
P
The
ill following series of images depict
F
PD
relevant indications produced from a
variety of components inspected
with the magnetic particle method.
r
a
r
Page No.
110 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
111 of 356.
Gear with
Service Induced Crack
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
112 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
113 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
114 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
115 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
116 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
117 of 356.
l
ia
Indication
M
y
ls
n
ra
o
To
r
te
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
118 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
ls
n
ra
o
To
r
te
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
119 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
ib
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
120 of 356.
l
ia
Demagnetization
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
121 of 356.
l
ia
Demagnetization (Cont.)
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
o
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Magnetized
Demagnetized
Page No.
122 of 356.
Advantages of
Magnetic Particle Inspection
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
123 of 356.
Limitations of
Magnetic Particle Inspection
l
ia
r
te
M
y
conditions).
d
u
t
S
y
E
F
D
ll P
r
a
r
i
DF
is important.
b
i
L
Page No.
124 of 356.
l
ia
Glossary of Terms
Black Light:
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
125 of 356.
l
ia
Glossary of Terms
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
126 of 356.
l
ia
Glossary of Terms
r
te
Non-relevant indications:
M
y
Prods:
ls
o
To
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
127 of 356.
l
ia
Glossary of Terms
Suspension:
r
te
Yokes may be
b
i
L
M
y
ra
e
t
ri magnets
made from permanent
W
ree
F
ith
w
r
ito
d
E
F
D
ll P
i
F
PD
d
u
t
S
y
or electromagnets.
r
a
r
Page No.
128 of 356.
ate
ria
Magnetic particle testing is one of the most widely utilized NDT methods
since it is fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is
not as critical as it is for some other methods. This mithod uses magnetic
fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is
that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic
material (a materials that can be magnetized) such as iron, nickel, cobalt,
or some of their alloys.
Ed
ito
Basic Principles
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Li
br
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets
with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked
but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the
crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The
magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the
small air gap created by the crack because the air
cannot support as much magnetic field per unit
volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads
out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus
is called a flux leakage field.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 1 of 34
129 of 356.
ria
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to
and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the
edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack
and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
rw
Ed
ito
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The first step in a magnetic particle testing is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the
surface are present, the defects will
create a leakage field. After the
component has been magnetized, iron
particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the
surface of the magnetized part. The
particles will be attracted and cluster
at the flux leakage fields, thus forming
a visible indication that the inspector can detect.
ill
PD
F
Advantages
PD
F
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:
br
ary
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 2 of 34
130 of 356.
Magnetism
ate
ria
The concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is known as a
dipole. The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a
change in energy within that volume. The location where a magnetic field exits or
enters a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never been detected
in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an
object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second, equal but opposite,
magnetic pole on the other. A bar magnet is a dipole with a north pole at one end and
south pole at the other.
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
The source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter,
the atom. Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the
electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry
a negative electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they
move through space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an
electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the
magnetic moment.
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
Li
br
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's
electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.
However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic
field. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins: the electron
motion, the change in motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the
electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs where these pairs spin in
opposite directions. The opposite spin directions of electron pairs
cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net
magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 3 of 34
Page No.
131 of 356.
electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
ria
According to their interaction with a magnetic field, materials can be classified as:
ate
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
Page 4 of 34
132 of 356.
ria
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below.
A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece
of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper
with iron filings. The particles align themselves
with the lines of magnetic force produced by the
magnet. It can be seen in the magnetograph that
there are poles all along the length of the magnet
but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of
the magnet (the north and south poles).
rit
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
br
Li
Page 5 of 34
133 of 356.
ria
ate
Electromagnetic Fields
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. The flow of electric current
through a conductor generates a magnetic field. When electric current flows in a long
straight wire, a circular magnetic field is generated around the wire and the intensity of
this magnetic field is directly proportional to the amount of current
carried by the wire. The strength of the field is strongest next to
the wire and diminishes with distance. In most conductors, the
magnetic field exists only as long as the current is flowing.
However, in ferromagnetic materials the electric current will cause
some or all of the magnetic domains to align and a residual
magnetic field will remain.
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
Also, the direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the electrical
current in the wire. The direction of the magnetic field around a conductor can be
determined using a simple rule called the right-hand clasp rule. If a person grasps a
conductor in one's right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current,
the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.
ary
Note: remember that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal (electrons flow in the opposite direction).
br
Li
Page 6 of 34
134 of 356.
ate
ria
When the coil loops are tightly wound, a uniform magnetic field is developed
throughout the length of the coil. The strength of the magnetic field increases not only
with increasing current but also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long,
straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and it can be used to generate a nearly uniform
magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a
coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the
magnetic particle testing method.
yM
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
ary
PD
F
ill
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at
a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density, B. The flux density or
magnetic induction has the Tesla as its unit. One Tesla is equal to 1
Newton/(A/m). From these units, it can be seen that the flux density is a
measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic field.
Li
br
The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux,
. The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains
that are aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied
over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a Tesla-meter2.
The magnetization M is a measure of the extent to which an object is
magnetized. It is a measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of
the object. Magnetization carries the same units as a magnetic field A/m.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 7 of 34
135 of 356.
Tesla
Tesla
Weber
A/m
Weber
-
CGS Units
(Gaussian)
oersteds
gauss
ate
Field
(Magnetization
Force)
Flux Density
(Magnetic
Induction)
Flux
Magnetization
SI Units
SI Units
(Sommerfeld) (Kennelly)
A/m
A/m
ria
Quantity
oo
ls
yM
maxwell
erg/Oe-cm3
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to
as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.
Page 8 of 34
136 of 356.
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the
magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will
move from point "a" to point "b". At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux
remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as
the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the level of residual magnetism in
the material (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their
alignment). As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where
the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve
(the reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux
within the material is zero). The force required to remove the residual magnetism from
the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction, point "d". Reducing H to
zero brings the curve to point "e". It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to
that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will
return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because
some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a
different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the
loop.
PD
F
ill
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can
be determined:
Li
br
ary
Page 9 of 34
ria
ate
Permeability
= B/H
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ary
PD
F
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being
magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.
Li
br
Page 10 of 34
Page No.
138 of 356.
ate
ria
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
Li
br
The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize
the specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because
the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established
at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This
orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field
within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the
part. If the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will
see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 11 of 34
139 of 356.
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
St
ud
Fr
ee
Ed
ito
rw
ith
There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a
component for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify
the magnetizing methods as either direct or indirect.
PD
F
ary
PD
F
ill
With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. The flow
of current causes a circular magnetic field to form in and around the conductor. When
using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good
electrical contact is established and maintained between the test equipment and the
test component to avoid damage of the the component (due to arcing or overheating
at high resistance ponts).
br
Li
Page 12 of 34
Page No.
140 of 356.
ate
ria
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Li
br
Page 13 of 34
ate
ria
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
As mentioned previously, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field
in components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC) are the two basic types of current commonly used. The type of current
used can have an effect on the inspection results, so the types of currents commonly
used are briefly discussed here.
St
ud
Fr
ee
Direct Current
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery
is the most common source of direct current. The current is said to flow from the
positive to the negative terminal, though electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is
very desirable when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a
magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials,
the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component.
Alternating Current
Li
br
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 14 of 34
142 of 356.
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for
the detection of subsurface defects. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very
much like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the
reversing AC can be converted to a one directional current. The three commonly used
types of rectified current are described below.
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
Page 15 of 34
143 of 356.
current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in
pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved.
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
rit
er
an
St
ud
Fr
ee
Longitudinal Fields
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
When a long component is magnetized using a solenoid having a shorter length, only
the material within the solenoid and
about the same length on each side of
the solenoid will be strongly magnetized.
This occurs because the magnetizing
force diminishes with increasing distance
from the solenoid. Therefore, a long
component must be magnetized and
inspected at several locations along its
length for complete inspection coverage.
br
Circular Fields
Li
When a circular magnetic field is forms in and around a conductor due to the passage
of electric current through it, the following can be said about the distribution and
intensity of the magnetic field:
- The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a maximum
at the surface.
- The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the
conductor increases (when the current strength is held constant).
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 16 of 34
144 of 356.
ria
- The field strength inside the conductor is dependent on the current strength,
magnetic permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H
curve.
- The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current
strength and it decreases with distance from the conductor.
ate
The images below show the magnetic field strength graphed versus distance from the
center of the conductor when current passes through a solid circular conductor.
yM
In a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field strength rises from zero
at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor.
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
In a magnetic conductor carrying DC, the field strength within the conductor is
much greater than it is in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the
permeability of the magnetic material. The external field is exactly the same for the
two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
When the magnetic conductor is carrying AC, the internal magnetic field will be
concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor (skin effect). The
external field decreases with increasing distance from the surface same as with DC.
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 17 of 34
145 of 356.
ria
In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic
field is zero at the inner surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outer
surface.
ate
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
When AC current is passed through a hollow circular magnetic conductor, the skin
effect concentrates the magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.
br
Li
As can be seen from these three field distribution images, the field strength at the
inside surface of hollow conductor is very low when a circular magnetic field is
established by direct magnetization. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is
not recommended when inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow component
for shallow defects (if the defect has significant depth, it may be detectable using DC
since the field strength increases rapidly as one moves from the inner towards the outer
surface).
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 18 of 34
146 of 356.
ria
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
er
an
Demagnetization
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
br
ary
PD
F
Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. The most effective way to
demagnetize a material is by heating the material above its curie temperature (for
instance, the curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770C). When steel is heated
above its curie temperature then it is cooled back down, the the orientation of the
magnetic domains of the individual grains will become randomized again and thus the
component will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed
with it long axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's
magnetic field.
Li
Page 19 of 34
147 of 356.
ria
ate
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Fr
ee
rit
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
ary
PD
F
ill
Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the
devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. The two devices
commonly used for quantitative measurement of magnetic fields n magnetic particle
inspection are the field indicator and the Hall-effect meter, which is also called a gauss
meter.
br
Field Indicators
Li
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron
vane that is deflected by a magnetic field. The vane is attached to a
needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. Field
indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative
information can be obtained. However, the measurement range of
field indicators is usually small due to the mechanics of the device
(the one shown in the image has a range from plus 20 to minus 20
Gauss). This limited range makes them best suited for measuring
the residual magnetic field after demagnetization.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 20 of 34
Page No.
148 of 356.
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
St
ud
Fr
ee
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
br
A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic field for magnetic particle
testing. One way to classify equipment is based on its portability. Some equipment is
designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is
designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing
facility.
Li
Portable Equipment
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets can be used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of
magnetism (bar magnets or horseshoe magnets). The use of industrial magnets is not
popular because they are very strong (they require significant strength to remove them
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 21 of 34
149 of 356.
ria
ate
from the surface, about 250 N for some magnets) and thus they
are difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle. However,
permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection
in underwater environments or other areas, such as explosive
environments, where electromagnets cannot be used. Permanent
magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas
where electromagnets might not fit.
Electromagnetic Yokes
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
PD
F
ill
Prods
Li
br
ary
Page 22 of 34
150 of 356.
prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered
with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
br
ary
PD
F
Li
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 23 of 34
151 of 356.
Stationery Equipment
yM
ate
ria
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
ary
Li
br
Page 24 of 34
ate
ria
measures the intensity of the field in the air adjacent to the component when a
magnetic field is applied. The advantages of this device are: it provides a quantitative
measure of the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece,
it can be used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and it can be used
repetitively. The main disadvantage is that such devices must be periodically
calibrated.
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or
eight sections by non-ferromagnetic material (such as copper). The divisions
serve as artificial defects that radiate out in different directions from the
center. The sections are furnace brazed and copper plated. The gage is
placed on the test piece copper side up and the test piece is magnetized.
After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications provide
the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field. Pie gages are mainly
used on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry powder
is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision
parts with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field
magnitude. The gage should be demagnetized between readings.
Slotted Strips
Slotted strips are pieces of highly permeable ferromagnetic material with slots of
different widths. These strips can be used with the wet or dry method. They are placed
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 25 of 34
153 of 356.
ria
on the test object as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the
inspector a general idea of the field strength in a particular area.
Magnetic Particles
ith
rw
Ed
ito
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection
are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to the
presence of defects. Particles start out as tiny milled pieces of iron or iron oxide. A
pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color.
The metal used for the particles has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity.
High magnetic permeability is important because it makes the particles attract easily to
small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is
important because the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so
they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry
mix or a wet solution.
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and several
other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being
inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important.
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The
fine particles have a diameter of about 50 m while the course particles have a
diameter of 150 m (fine particles are more than 20 times lighter than the coarse
particles). This makes fine particles more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small
discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine
particles where coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to
reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
contamination, such as remnant dirt or moisture, and get
trapped in surface roughness features. It should also be
recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by
the wind; therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity
of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommended because the small particles are less likely to be
recaptured and the "once used" mix will result in less sensitive
inspections.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 26 of 34
154 of 356.
ate
ria
The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves
along the lines of magnetic force. However, if dry powder consists
only of elongated particles, the application process would be less
than desirable since long particles lack the ability to flow freely.
Therefore, a mix of rounded and elongated particles is used since
it results in a dry powder that flows well and maintains good
sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios
between one and two.
oo
ls
yM
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller
particles to be used (the particles are typically 10 m and smaller) since dust and
adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also
makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area.
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
Li
br
Page 27 of 34
155 of 356.
ria
ate
oo
ls
yM
dT
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Surface preparation - The surface should be relatively clean but this is not as
critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease,
oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of
paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place
with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.076 mm of a
nonconductive coating (such as paint) or 0.025 mm of a ferromagnetic coating
(such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must
be removed.
ary
PD
F
o Some specifications require the surface to be coated with a thin layer of white
paint in order to improve the contrast difference between the background and
the particles (especially when gray color particles are used).
br
Li
Blowing off excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the
excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The force of the
air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not strong
enough to remove particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 28 of 34
156 of 356.
ria
Terminating the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with
an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be
terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
Inspection for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered.
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all of the surfaces
of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform layer of
particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles for an extended
period of time, which allows enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a
visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small
discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the particles (which
are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and lose mobility,
rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.
Steps for performing wet particle inspection:
Li
br
Surface preparation - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the surface
should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other
moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and
preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will
reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results.
Specifications often allow up to 0.076 mm of a nonconductive coating (such as
paint) or 0.025 mm of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the
surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
o Some specifications require the surface to be coated with a thin layer of white
paint when inspecting using visible particles in order to improve the contrast
Page No.
Page 29 of 34
157 of 356.
difference between the background and the particles (especially when gray
color particles are used).
ate
ria
oo
ls
yM
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
Inspection for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications
from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as depth increases.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
PD
F
ill
Particle Concentration
PD
F
ary
Li
br
The standard process used to perform the check requires agitating the
carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle
distribution. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml centrifuge
tube having a graduated stem (1.0 ml in 0.05 ml increments for
fluorescent particles, or 1.5 ml in 0.1 ml increments for visible particles).
The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not clump
together while settling. The sample must then remain undisturbed for a
period of time (60 minutes for a petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes
for a water-based carrier). The volume of settled particles is then read.
Acceptable ranges are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles and 1.2 to Page No. 158 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 30 of 34
ria
2.4 ml for visible particles. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable range,
particles or the carrier must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the
requirement.
Particle Condition
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and
agglomeration. Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet light and
visible particles under white light. The brightness of the particles should be evaluated
weekly by comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference
solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared. Additionally, the
particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or the
agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference solution, the
bath should be replaced.
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
Suspension Contamination
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
The suspension solution should also be examined for contamination which may come
from inspected components (oils, greases, sand, or dirt) or from the environment
(dust). This examination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for
concentration testing. Differences in color, layering or banding within the settled
particles would indicate contamination. Some contamination is to be expected but if
the foreign matter exceeds 30 percent of the settled solids, the solution should be
replaced. The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for
contamination. Oil in a water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary
concerns.
br
Li
A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of
water-based carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface
similar to those being inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film
forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of
suspension breaks (water break) exposing the surface of the component, insufficient
wetting agent is present and the solution should be adjusted or replaced.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 31 of 34
159 of 356.
ate
ria
ith
rw
Ed
ito
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter
is reading low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive
background "noise." If ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low to
produce detectable indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter is
connected in series with the output circuit and values are compared to the
equipment's ammeter values. Readings are taken at three output levels in the working
range. The equipment meter is not to deviate from the calibrated ammeter more than
10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found to be outside
this range, the condition must be corrected.
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated.
Standards require the timer be calibrated to within 0.1 second. A certified timer
should be used to verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.
Li
br
Ensuring that the magnetization equipment provides sufficient magnetic field strength
is essential. Standard require the magnetization strength of electromagnetic yokes to
be checked prior to use each day. The magnetization strength is checked by lifting a
steel block of a standard weight using the yoke at the maximum pole spacing to be
used (10 lb weight for AC yokes or 40 lb weight for DC yokes).
Lighting
Page 32 of 34
160 of 356.
using visible particles than they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent
particles.
ria
yM
ate
Visible particles inspections can be conducted using natural lighting or artificial lighting.
However, since natural daylight changes from time to time, the use of artificial lighting
is recommended to get better uniformity. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
possible (halogen lamps are most commonly used). The light intensity is required to be
100 foot-candles (1076 lux) at the surface being inspected.
an
dT
oo
ls
rit
er
Ultraviolet Lighting
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
ary
For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000
W/cm2 at 38cm distance from the filter face. The required check should be
performed when a new bulb is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change
in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours of continuous use.
br
Li
Page 33 of 34
161 of 356.
ate
ria
Light Measurement
Li
br
ary
PD
F
ill
PD
F
Ed
ito
rw
ith
St
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer (an instrument that
transfers light energy into an electrical current). Some radiometers have the ability to
measure both black and white light, while others require a separate sensor for each
measurement. Whichever type is used, the sensing area should be clean and free of
any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor. Radiometers are
relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerable over time.
Therefore, they should be calibrated at least every six months.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Magnetic Particle Testing
Page 34 of 34
162 of 356.
ial
yM
Phillip Stapleton
ate
r
Chapter 6
Quality Control
of Electroless Nickel Deposits
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
QUALITY METHOD
Page No.
163 of 356.
ial
ELECTROLESS PLATING
170
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
ate
r
identify the new quality level. Many methods have been developed to describe
the relationship of quality to manufacturing process. One that works well for
metal finishing is based on the work of Taguchi (Fig. 6.1).
According to his method, the goal is to develop a more robust manufacturing
system that has no performance variation of the product, while experiencing a
higher level of noise or variations within the processes.
The term noise is used to describe process variations from a mean. These
variations can be from the wear of machines, operator training, contamination of
materials, as well as many other factors. The use of the term inner noise refers to
variations that are being monitored and can be controlled, while outer noise
refers to variations that are not being controlled.
In Fig. 6.1, the block Off-line Quality Control is generally provided by the
suppliers of processes, while Transfer Design and On-line Quality Control
are performed by the producing facility.
When these basic concepts are transferred to a shop floor system, several
familiar shop functions are revealed. The first item is the specification, which
describes the requirements by acceptance and qualification tests that must be
completed to verify the quality of the coating. In addition to the specification, a
shop traveler is used to transfer the designs to the processor. This document
includes the sequence, conditions, times, and other critical information needed
to produceaquality part. A phaseofthedesign includes thefrequencyoftesting
of process conditions, which allows the process engiiieer to determine the
Process Capability Index.
By following the shop traveler and collecting the process information, studies
on the coating performance can be related to process conditions, different
operators, base materials, and more. From these studies, the frequency of
testing can be modified, new, more robust conditions can be selected, and the
quality can be brought under control.
Page No.
164 of 356.
ial
171
ate
r
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
In order to maintain the quality of the electroless nickel deposit, the electroless
solution must be maintained at optimum chemical and physical condition.
Constant filtration of the plating solution is recommended. The solution
should be filtered more than 10 times the volume of the process every hour. At
this rate of filtration, the filter will be able to remove most of the solids and
prevent the formation of roughness on the parts.
An important aspect in the design of the filter system is the pump dynamics
and how the system will operate with a high specific gravity and temperature.
The system should be sized for an operating temperature of 195" F and a specific
gravity of 1.310.
The maintenance of a relatively narrow pH range will insure a constant plating
rate and phosphorus content in the alloy. A pH change of 0.1 points may cause a
variation of 0.1 mil/hr and affect the final product performance and cost. For
some solutions, a change in pH of 0.5 points will cause a 1 percent change in
phosphorus content and significantly affect the properties of the subsequent
deposit.
Maintenance of the chemical composition of the plating solution in general,
and the nickel/hypophosphite ratio in particular, will ensure a uniform plating
rate and phosphorus content. Air agitation and low loading will cause
oxidation of the available hypophosphite and may lead to a lower phosphorus
content in the deposit and slower plating rates. To overcome this, periodic
titrations for sodium hypophosphite and additions in the form of replenisher
should be made to the plating solution.
The concentration of trace metals within the plating solution will also affect
the deposit properties. There are several elements that will directly affect the
performance in all solutions. These include sulfur, iron, cadmium, bismuth,
antimony, mercury, lead, and zinc. There are several others that may affect the
deposit properties, and which are primarly controlled by atomic adsorption,
inductively coupled plasma, or poloragraphy. The presence of some of these
materials may cause porosity in thin deposits and high stress. Some trace metals
increase the propensity to pitting in theenvironment by setting upactive cells on
the surface between nickel and the trace element. Excessive concentration of
trace elements in the solution may also produce a condition called step plating,
in which edges are not plated or areas have low thicknesses.
The control of trace elements starts with keeping them out the solution. If they
are present, several techniques can be tried to reduce their effect. Dilution is the
first choice, followed by dummying, and addition of secondary reducing agents.
Generally a combination of treatments will reduce the effect of the trace
elements and bring the solution back to a productive condition.
Page No.
165 of 356.
172
l
a
ri
ra
eW
W
3
S
y
d
tu
w
(D
ib
r
ra
Ed
r
ito
i-
Fil
D
P
F
PD
Fre
ith
E
8
i
M
y
rite
ELECTROLESS PLATING
e
t
a
ols
o
dT
Fre
ith
w
r
ito
Ed
F
PD
l
o
dT
n
ra
rite
173
-e
so
3
V
al
E
3
0)
-c
6
5
h
*i
2
-
?!
E
E
z
-5-z
Y
0
n
$
E
=
s8 f9
a r
f0
G
I
2
F
a
.B.
ib
eW
M
y
Fil
D
P
S
y
e
t
a
ols
d
tu
r
ra
l
a
ri
E
e
ols
ELECTROLESS PLATING
t
0
t:
a3
-5
U
.-C
0
c=
n
e
o
dT
ra
rite
v
.I
o
c
9
.z2
8$
z r ,
: : a
3 a l
2
5
a
m
L u m)
n
rn
.-0
.-0
-mm
u)
Z
0
8
8
z
Ed
F
PD
Fil
D
P
Ci
E
0
z
I5
S
y
iop
X
al
& 4
Z
=z
u)
.-C
a
e
58
26
$3
13
lQm
1s
2o &
g
E c u
ib
eW
M
y
d
tu
r
ra
e
t
a
Fre
ith
r
ito
l
a
ri
174
u)
u)
ols
w
I
-1
eW
Fre
ith
w
r
ito
Ed
F
PD
l
e
t
a
M
y
Fil
D
P
Z
g
h
2
O
8"
o
dT
n
ra
rite
175
U
J
f
m
c
g
2
(I)
E
3
0
g
c
0
-51
O
"
s2
-d
-!i
al
.eu.
: ii
?E
sg
z h
rg!
ea en
2u
s
o
ff
cn=
3* 4b
8 m
gf
45
0 1
ib
VI
9
8
S
y
d
tu
r
ra
l
a
ri
ial
ELECTROLESS PLATING
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
ate
r
176
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
Organic contamination within the solution will also cause deposit properties
to be compromised. The source of the organic materials may be from the part,
facilities and tank, or masking. The problem is manifestedby lack of adhesion,
porosity, and stress.
Some common sources of organic contamination include maskants, organic
materials, oils from within the substrate, plasticizers from hoses and liners,
airborne organics, drippage from overhead, and contaminated make-up water.
Silicates, though not organic in nature, can adversely contaminate the bath
through drag-in from the pretreatment cycle.
Activated carbon treatment of the plating solution at operating temperature
can often help reduce or eliminate some types of contaminants. If carbon
treatment is used on the solution to remove organic contaminants,care should
be taken to replace any desired organic control additives and that the carbon is
clean and is not a source of contamination.
Another type of contaminant is oxidizers. These materials, such as hydrogen
peroxideand nitric acid, will change the deposition potentialwithin the solution
and cause black or streaked deposits to be produced. With low levels of volatile
oxidizers, heating the solution may help. With higher levels, and with nonvolatile oxidizers, the solution must be discarded.
Other conditions that require control are agitation and loading. These two
factorsaffect thediffusion of nickel ions in the reduction reaction. High agitation
and either high or low loading can cause step plating and a low plating rate.
Generally, the plating solution will produce coatings when the velocity of the
solution is less than 4 Wsec. This value will be dependent on the solution
chemistry and solution operating conditions. At extremely low loads, the
Page No.
170 of 356.
ial
177
ate
r
deposition potential may be low enough to prevent the reduction reaction from
proceeding. This problem may be observed on sharp edges, such as needles,
where the sharp point will not plate. In most cases, this problemcan be corrected
by selection of solutions that can operate at higher velocities (7 to 10 Wsec).
rite
ree
th
F
Thickness
Appearance
Tolerance
Adhesion
Porosity
wi
tud
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
The selection of requirements for the electroless nickel deposit are generally
made by the purchaser of the coating. These requirements are established in
specifications. Based on the sampling requirements, a part or specimen must be
tested to identify any variation in performance.
The choice of tests that will characterize performancevariation specific to the
applicationof the part is important. Two types of tests are employed: acceptance
tests and qualification tests. These categories can be used to distinguish tests
that will be performed on an individual lot, and those that might be run on a
regular basis, such as weekly or monthly.
Acceptance tests include:
yS
Ed
ito
r
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
Corrosion resistance
Wear resistance
Alloy composition
Internal stress
Hydrogen embrittlement
Microhardness
The following list of requirements and test methods have been provided to
offer the user of electroless nickel coatings an overview of the options available.
The actual organization of requirementsand test methods have been published
in MIL-C-26074C and ASTM 8733 and should be used to maintain a national
standard for ordering and performance.
TEST METHODS
Appearance
The coating surface shall have a uniform, metallic appearance without visible
defects such as blisters, pits, pimples, and cracks.
Imperfectionsthat arise from surface conditions of the substrateand persist in
the coating shall not be cause for rejection. Also, discoloration that resultsfrom
heat treatment shall not be cause for rejection.
Page No.
171 of 356.
ial
I 7a
ELECTROLESS PLATiNG
Thickness Measurement
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
ate
r
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
Fig. 6.3-X-ray fluorescence device measures thickness by analyzing the mass per unit area of the
eieciroless nickel deposit according lo ASTM 8568.
Fig. 6.4-Beta backscatter device also measures thickness by analyzing the mass per unit area of the
electroless nickel deposit. There are some limitations to this method, but the cost and availability of
instruments makes it an excellent choice for many applications. ASTM 8567 can be used to
standardize and peiform the measurements with this instrument.
Page No.
172 of 356.
ial
179
ate
r
+ 19.736 cm-'
nd
To
ols
T=
yM
Example-A coupon made of mild steel has a weight of 3198 mg with an area
of 19.736 cm' before plating. After plating with electroless nickel, the coupon
weighs 3583 mg. Calculation for thickness is as follows:
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
Table 6.1
8ubstrate Densities
For Weigh, Plate, Weigh Method
7.86
8.02
2.79
2.70
8.91
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
Metallographic Sectioning
Plate a specimen of similar composition and metallurgical condition to the
article being plated, or use a sample from the lot; mount and polish at 90" to the
surface. Using a Vernier Calibrated Microscope, examine the thickness of the
deposit and average over 10 readings.
NOTE: Accurate microscopic metallographic sectioning is very dependent on
the sample preparation. Backing springs are recommended to reduce the
smearing effects of the polishing step.
Page No.
173 of 356.
ial
ELECTROLESS PLATING
180
ate
r
Micrometer Method
Measure a part of the test coupon in a specific spot before and after plating,
usin'g a suitable micrometer. Ensure that the part is at the same temperature for
each measurement and that the surface measured is smooth.
yM
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
Magnetic Method
A magnetic thickness detector is applicable to magnetic substrates plated with
autocatalytic nickel deposits that contain more than 10 weight percent
phosphorus(non-magnetic) and that have not been heat treated. The instrument
must be calibrated with deposits plated in the same bath on steel and whose
thickness has been determined by the microscopic method.
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
X-ray Spectrometry
The coating thickness can be measured by X-ray spectrometry. This technique
will measure the mass per unit area of the coating applied over the substrate.
X-ray spectrometry equipment should be calibrated according to ASTM 8568
with standards of known phosphorus and thickness. This method is nondestructive and will produce rapid and accurate results.
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
Coulometric Method
Measurethe coating thickness in accordance with ASTM 8504. The solution to
be used shall be in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. The
surface of the coating shall be cleaned prior to testing.
Standard thickness specimens shall be calibrated with deposits plated in the
same solution under the same conditions.
NOTE: This method is only recommended for deposits in the as-plated
condition. The phosphorus content of the coating must be known in order to
calculate the thickness of the deposit.
Adhesion Measurement
Bend Test
The sample specimen shall be bent through 180 over a minimum mandrel of 12
mm in diameter or four times the thickness of the specimen and examined at 4X
magnification. No detachment of the coating shall occur. Fine cracks in the
coating on the tension side of the bend are not an indication of poor adhesion.
Quench Test
Heat a plated article for 1 hr in an oven in accordance with Table 6.2 for the
appropriate basis metals within 210" C. Then quench in room temperature
water. The appearanceof blistersor peeling is evidenceof inadequateadhesion.
Page No.
174 of 356.
ial
181
ate
r
NOTE: This test procedure may have an adverse effect on the mechanical
properties of the articles tested.
yM
Table 6.2
Substrate Heat-Treatment
Temperatures for Quench Test
Steel
Zinc
300" c
150" C
250" c
250" C
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
Punch Test
Make several indentations (approximately 5 mm apart) in the coating, using a
spring-loaded center punch on which the point has been ground to a 2-mm
radius. Blistering or flaking indicates poor adhesion.
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
File Test
By agreement with the purchaser, a file may be applied to the coated article. A
non-significant area shall be filed at an angle of 45" to the coating, so that the
base rnetaVcoating interface is exposed. No lifting of the coating shall be
observed.
Microhardness
ASTM 8578 shall be used for Knoop hardness with a test load of 100 g. The
instrument shall be verified on calibratedstandardtest blocks having a hardness
similar to that of the deposit under test.
NOTE: For thin (less than 25 pm) deposits using less than 100 g loads, the
standardcommercial hardness tester produces varied results. This is due to the
plastic deformation of the coating and the optical qualities of the instrument.
Page No.
175 of 356.
ial
ELECTROLESS PLATING
182
ate
r
Hydrogen Embrittlement
ASTM F519 shall be used once a month to evaluate the plating process for relief
of hydrogen embrittlement. A minimum of three V-notch tensile specimens
made of AIS1 4340 heat treated to a strength of 260 to 280 ksi shall be plated and
loaded at 75 percent or greater of their ultimate notch tensile strength and held
for 200 hours. No evidence of fracture or cracks shall exist.
Alloy Determination
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
There are generally three phosphorus ranges for electroless nickel deposits.
Specific types of solution formulations will provide the selection of range of
phosphorus in the alloy. Specific confirmation of the alloy can be accomplished
by analyzing for nickel and phosphorus by one of the methods described below.
Most applications have been developed using a mid-range of 3 to 9.5 percent
phosphorus and are considered typical. Confirmation of the alloy for these
coatings can be by nickel or phosphorus, while coatings of less than 3 percent P
or greater than 9.5 percent P should use both the nickel and phosphorus
analysis to determine the alloy.
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
Lib
rar
Reagents:
1:l v/v concentrated nitric acid (specific gravity 1.42)
1 percent solution of dimethylglyoxime
Procedure:
Accurately weigh 0.1 g of autocatalytic nickel deposit and transfer to a 400 mL
beaker. Dissolve in 20 mL of 1:l nitric acid, boil to expel nitrous oxide fumes,
then cool and dilute to 150 mL with distilled water. Add approximately 1 g of
citric or tartaric acid to complex any ion that may be present and neutralize with
ammonium hydroxide to p H 8 to 9.
Heat gently to 60 to 70" C, and while stirring, add 30 mL of dimethylglyoxime
reagent. Allow to stand at 60 to 70" C for 1 hr, cool to below 20" C, and filter
through a clean sintered glass crucible of No. 4 porosity. Wash the precipitate
well with distilled water, dry in an oven at 110" C for 1 hr, cool, and weigh the
precipitate as nickel dimethylglyoxime.
Page No.
176 of 356.
183
ate
r
O/O
ial
yM
Reagents:
For dissolution and oxidation
40 percent v/v concentrated nitric acid (specific gravity 1.42)
2 percent sodium nitrate solution
Approximately 0.1N potassium permanganate solution
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
Page No.
177 of 356.
ial
ELECTROLESSPLATING
184
ols
yM
ate
r
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
Spectra Analysis
Page No.
178 of 356.
Porosity Measurement
ial
185
ate
r
The test to be applied shall be decided by the purchaser in agreement with the
plater.
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
Ferroxyl Test
The test solution is prepared by dissolving 25 g of potassium ferrocyanide and 15
g of sodium chloride in 1 L solution. The part is cleaned and immersed for 5 sec
in the test solution at 25" C, followed by water rinsing and air drying. Blue spots
visible to the unaided eye will form at pore sites. Their allowable number should
be specified.
Alternately, strips of suitable paper (e.g., "wet strength" filter paper) are first
immersed in a warm (about 35" C) solution containing 50 g/L of sodium chloride
and 50 g/L of white gelatin and then allowed to dry. Just before use, they are
immersed in a solution containing 50 g/L sodium chloride and 1 g/L of a
non-ionic wetting agent, and pressed firmly to make satisfactory contrast onto
the cleaned nickel surface to be tested and allowed to remain for 30 minutes.
If papers should become dry during the test, they should be moistened again,
in place, with the sodium chloride solution. The papers are then removed and
introduced at once into a solution containing 10 g/L potassium ferrocyanide to
produce sharply defined blue markings on the papers, wherever the basis metal
was exposed by discontinuities in the coating, leading to attack by the sodium
chloride and transference of the ion components to the paper. If necessary, the
same area may be retested.
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
Page No.
179 of 356.
ial
186
ELECTROLESS PLATING
ate
r
blisters. Equipment needed to perform this test: a glass beaker, hot plate,
thermometer, and a timer.
The purposeof this test is to locate pore sites in thecoating when the porecell
potential is greater than 150 mV. Rapid corrosion will occur, causing significant
failure of the coating and substrate. A polyethylene cover affixed to the beaker
with a large rubber band can be used to reduce the vapor and evaporation of the
acid. This test should be performed under a fume hood to remove acid vapor.
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
Wipe the specimens with a 10 percent solution of sodium hydroxide. After3 min,
rinse and apply a solution of sodium alizarin sulfonate (9,10-anthraquinon-l,2dihydroxy-3-sulfonate, sodium salt) to the specimen. This solution is prepared
by dissolving 1.5 g methyl cellulose in 90 mL boiling water to which, after
cooling, a solution of 0.1 g sodium alizarin sulfonate dissolved in 5 mL ethanol is
added.
After 4 min, apply glacial acetic acid at ambient temperature until the violet
color disappears. Any red spots remaining indicate pores.
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
Wipe the specimen with glacial acetic acid at ambient temperature. After 3 min,
apply to the specimen surface a solution of potassium ferricyanide, prepared by
dissolving 1 g of potassium ferricyanideand 1.5g of methyl cellulose in 90 mL of
boiling deionized water. After 2 to 3 min, the appearance of brown spots will
indicate pores.
lP
DF
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
Scope
This method establishes the apparatus, specimen preparation, test procedure,
evaluation, and reporting of the corrosion rate of autocatalytic nickel deposits.
The results are determined by using linear polarization and potentiodynamic
techniques, and can be used to rank the coatings in order of corrosion
resistance.
This test method is applicable to electroless nickel deposits applied to
specimens of G5 specification and corroded in an artificial environment.
This test method is provided for use in an interlaboratory corrosion procedure
for evaluating electroless nickel deposits.
Applicable Documents
ASTM standards:
G3 Standard Practice for Conventions Applicable to Electrochemical
Measurements in Corrosion Testing
G5 Standard Practice for Standard Reference Method for Making Potentiostatic and Potentiodynamic Anodic Polarization Measurements
G15 Definition of Terms Relating to Corrosion and Corrosion Testing
G59 Practice for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance
Measurements
Page No.
180 of 356.
ial
187
yM
ate
r
Summary of Method
The specimen (working electrode) is prepared by plating in an electroless nickel
solution a steel G5 plug. The plug is then cleaned and mounted in an
electrochemical cell of G5 design. The cell is charged with a test solution at
ambient temperature and purged with nitrogen. The cell is then pressurized with
the gas in question and heated to the desired temperature. Measurements are
then taken after 1000 sec to find the corrosion potential (E,,,,,). Polarization
measurements are then made to determine the instantaneous corrosion rate for
the applied pressure and temperature. The curves from various conditions and
alloys can then be compared and the relative corrosion resistance can be
established.
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
Apparatus
The following required equipment is described in ASTM G5:
1. Potentiostat calibrated according to ASTM G5
2. Potential measuring device
3. Current measuring device
4. Saturated calomel electrode
5. Salt bridge probe
The specimen (working electrode) to be tested is plated with electroless nickel
and post-treated with the desired process. The specimen can be made from any
material tothefollowing physical dimensions: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) long, 3.8in. (9.5
rnrn) diameter, with a 3-84 tapped hole at one end. The entire surface shall be 16
rms or better.
NOTE: The specimens used in this ASTM program are made from C7275 steel.
Page No.
181 of 356.
ial
188
ELECTROLESS PLATING
ate
r
Reagents
Corroding Electrolyte I is prepared by dissolving 12.5 g of reagent grade sodium
chloride (NaCI) into 900 mL of Type I reagent water.* Adjust pH to 7.8 20.1 with
sodium hydroxide. Fill to 1000 mL with Type I reagent water.
Corroding Electrolyte II is prepared by dissolving 40 g of reagent grade
sodium chloride (NaCI) into 1000 mL of Type I reagent water.
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
Specimen Preparation
Prepare the specimen by the following steps:
1. Vapor degrease or solvent wash.
2. Caustic clean with appropriate cleaner for steel or aluminum substrate.
Note mounting hole will expose substrate alloy to cleaning solution.
3. Rinse with Type I reagent water.
4. Wash with 25 percent sulfuric acid for 60 sec at 25" C.
5. Rinse with Type I reagent water.
6. Mount the specimen on the electrode holder. Care should be exercised not
to contaminate or disturb the cleaned surface.
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
Test Parameters
Potentiodynamic polarization:
1. Initial potential -100 mV from E,,,
2. Final potential -600 mV
3. Vertex potential +lo00 mV
4. Input anodic tafel constant (ATC) 0.145; cathodic tafel constant (CTC)
0.150
5. Scan rate 2.0 mV/sec
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
Linear polarization:
1. Initial potential -30 mV (,,,
2. Final potential 30 mV E,
3. Anodic and cathodic tafel constant from potentiodynamic
4. Scan rate 0.2 mV/sec
Specimen physical parameters:
1. Area 4.285 cm'
2. Density 7.95 g/cm'
3. Equivalent weight 28.51 mols/electron
Wear Analysis
Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance can be measured by a Taber Abrader using a CS-10 wheel.
Wear specimens should be dressed for the first 1000 cycles and then weighed.
TheCS-10 wheelsshould beredressedfor50cyclesforeach 1OOOcyclesofwear
on thespecimen. Typical testsaretaken to 10,OOOcycleswith a rangeof 15 to30
Page No.
182 of 356.
Deposifs
ial
189
ate
r
ree
Stress Analysis
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
The intrinsic stress of the deposit can be determined using ASTM 8636.This test
uses a spiral contractometer, plating the spiral and measuring the amount of
movement in the helix while the spiral is plating. The amount of intrinsic stress in
the deposit is determined by the rate of swing in a needle attached to the spiral.
The movement is magnified by a factor of IO,with readings being taken while the
process is operating. After the measurement of intrinsic stress has been taken at
plating temperature, the helix can be removed and cooled. A second reading can
be taken, providing the total stress, and then the thermal component can be
calculated:
Lib
rar
POST-TREATMENTS
The quality control of an electroless nickel deposit implies that certain posttreatments have been completed. These are generally used to improve the
Page No.
183 of 356.
ial
ELECTROLESS PLATING
190
yM
ate
r
ols
ra
nd
To
rite
Class 2
ito
r
Class 3
wi
th
F
ree
tud
Heat treated for .hardness, the coating shall be heat treated to a minimum
hardness of 850 Knoop (100 g load). This hardness can be produced by heat
treating the coating at 400" C for 60 minutes. Higher temperatures for shorter
times may be used.
lP
DF
Class 4
yS
Ed
PD
Fil
Class 5
Lib
rar
The use of the shop traveler to record the completion of the heat treatment, as
well as a notation on the chart record of the oven, is a standard practice.
Additional post-treatments such as silicates, water glasses, waxes, and
chromates, are sometimes applied to prevent staining and oxidation of the
nickel. The analysis of these treatments are complicated and seldom tested.
Contact resistance tests are generally used if the treatment requires testing.
QUALITY CONTROL
To conclude, the electroless nickel facility must have a quality control system.
The platers need to identify how the parts are to be processed. In addition, they
Page No.
184 of 356.
ial
191
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
lP
DF
yS
Ed
ito
r
wi
th
F
ree
tud
rite
ra
nd
To
ols
yM
ate
r
must maintain the chemistry, qualify the processes, and complete the
acceptance tests as required by the specifications.
The system can be operated from a single notebook or from a multiuser
computer system. The quality control program can be highly complex, or just
cover the essentials.
I n the end, it is dedicated people who must build and follow the quality control
system. It is people who will produce higher levelsof qualityand make it possible
to extend the performance of electroless nickel deposits into new markets and
applications.
Page No.
185 of 356.
Chapter 1
ate
ria
tud
yM
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
X-rays with energies ranging from about 100 eV to 10 MeV are classified as electromagnetic waves, which are only different from the radio waves, light, and gamma
rays in wavelength and energy. X-rays show wave nature with wavelength ranging
from about 10 to 103 nm. According to the quantum theory, the electromagnetic wave can be treated as particles called photons or light quanta. The essential
characteristics of photons such as energy, momentum, etc., are summarized as
follows.
The propagation velocity c of electromagnetic wave (velocity of photon) with
frequency and wavelength is given by the relation.
dit
or
c D
.ms1 /
(1.1)
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
hc
.J/
(1.2)
Lib
rar
where h is the Planck constant (6:6260 1034 J s). With E expressed in keV, and
in nm, the following relation is obtained:
E.keV/ D
1:240
.nm/
(1.3)
The momentum p is given by mv, the product of the mass m, and its velocity v.
The de Broglie relation for material wave relates wavelength to momentum.
D
h
h
D
p
mv
(1.4)
Page No.
186 of 356.
EDr
ria
The velocity of light can be reduced when traveling through a material medium,
but it does not become zero. Therefore, a photon is never at rest and so has no rest
mass me . However, it can be calculated using Einsteins mass-energy equivalence
relation E D mc 2 .
me
2
v 2 c
1
c
(1.5)
nd
me
v 2
1
c
(1.6)
eW
rite
ra
mD r
To
o
ls
tud
yM
ate
It is worth noting that (1.5) is a relation derived from Lorentz transformation in the
case where the photon velocity can be equally set either from a stationary coordinate or from a coordinate moving at velocity of v (Lorentz transformation is given
in detail in other books on electromagnetism: for example, P. Cornille, Advanced
Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore,
(2003)). The increase in mass of a photon with velocity may be estimated in the
following equation using the rest mass me :
wi
th
Fre
For example, an electron increases its mass when the accelerating voltage exceeds
100 kV, so that the common formula of 12 mv2 for kinetic energy cannot be used. In
such case, the velocity of electron should be treated relativistically as follows:
me
2
2
v 2 c me c
1
c
s
2
me c 2
vDc 1
E C me c 2
(1.7)
(1.8)
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
E D mc 2 me c 2 D r
Lib
rar
E
c
2
p 2 D .me c/2
(1.9)
It is useful to compare the properties of electrons and photons. On the one hand,
the photon is an electromagnetic wave, which moves at the velocity of light sometimes called light quantum with momentum and energy and its energy depends upon
Page No.
187 of 356.
ate
ria
the frequency . The photon can also be treated as particle. On the other hand, the
electron has mass and charge. It is one of the elementary particles that is a
constituent of all substances. The electron has both particle and wave nature such
as photon. For example, when a metallic filament is heated, the electron inside it
is supplied with energy to jump out of the filament atom. Because of the negative
charge of the electron, (e D 1:602 1019 C), it moves toward the anode in an
electric field and its direction of propagation can be changed by a magnetic field.
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
When a high voltage with several tens of kV is applied between two electrodes,
the high-speed electrons with sufficient kinetic energy, drawn out from the cathode, collide with the anode (metallic target). The electrons rapidly slow down and
lose kinetic energy. Since the slowing down patterns (method of loosing kinetic
energy) vary with electrons, continuous X-rays with various wavelengths are generated. When an electron loses all its energy in a single collision, the generated X-ray
has the maximum energy (or the shortest wavelength D SWL ). The value of the
shortest wavelength limit can be estimated from the accelerating voltage V between
electrodes.
(1.10)
(1.11)
dit
or
wi
th
Fre
eV hmax
c
hc
SWL D
D
max
eV
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
The total X-ray intensity released in a fixed time interval is equivalent to the area
under the curve in Fig. 1.1. It is related to the atomic number of the anode target Z
and the tube current i :
Icont D AiZV 2
(1.12)
Lib
rar
where A is a constant. For obtaining high intensity of white X-rays, (1.12) suggests
that it is better to use tungsten or gold with atomic number Z at the target, increase
accelerating voltage V , and draw larger current i as it corresponds to the number
of electrons that collide with the target in unit time. It may be noted that most of
the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the anode (target metal) is converted into
heat and less than 1% is transformed into X-rays. If the electron has sufficient kinetic
energy to eject an inner-shell electron, for example, a K shell electron, the atom will
become excited with a hole in the electron shell. When such hole is filled by an outer
shell electron, the atom regains its stable state. This process also includes production
of an X-ray photon with energy equal to the difference in the electron energy levels.
As the energy released in this process is a value specific to the target metal and
related electron shell, it is called characteristic X-ray. A linear relation between the
square root of frequency of the characteristic X-ray and the atomic number Z of
the target material is given by Moseleys law.
Page No.
188 of 356.
nd
D BM .Z M /
(1.13)
rite
ra
To
o
ls
tud
yM
ate
ria
Fre
eW
Here, BM and M are constants. This Moseleys law can also be given in terms of
wavelength of emitted characteristic X-ray:
1
1
2
2
n1 n2
(1.14)
or
wi
th
1
D R.Z SM /2
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
(1.15)
Page No.
189 of 356.
ria
the nucleus in specific shells. Therefore, this phenomenon occurs with a specific
energy (wavelength) and is called photoelectric absorption. The energy, Eej , of
the photoelectron emitted may be described in the following form as a difference
of the binding energy (EB ) for electrons of the corresponding shell with which the
photoelectron belongs and the energy of incidence X-rays (h):
Eej D h EB
(1.16)
tud
yM
ate
The recoil of atom is necessarily produced in the photoelectric absorption process, but its energy variation is known to be negligibly small (see Question 1.6).
Equation (1.16) is based on such condition. Moreover, the value of binding energy
(EB ) is also called absorption edge of the related shell.
To
o
ls
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
nd
X-rays which enter a sample are scattered by electrons around the nucleus of atoms
in the sample. The scattering usually occurs in various different directions other than
the direction of the incident X-rays, even if photoelectric absorption does not occur.
As a result, the reduction in intensity of X-rays which penetrate the substance is
necessarily detected. When X-rays with intensity I0 penetrate a uniform substance,
the intensity I after transmission through distance x is given by.
(1.17)
dit
or
I D I0 ex
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
x
(1.18)
Mass absorption coefficient of the sample of interest containing two or more elements can be estimated from (1.19) using the bulk density, , and weight ratio of wj
for each element j.
X
D w1
C w2
CD
wj
1
2
j
jD1
Page No.
(1.19)
190 of 356.
ate
ria
To
o
ls
tud
yM
Fig. 1.2 Wavelength dependences of mass absorption coefficient of X-ray using the La as an
example
FE
dit
or
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
nd
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
Lib
rar
Question 1.1 Calculate the energy released per carbon atom when 1 g of
carbon is totally converted to energy.
Answer 1.1 Energy E is expressed by Einsteins relation of E D mc 2 where m is
mass and c is the speed of light. If this relationship is utilized, considering SI unit
that expresses mass in kg,
E D 1 103 .2:998 1010 /2 D 8:99 1013
The atomic weight per mole (molar mass) for carbon is 12.011 g from reference
table (for example, Appendix A.2). Thus, the number of atoms included in 1 g
carbon is calculated as .1=12:011/ 0:6022 1024 D 5:01 1022 because the
numbers of atoms are included in one mole of carbon is the Avogadros number
Page No.
191 of 356.
ria
.8:99 1013 /
D 1:79 109
.5:01 1022 /
.0:6022 1024/. Therefore, the energy release per carbon atom can be estimated as:
ate
Question 1.2 Calculate (1) strength of the electric field E, (2), force on the
electron F , (3) acceleration of electron , when a voltage of 10 kV is applied
between two electrodes separated by an interval of 10 mm.
To
o
ls
tud
yM
Answer 1.2 The work, W , if electric charge Q (coulomb, C) moves under voltage V
is expressed by W D VQ. When an electron is accelerated under 1 V of difference
in potential, the energy obtained by the electron is called 1 eV. Since the elementary
charge e is 1:602 1019 (C),
1eV D 1:602 1019 1
(C)(V)
nd
D 1:602 1019
rite
ra
(J)
wi
th
Fre
eW
or
F D eE
.1/ E D
eE
m
.m=s2 /
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
104 .V/
10 .kV/
D 2
D 106
10 .mm/
10 .m/
.V=m/
Lib
rar
1:602 1013
D 1:76 1017
9:109 1031
.N/
.m=s2 /
Question 1.3 X-rays are generated by making the electrically charged particles (electrons) with sufficient kinetic energy in vacuum collide with cathode,
as widely used in the experiment of an X-ray tube. The resultant X-rays can
be divided into two parts: continuous X-rays (also called white X-rays) and
characteristic X-rays. The wavelength distribution and intensity of continuous X-rays are usually depending upon the applied voltage. A clear limit is
recognized on the short wavelength side.
Page No.
192 of 356.
ria
(1) Estimate the speed of electron before collision when applied voltage is
30,000 V and compare it with the speed of light in vacuum.
(2) In addition, obtain the relation of the shortest wavelength limit SWL of
X-rays generated with the applied voltage V , when an electron loses all
energy in a single collision.
Fre
wi
th
v2 D
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
ate
Answer 1.3 Electrons are drawn out from cathode by applying the high voltage of
tens of thousands of V between two metallic electrodes installed in the X-ray tube
in vacuum. The electrons collide with anode at high speed. The velocity of electrons
is given by,
2eV
mv2
! v2 D
eV D
2
m
where e is the electric charge of the electron, V the applied voltage across the
electrodes, m the mass of the electron, and v the speed of the electron before the
collision. When values of rest mass me D 9:110 1031 .kg/ as mass of electron,
elementary electron charge e D 1:602 1019 .C/ and V D 3 104 .V/ are used for
calculating the speed of electron v.
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
Therefore, the speed of electron just before impact is about one-third of the speed
of light in vacuum .2:998 108 m=s/.
Some electrons release all their energy in a single collision. However, some other
electrons behave differently. The electrons slow down gradually due to successive
collisions. In this case, the energy of electron (eV) which is released partially and
the corresponding X-rays (photon) generated have less energy compared with the
energy (hmax ) of the X-rays generated when electrons are stopped with one collision. This is a factor which shows the maximum strength moves toward the shorter
wavelength sides, as X-rays of various wavelengths generate, and higher the intensity of the applied voltage, higher the strength of the wavelength of X-rays (see
Fig. 1). Every photon has the energy h, where h is the Planck constant and the
frequency.
The relationship of eV D hmax can be used, when electrons are stopped in one
impact and all energy is released at once. Moreover, frequency () and wavelength
() are described by a relation of D c=, where c is the speed of light. Therefore,
the relation between the wavelength SWL in m and the applied voltage V may be
given as follows:
SWL D c=max D hc=eV D
.12:40 107 /
.6:626 1034 / .2:998 108 /
D
.1:602 1019 /V
V
This relation can be applied to more general cases, such as the production of electromagnetic waves by rapidly decelerating any electrically charged particle including
Page No.
193 of 356.
10
ria
ate
80kV
60kV
ls
tud
yM
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
rite
0.02
ra
20kV
0
0.01
To
o
40kV
nd
Intensity [a.u.]
eW
Wavelength [nm]
wi
th
Fre
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
Lib
rar
PD
Answer 1.4 Consider the process in which an L shell electron moves to the vacancy
created in the K shell of the target (Fe) by collision with highly accelerated electrons
from a filament. The wavelength of the photon released in this process is given by
, (with frequency ). We also use Plancks constant h of .6:626 1034 Js/ and
the velocity of light c of .2:998 108 ms1 /. Energy per photon is given by,
E D h D
hc
Using Avogadros number NA , one can obtain the energy difference E related to
the X-ray release process per mole of Fe.
E D
Page No.
194 of 356.
K1 L8 M14 N2
K2 L7 M14 N2
ate
Before release
After release
ria
Reference: The electrons released from a filament have sufficient kinetic energy and
collide with the Fe target. Therefore, an electron of K-shell is readily ejected. This
gives the state of FeC ion left in an excited state with a hole in the K-shell. When
this hole is filled by an electron from an outer shell (L-shell), an X-ray photon is
emitted and its energy is equal to the difference in the two electron energy levels.
This variation responds to the following electron arrangement of FeC .
ra
NA
:
M
(1)
rite
Na D
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
wi
th
Fre
eW
(2)
FE
dit
or
Ne D
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
Each atom involves Z electrons (usually Z is equal to the atomic number) and the
unit of Ne is also .m3 /.
The quantity Na D NA =M in (1) or Ne D .NA Z/=M in (2), respectively, gives
the number of atoms or that of electrons per unit mass (kg), when excluding density, . They are frequently called atomic density or electron density. However,
it should be kept in mind that the number per m3 (per unit volume) is completely
different from the number per 1 kg (per unit mass). For example, the following values of atomic number and electron number per unit mass (D1kg) are obtained for
aluminum with the molar mass of 26.98 g and the atomic number of 13:
0:6022 1024
D 2:232 1025
.kg1 /
26:98 103
0:6022 1024
Ne D
13 D 2:9 1026
.kg1 /
26:98 103
Na D
Since the density of aluminum is 2:70 Mg=m3 D 2:70 103 kg=m3 from reference
table (Appendix A.2), we can estimate the corresponding values per unit volume as
Na D 6:026 1028 .m3 / and Ne D 7:83 1029 .m3 /, respectively.
Page No.
195 of 356.
11
ria
Reference: Avogadros number provides the number of atom (or molecule) included
in one mole of substance. Since the atomic weight is usually expressed by the number of grams per mole, the factor of 103 is required for using Avogadros number
in the SI unit system.
ate
Question 1.6 The energy of a photoelectron, Eej , emitted as the result of photoelectron absorption process may be given in the following with the binding
energy EB of the electron in the corresponding shell:
Eej D h EB
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
Here, h is the energy of incident X-rays, and this relationship has been
obtained with an assumption that the energy accompanying the recoil of atom,
which necessarily occurs in photoelectron absorption, is negligible.
Calculate the energy accompanying the recoil of atom in the following
condition for Pb. The photoelectron absorption process of K shell for Pb was
made by irradiating X-rays with the energy of 100 keV against a Pb plate and
assuming that the momentum of the incident X-rays was shared equally by
Pb atom and photoelectron. In addition, the molar mass (atomic weight) of
Pb is 207.2 g and the atomic mass unit is 1amu D 1:66054 1027 kg D
931:5 103 keV.
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
Answer 1.6 The energy of the incident X-rays is given as 100 keV, so that its
momentum can be described as being 100 keV=c, using the speed of light c. Since
the atom and photoelectron shared the momentum equally, the recoil energy of atom
will be 50 keV=c. Schematic diagram of this process is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the photo electron absorption process assuming that the momentum
of the incident X-rays was shared equally by atom and photoelectron. Energy of X-ray radiation is
100 keV
On the other hand, one should consider for the atom that 1amu D 931:5103 keV
is used in the same way as the energy which is the equivalent energy amount of
the rest mass for electron, me . The molar mass of 207.2 g for Pb is equivalent to
Page No.
196 of 356.
1
p2
.50/2
M A v2 D
D 0:0065 103
D
2
2MA
2 .193006:8 103 /
.keV/
ate
ErA D
ria
207.2 amu, so that the mass of 1 mole of Pb is equivalent to the energy of 207:2
931:5 103 D 193006:8 103 keV=c.
When the speed of recoil atom is v and the molar mass of Pb is MA , its energy
can be expressed by 12 MA v2 . According to the given assumption and the momentum described as p D MA v, the energy of the recoil atom, ErA , may be obtained
as follows:
The recoil energy of atom in the photoelectron absorption process shows just a
very small value as mentioned here using the result of Pb as an example, although
the recoil of the atom never fails to take place.
Reference:
tud
yM
ra
nd
To
o
ls
Energy of 1 amu D
eW
rite
.eV/
Fre
E D me c 2 D
FE
dit
or
wi
th
Question 1.7 Explain the Rydberg constant in Moseleys law with respect to
the wavelength of characteristic X-rays, and obtain its value.
yS
PD
PD
Fil
l
1
D R.Z SM /2
1
1
2
2
n1 n2
(1)
Lib
rar
The wavelength of the X-ray photon ./ corresponds to the shifting of an electron
from the shell of the quantum number n2 to the shell of the quantum number of n1 .
Here, Z is the atomic number and SM is a screening constant.
Using the elementary electron charge of e, the energy of electron characterized
by the circular movement around the nucleus charge Ze in each shell (orbital) may
be given, for example, with respect to an electron of quantum number n1 shell in
the following form:
2 2 me 4 Z 2
En D
(2)
h2
n21
Here, h is a Planck constant and m represents the mass of electron. The energy of
this photon is given by,
Page No.
197 of 356.
13
2 2 me 4 2
Z
h2
1
1
2
2
n1 n2
(3)
h D En2 En1 D E D
1
1
2
2
n1 n2
(4)
ate
2 2 me 4 2
1
D
Z
ch3
hc
ria
To
o
ls
(5)
rite
ra
nd
RD
tud
yM
If the value of electron mass is assumed to be rest mass of electron and a comparison of (1) with (4) is made, the Rydberg constant R can be estimated. It may be
noted that the term of .Z SM /2 in (1) could be empirically obtained from the
measurements on various characteristic X-rays as reported by H.G.J. Moseley in
1913.
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
wi
th
Fre
eW
The experimental value of R can be obtained from the ionization energy (13.6 eV)
of hydrogen (H). The corresponding wave number (frequency) is 109737:31 cm1,
in good agreement with the value obtained from (5). In addition, since Moseleys
law and the experimental results are all described by using the cgs unit system (gauss
system), 4:803 1010 esu has been used for the elemental electron charge e. Conversion into the SI unit system is given by (SI unit velocity of light 101 ) (e.g.,
5th edition of the Iwanami Physics-and-Chemistry Dictionary p. 1526 (1985)). That
is to say, the amount of elementary electron charge e can be expressed as:
PD
Fil
l
1:602 1019 Coulomb 2:998 1010 cm=s 101 D 4:803 1010 esu
The Rydberg constant is more strictly defined by the following equation:
2 2 e 4
ch3
(6)
1
1
1
D
C
m
mp
(7)
Lib
rar
RD
Page No.
198 of 356.
1
4 0
2
ria
2 2 e 4
RD
ch3
Reference: The definition of the Rydberg constant in the SI unit is given in the form
where the factor of .1=4 0 / is included by using the dielectric constant 0 .8:854
1012 F=m/ in vacuum for correlating with nucleus charge Ze .
me 4
8 02 ch3
ate
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
Question 1.8 When the X-ray diffraction experiment is made for a plate
sample in the transmission mode, it is readily expected that absorption
becomes large and diffraction intensity becomes weak as the sample thickness
increases. Obtain the thickness of a plate sample which makes the diffraction intensity maximum and calculate the value of aluminum for the Cu-K
radiation.
x
wi
th
I0
Fre
dx
Back
side
dit
or
Surface
side
t-x
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
Lib
rar
PD
Answer 1.8 X-ray diffraction experiment in the transmission mode includes both
absorption and scattering of X-rays. Let us consider the case where the sample
thickness is t, the linear absorption coefficient , the scattering coefficient S , and
the intensity of incident X-rays I0 as referred to Fig. A.
Since the intensity of the incident X-rays reaching the thin layer dx which is at
distance of x from the sample surface is given by I0 ex , the scattering intensity
dIx0 from the thin layer dx (with scattering coefficient S ) is given by the following
equation:
(1)
dIx0 D SI0 ex dx
The scattering intensity dIx passes through the distance of .t x/ in the sample
and the absorption during this passage is expressed by the form of e.t x/ . Therefore, the scattering intensity of the thin layer dx after passing through the sample
may be given in the following form:
dIx D .SI0 ex dx/e.t x/ D SI0 et dx
Page No.
(2)
199 of 356.
15
ria
The scattering intensity of the overall sample will be equal to the result obtained
by integrating the intensity of the thin layer dx with respect to the sample thickness
from zero to t.
Z t
SI0 et dx D SI0 t et
(3)
I D
The maximum value of I is given under the condition of dI =dt D 0.
dI
D SI0 .et tet / D 0;
dt
tD
1
(4)
ate
t D 1
To
o
ls
D 49:6 2:70 D 133:92 .cm1/
nd
D
tud
yM
We can find the values of mass absorption coefficient .=/ and density ./
of aluminum for Cu-K radiation in the reference table (e.g., Appendix A.2). The
results are .=/ D 49:6 cm2=g and D 2:70 g=cm3, respectively. The linear
absorption coefficient of aluminum is calculated in the following:
eW
1
133:92
Fre
wi
th
1
tD D
rite
ra
or
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
(1) Obtain a simple relation to give the sample thickness x required to reduce
the amount of transmitted X-ray intensity by half.
(2) Calculate also the corresponding thickness of Fe-17 mass % Cr alloy
.density D 7:76 106 g=m3 / for Mo-K radiation, using the relation
obtained in (1).
Lib
rar
Answer 1.9 Let us consider the intensity of the incident X-rays as I0 and that of the
transmitted X-rays as I . Then,
If the condition of I D
I0
2
I D I0 ex
(1)
(2)
(3)
Page No.
200 of 356.
xD
ria
When the logarithm of both sides is taken, we obtain log 1 log 2 D x log e.
The result is log 2 D x, as they are log1 D 0, and loge D 1. Here, natural
logarithm is used and the required relation is given as follows:
0:693
log2
'
(4)
ate
The values of mass absorption coefficients of Fe and Cr for the Mo-K radiation
are 37:6 and 29:9 cm2 =g obtained from Appendix A.2, respectively. The concentration of Cr is given by 17 mass %, so that the weight ratio of two alloy components
can be set as wFe D 0:83 and wCr D 0:17. Then, the mass absorption coefficient of
the alloy is expressed in the following:
ls
tud
yM
D wFe
C wCr
Alloy
Fe
Cr
nd
To
o
rite
ra
Next, note that the unit of the density of the FeCr alloy is expressed in cgs,
7:76 106 g=m3 D 7:76 g=cm3. We obtain,
wi
th
0:693
D 0:0025 cm D 0:025 mm D 25
m
281:7
or
xD
Fre
eW
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
PD
Answer 1.10 The atomic weight of Li, Nb, and oxygen (O) and their mass absorption coefficients for Cu-K radiation are obtained from Appendix A.2, as follows:
Atomic weight Mass-absorption coefficient
= .cm2 =g/
Li
6.941
0.5
Nb
92.906
145
15.999
11.5
Lib
rar
(g)
The molar weight(molar mass) M per 1 mole of LiNbO3 is given in the following:
M D 6:941 C 92:906 C .15:999 3/ D 147:844 .g/
Page No.
201 of 356.
6:941
D 0:047;
147:844
wNb D
92:906
D 0:628;
147:844
wO D
47:997
D 0:325
147:844
wLi D
17
Then, the mass absorption coefficient of lithium niobate can be obtained as follows:
ria
X
D
wj
D 0:047 0:5 C 0:628 145 C 0:325 11:5
LiNbO3
j
ate
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
Question 1.11 A thin plate of pure iron is suitable for a filter for Co-K
radiation, but it is also known to easily oxidize in air. For excluding such
difficulty,we frequently utilize crystalline hematite powder (Fe2 O3 :density
5:24106 g=m3 ). Obtain the thickness of a filter consisting of hematite powder
which reduces the intensity of Co-K radiation to 1/500 of the K radiation
case. Given condition is as follows. The intensity ratio between Co-K and
Co-K is found to be given by 5:1 without a filter. The packing density of
powder sample is known usually about 70% of the bulk crystal.
wi
th
Fre
Answer 1.11 The atomic weight of Fe and oxygen (O) and their mass absorption
coefficients for Co-K and Co-K radiations are obtained from Appendix A.2, as
follows:
PD
55.845
57.2
342
18.0
13.3
dit
(cm2 =g)
yS
Fe
(cm2 =g)
FE
weight (g)
or
15.999
Fil
l
PD
Lib
rar
The mass absorption coefficients of hematite crystals for Co-K and Co-K radiations are, respectively, to be calculated.
D 0:699 57:2 C 0:301 18:0 D 45:4 .cm2 =g/
Fe2 O3
D 0:699 342 C 0:301 13:3 D 243:1 .cm2=g/
Fe2 O3
Page No.
202 of 356.
ate
ria
It is noteworthy that the density of hematite in the filter presently prepared is equivalent to 70% of the value of bulk crystal by considering the packing density, so that
we have to use the density value of f D 5:24 0:70 D 3:67 g=cm3 Therefore, the
value of the linear absorption coefficient of hematite powder packed into the filter
for Co-K and Co-K radiations will be, respectively, as follows:
D
f D 45:4 3:67 D 166:6 .cm1 /
Fe2 O3
D
f D 24:1 3:67 D 892:2 .cm1 /
Fe2 O3
To
o
nd
I e t
ICoK
D 0 t
ICoK
I0 e
ls
tud
yM
The intensity ratio of Co-K and Co-K radiations before and after passing through
the filter consisting of hematite powder may be described in the following equation:
1
D e. /t
100
Fre
wi
th
1 e t
1
D
500
5 e t
eW
rite
ra
From the given condition, the ratio between I0 and I0 is 5:1 without filter, and it
should be 500:1 after passing through the filter. They are expressed as follows:
FE
dit
or
Take the logarithm of both sides and obtain the thickness by using the values of
and .
.* log e D 1;
log 1 D 0/
yS
PD
. /t D log 100
PD
Fil
l
t D 0:0063 .cm1/ D 63 .
m/
Lib
rar
Question 1.12 For discussing the influence of X-rays on the human body
etc., it would be convenient if the effect of a substance consisting of multielements, such as water (H2 O) and air (N2 , O2 , others), can be described by
information of each constituent element (H, O, N, and others) with an appropriate factor. For this purpose, the value of effective element number ZN is
often used and it is given by the following equation:
ZN D
2:94
a1 Z12:94 C a2 Z22:94 C
Page No.
203 of 356.
19
ria
ls
To
o
nd
For oxygen
0:6022 1024
1 D 0:597 1024 .g1 /
1:008
0:6022 1024
NeO D
8 D 0:301 1024 .g1 /
15:999
NeH D
tud
yM
For hydrogen
ate
Answer 1.12 Water (H2 O) consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom,
whereas the number of electrons are one for hydrogen and eight for oxygen. The
values of atomic weight per mole (molar mass) of hydrogen and oxygen (molar
mass) are 1.008 and 15.999 g, respectively. Each electron density per unit mass is
given as follows:
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
In water (H2 O), the weight ratio can be approximated by 2=18 for hydrogen and
16=18 for oxygen, respectively. Then, the number of electrons in hydrogen
and oxygen contained in 1 g water are 0:597 1024 .2=18/ D 0:0663 1024
and 0:301 1024 .16=18/ D 0:2676 1024 ,respectively, so that the number
of electrons contained in 1 g water is estimated to be .0:0663 C 0:2676/ 1024 D
0:3339 1024. Therefore, the electron component ratio of water is found as follows:
0:0663
D 0:199
0:3339
0:2262
aO D
D 0:801
0:3339
p
2:94
ZN D
0:199 12:94 C 0:801 82:94
p
p
2:94
2:94
D
0:199 C 362:007 D
362:206 D 7:42
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
aH D
Lib
rar
For oxygen
For argon
0:6022 1024
0:755 7 D 0:2272 1024
14:01
0:6022 1024
0:232 8 D 0:0699 1024
NeO D
15:999
0:6022 1024
0:013 18 D 0:0035 1024
NeAr D
39:948
NeN D
Page No.
204 of 356.
ria
0:2272
D 0:756
0:3006
0:0699
aO D
D 0:232
0:3006
0:0035
aAr D
D 0:012
0:3006
ate
aN D
Lib
rar
PD
Fil
l
yS
PD
FE
dit
or
wi
th
Fre
eW
rite
ra
nd
To
o
ls
tud
yM
ZN D
Page No.
205 of 356.
Li
bra
ry
PD
F
ill
PD
FE
dit
or
Stu
wi
th
Fr
ee
dy
W
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
ate
ria
http://www.springer.com/978-3-642-16634-1
Page No.
206 of 356.
Radiographic Testing
ate
ria
l
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Basic Principles
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Page 1 of 47
207 of 356.
ria
l
The primary advantages and disadvantages in comparison to other NDT methods are:
Advantages
ate
dT
oo
ls
yM
er
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
PD
Fi
ll
an
Disadvantages
ary
PHYSICS OF RADIATION
Li
br
Both X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves and on the electromagnetic
spectrum they ocupy frequency ranges that are higher than ultraviolate radiation. In
terms of frequency, gamma rays generaly have higher frequencies than X-rays as seen
in the figure . The major distenction between X-rays and gamma rays is the origion
where X-rays are usually artificially produced using an X-ray generator and gamma
radiation is the product of radioactive materials. Both X-rays and gamma rays are
waveforms, as are light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays
cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore,
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 2 of 47
208 of 356.
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight
lines. However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Electromagentic radiation act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
small packets of energy and are referred to as photons. Each photon contains a
certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic
radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Due to the short wavelength
of X-rays and gamma rays, they have more energy to pass through matter than do the
other forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter,
they are scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of
matter and the energy of the rays.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Li
br
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted, refracted to a small degree at interfaces between two
different materials, and in some cases be reflected.
They pass through matter until they have a chance to encounter with an atomic
particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
Page No.
Page 3 of 47
209 of 356.
ria
l
X-Radiation
ate
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced
in packets of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic
processes that can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung (a German
term meaning braking radiation) and the other is called K-shell emission. They can
both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten which is often the material chosen for the
target or anode of the X-ray tube.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted
when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten target changes. The negatively
charged electron slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged
tungsten atom and this energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered
elastically or inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered
electron loses energy, and thus produces X-ray photon, while the elastically scattered
electrons generally change their direction significantly but without loosing much of
their energy.
Ed
ito
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Page 4 of 47
210 of 356.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Ed
ito
Gamma Radiation
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation just like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity
are alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are the
most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation.
Li
br
ary
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be
stable or unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus
of an atom together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable nuclei are
constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus. Over
time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a
process known as radioactive decay and such material is called radioactive
material.
Types of Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of high speed
subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or electromagnetic radiation (gammarays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital electrons.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 5 of 47
211 of 356.
ate
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ria
l
Alpha Particles
rit
Beta Particles
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Li
br
Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state (unstable nucleus) may emit one or more
photons of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number
of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of moving the nucleus
from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray emission
frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 6 of 47
212 of 356.
ria
l
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The quantity which expresses the radiation producing potential of a given amount of
radioactive material is called Activity. The Curie (Ci) was originally defined as that
amount of any radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate as one gram of
pure radium. The International System (SI)
unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is
that quantity of radioactive material in which
one atom is transformed per second. The
radioactivity of a given amount of radioactive
material does not depend upon the mass of
material present. For example, two one-curie
sources of the same radioactive material
might have very different masses depending
upon the relative proportion of nonradioactive atoms present in each source.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Li
br
Each radioactive material decays at its own unique rate which cannot be altered by any
chemical or physical process. A useful measure of this rate is the half-life of the
radioactivity. Half-life is defined as the time required
for the activity of any particular radionuclide to
decrease to one-half of its initial value. In other words
one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable
state material. Half-lives of radioactive materials
range from microseconds to billions of years. Half-life
of two widely used industrial isotopes are; 74 days for
Iridium-192, and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 7 of 47
213 of 356.
ria
l
In order to find the remaining activity of a certain material with a known half-life value
after a certain period of time, the following formula may be used. The formula
calculates the decay fraction (or the remaining fraction of the initial activity) as:
ate
Where;
dT
oo
ls
yM
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Or alternatively, the equitation can be solved to find the time required for activity to
decay to a certain level as:
Ed
ito
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Li
br
The energy of the radiation is responsible for its ability to penetrate matter. Higher
energy radiation can penetrate more and higher density matter than low energy
radiation. The energy of ionizing radiation is measured in electronvolts (eV). One
electronvolt is an extremely small amount of energy so it is common to use
kiloelectronvolts (keV) and megaelectronvolt (MeV). An electronvolt is a measure of
energy, which is different from a volt which is a measure of the electrical potential
between two positions. Specifically, an electronvolt is the kinetic energy gained by an
electron passing through a potential difference of one volt. X-ray generators have a
control to adjust the radiation energy, keV (or kV).
The energy of a radioisotope is a characteristic of the atomic structure of the material.
Consider, for example, Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, which are two of the more common
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 8 of 47
214 of 356.
ate
ria
l
industrial Gamma ray sources. These isotopes emit radiation in two or three discreet
wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit 1.17 and 1.33 MeV gamma rays, and Iridium-192 will
emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. It can be seen from these values that the
energy of radiation coming from Co-60 is more than twice the energy of the radiation
coming from the Ir-192. From a radiation safety point of view, this difference in energy
is important because the Co-60 has more material penetrating power and, therefore, is
more dangerous and requires more shielding.
Intensity and Exposure
PD
F
Fi
ll
PD
Ionization
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area that is
perpendicular to the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time. One way to
measure the intensity of X-rays or gamma rays is to measure the amount of ionization
they cause in air. The amount of ionization in air produced by the radiation is called the
exposure. Exposure is expressed in terms of a scientific unit called a Roentgen (R). The
unit roentgen is equal to the amount of radiation that ionizes 1 cm3 of dry air (at 0C
and standard atmospheric pressure) to one electrostatic unit of charge, of either sign.
Most portable radiation detection safety devices used by radiographers measure
exposure and present the reading in terms of Roentgens or Roentgens/hour, which is
known as the dose rate.
ary
As penetrating radiation moves from point to point in matter, it loses its energy
through various interactions with the atoms it encounters. The rate at which this
energy loss occurs depends upon the type and energy of the radiation and the density
and atomic composition of the matter through which it is passing.
Li
br
The various types of penetrating radiation impart their energy to matter primarily
through excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. The term excitation is used to
describe an interaction where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged particle
but are not removed completely from their atom. Excited electrons may subsequently
emit energy in the form of X-rays during the process of returning to a lower energy
state. The term ionization refers to the complete removal of an electron from an
atom following the transfer of energy from a passing charged particle.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 9 of 47
215 of 356.
ate
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ria
l
Because of their double charge and relatively slow velocity, alpha particles have a
relatively short range in matter (a few centimeters in air and only fractions of a
millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have, generally, a greater range.
ud
Fr
ee
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Li
br
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, the intensity of the
radiation received from a point radiation source can be characterized by the diagram
above. The relation between intensity and distance according to the inverse square law
can be expresses as:
Where
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 10 of 47
216 of 356.
ria
l
All measures of exposure or dose rate will drop off by the inverse square law. For
example, if the received dose of radiation is 100 mR/hr at 2 cm from a source, it will be
0.01 mR/hr at 2 m.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Even when they have the same energy, photons travel different distances within a
material simply based on the probability of their encounter with one or more of the
particles of the matter and the type of
encounter that occurs. Since the probability of
an encounter increases with the distance
traveled, the number of photons reaching a
specific point within the matter decreases
exponentially with distance traveled. As shown
in the graphic to the right, if 1000 photons are
aimed at ten 1 cm layers of a material and
there is a 10% chance of a photon being
attenuated in this layer, then there will be 100
photons attenuated. This leaves 900 photos to
travel into the next layer where 10% of these
photos will be attenuated. By continuing this
progression, the exponential shape of the curve
becomes apparent.
The formula that describes this curve is:
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 11 of 47
217 of 356.
Where;
: initial (unattenuated) intensity
: linear attenuation coefficient per unit distance
: distance traveled through the matter
ate
ria
l
yM
an
dT
oo
ls
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can be
used to make a number of calculations. These include:
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
The intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident Xray intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
The intensity of the incident X-ray energy when the transmitted X-ray intensity,
material, and material thickness are known.
The thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and the
material are known.
The material can be determined from the value of when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.
ary
PD
Li
br
Page 12 of 47
218 of 356.
ria
l
Half-Value Layer
ate
The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident energy has been
attenuated is known as the half-value layer (HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of
distance (mm or cm). Like the attenuation coefficient, it is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a stream of photons will result in an increase in a
material's HVL.
yM
er
an
dT
oo
ls
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Where
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 13 of 47
219 of 356.
Cobalt-60
Concrete
Steel
Lead
Tungsten
Uranium
44.5
12.7
4.8
3.3
2.8
60.5
21.6
12.5
7.9
6.9
ate
Source
Iridium-192
ria
l
Approximate HVL for various materials when radiation is from a gamma-ray source:
Approximate HVL for some materials when radiation is from an X-ray source:
4.32
15.10
rit
er
0.06
0.27
Fr
ee
100
Concrete
an
Lead
dT
oo
ls
yM
22.32
0.52
25.0
0.88
28.0
1.47
31.21
400
2.5
33.0
1000
7.9
44.45
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
300
rw
ith
250
Ed
ito
200
ud
0.30
150
Sources of Attenuation
Li
br
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary X-ray
photon and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to some
other form of energy and effectively disappearing. Several interaction events are
usually involved and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to
different types of interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect,
scattering, and pair production.
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of X-rays occurs when the X-ray photon is absorbed,
resulting in the ejection of electrons from the outer shell of the atom, and hence
the ionization of the atom. Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral
Page No.
Page 14 of 47
220 of 356.
ate
ria
l
state with the emission of an X-ray characteristic of the atom. This subsequent
emission of lower energy photons is generally
absorbed and does not contribute to (or hinder) the
image making process. Photoelectron absorption is
the dominant process for X-ray absorption up to
energies of about 500 keV. Photoelectric absorption
is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers.
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident X-ray photon is deflected from its
original path by an interaction with an electron. The electron gains energy and is
ejected from its orbital position. The X-ray photon
loses energy due to the interaction but continues
to travel through the material along an altered
path. Since the scattered X-ray photon has less
energy, it, therefore, has a longer wavelength
than the incident photon.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Pair production (PP) can occur when the X-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02
MeV, but really only becomes significant at energies around 10 MeV. Pair
production occurs when an electron and positron are created with the annihilation
of the X-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived and disappear (positron
annihilation) with the formation of two
photons of 0.51 MeV energy. Pair production
is of particular importance when high-energy
photons pass through materials of a high
atomic number.
X-ray Generators
The major components of an X-ray generator are the tube, the high voltage generator,
the control console, and the cooling system. As discussed earlier in this material, X-rays
are generated by directing a stream of high speed electrons at a target material such as
tungsten, which has a high atomic number. When the electrons are slowed or stopped
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 15 of 47
221 of 356.
ria
l
by the interaction with the atomic particles of the target, X-radiation is produced. This
is accomplished in an X-ray tube such as the one shown in the figure.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a low-voltage current of a few amps. The
filament heats up and the electrons in the wire become loosely held. A large electrical
potential is created between the cathode and the anode by the high-voltage
generator. Electrons that break free of the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode
target. The stream of electrons between the cathode and the anode is the tube
current. The tube current is measured in
milliamps and is controlled by regulating
the low-voltage heating current applied to
the cathode. The higher the temperature
of the filament, the larger the number of
electrons that leave the cathode and travel
to the anode. The milliamp or current
setting on the control console regulates
the filament temperature, which relates to
the intensity of the X-ray output.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Page 16 of 47
222 of 356.
ria
l
a high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive means is
necessary. Water or oil re-circulating systems are often used to cool tubes. Some low
power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and heat
radiating fins.
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
In order to prevent the cathode from burning up and to prevent arcing between the
anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen is removed from the tube by pulling a
vacuum. Some systems have external vacuum pumps to remove any oxygen that may
have leaked into the tube. However, most industrial X-ray tubes simply require a
warm-up procedure to be followed. This warm-up procedure carefully raises the tube
current and voltage to slowly burn any of the available oxygen before the tube is
operated at high power.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
In addition, X-ray generators usually have a filter along the beam path (placed at or
near the x-ray port). Filters consist of a thin sheet of material (often high atomic
number materials such as lead, copper, or brass) placed in the useful beam to modify
the spatial distribution of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy
X-ray photons emitted by the tube before they reach the target in order to produce a
cleaner image (since lower energy X-ray photons tend to scatter more).
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Page 17 of 47
223 of 356.
ria
l
sources are very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely used
for field radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can
never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.
yM
ate
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Page 18 of 47
224 of 356.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Ed
ito
Radiographic Film
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Page 19 of 47
225 of 356.
Film Selection
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique for a
particular component depends on a number of different factors;
Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some cases, its
weight and location.
Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.
Film Packaging
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Industrial X-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it
from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the
darkroom for processing.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Packaged film is also available in the form of rolls where that allows the radiographer
to cut the film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape
in the darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and
the examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great
economic advantage.
Li
br
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible
holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure
pressure is uniform. Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or
contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large
films are always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. Use of envelopepacked films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 20 of 47
226 of 356.
ria
l
ate
The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest amount
of detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different variables that
can affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the quality of an
image in terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be detected.
Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the contrast and the definition of the image.
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Li
br
ary
PD
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one area of a given
radiographic density to another. Like contrast, definition also makes it easier to see
features of interest, such as defects, but in a totally different
way. In the image to the right, the upper radiograph has a high
level of definition and the lower radiograph has a lower level of
definition. In the high definition radiograph it can be seen that
a change in the thickness of the stepwedge translates to an
abrupt change in radiographic density. It can be seen that the
details, particularly the small dot, are much easier to see in the
high definition radiograph. It can be said that a faithful visual
reproduction of the stepwedge was produced. In the lower
image, the radiographic setup did not produce a faithful visual
reproduction. The edge line between the steps is blurred. This
is evidenced by the gradual transition between the high and
low density areas on the radiograph.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 21 of 47
227 of 356.
ria
l
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
After taking a radiographic image of a part and processing the film, the resulting
darkness of the film will vary according to the amount of radiation that has reached
the film through the test object. As mentioned earlier, the darker areas indicate more
exposure and liter areas indicate less exposure. The processed film (or image) is usually
viewed by placing it in front of a screen providing white light illumination of uniform
intensity such that the light is transmitted through the film such that the image can be
clearly seen. The term radiographic density is a measure of the degree of film
darkening (darkness of the image). Technically it should be called transmitted density
when associated with transparent-base film since it is a measure of the light
transmitted through the film. Radiographic density is the logarithm of two
measurements: the intensity of light incident on the film ( ) and the intensity of light
transmitted through the film ( ). This ratio is the inverse of transmittance.
PD
F
PD
Fi
ll
Transmittance (%)
100%
10%
1%
0.1%
0.01%
Inverse of Transmittance
(I0/It)
1
10
100
1000
10000
Density
(Log(I0/It))
0
1
2
3
4
Li
br
ary
Transmittance
(It/I0)
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of significantly different
sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. The following table shows
numeric examples of the relationship between the amount of transmitted light and the
calculated film density.
From the table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01%
of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and standards
typically require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable
viewing with common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing lights is
necessary for evaluation.
Film density is measured with a densitometer which simply measures the amount of
light transmitted through a piece of film using a photovoltic sensor.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 22 of 47
228 of 356.
ate
ria
l
dT
oo
ls
yM
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
When scarered radiation comes from objects behind the film, it is often called
backscatter. Industry codes and standards often require
that a lead letter B be placed on the back of the cassette
to verify the control of backscatter. If the letter B shows
as a ghost image on the film, a significant amount of
backscatter radiation is reaching the film. The image of the
B is often very nondistinct as shown in the image to the
right. The arrow points to the area of backscatter radiation
from the lead B located on the back side of the film.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
The control of backscatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette with
a sheet of lead that is at least 0.25 mm thick such that the sheet will be behind the film
when it is exposed. It is a common practice in industry to place thin sheets of lead
(called lead screens) in front and behind the film (0.125 mm thick in front and 0.25
mm thick behind).
Radiographic Contrast
As mentioned previously, radiographic contrast describes the differences in
photographic density in a radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the
image is what forms the image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features
become. Radiographic contrast has two main contributors; subject contrast and film
(or detector) contrast.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 23 of 47
229 of 356.
Subject Contrast
ria
l
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through different areas
of the component being evaluated. It is dependant on the absorption differences in the
component, the wavelength of the primary radiation, and intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to scattering.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
It should be no surprise that absorption differences within the subject will affect the
level of contrast in a radiograph. The larger the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger the difference in radiographic density or
contrast. However, it is also possible to radiograph a
particular subject and produce two radiographs
having entirely different contrast levels. Generating
X-rays using a low kilovoltage will generally result in
a radiograph with high contrast. This occurs because
low energy radiation is more easily attenuated.
Therefore, the ratio of photons that are transmitted
through a thick and thin area will be greater with
low energy radiation.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Li
br
Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film being
used, how it was exposed, and how it was processed. Since there are other detectors
besides film, this could be called detector contrast, but the focus here will be on film.
Exposing a film to produce higher film densities will generally increase the contrast in
the radiograph.
A typical film characteristic curve, which shows how a film responds to different
amounts of radiation exposure, is shown in the figue. From the shape of the curves, it
can be seen that when the film has not seen many photon interactions (which will
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 24 of 47
230 of 356.
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
result in a low film density) the slope of the curve is low. In this region of the curve, it
takes a large change in exposure to produce a small change in film density. Therefore,
the sensitivity of the film is relatively low. It can be
seen that changing the log of the relative exposure
from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film density from
0.20 to about 0.30. However, at film densities above
2.0, the slope of the characteristic curve for most
films is at its maximum. In this region of the curve, a
relatively small change in exposure will result in a
relatively large change in film density. For example,
changing the log of relative exposure from 2.4 to 2.6
would change the film density from 1.75 to 2.75.
Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is high in this
region of the curve. In general, the highest overall
film density that can be conveniently viewed or
digitized will have the highest level of contrast and
contain the most useful information.
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
As mentioned previously, thin lead sheets (called lead screens) are typically placed
on both sides of the radiographic film during the exposure (the film is placed between
the lead screens and inserted inside the cassette). Lead screens in the thickness range
of 0.1 to 0.4 mm typically reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below 150 kV.
Above this energy level, they will emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film,
thus increasing the density and contrast of the radiograph.
ary
Other type of screens called fluorescent screens can alternatively be used where
they produce visible light when exposed to radiation and this light further exposes the
film and increases density and contrast.
Li
br
Radiographic Definition
The loss of definition resulting from geometric factors of the radiographic equipment
and setup is refered to as geometric unsharpness. It occurs because the radiation
Page No.
Page 25 of 47
231 of 356.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
does not originate from a single point but rather over an area. The three factors
controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and object to
detector (film) distance. The effects of these three factors on image defenetion is
illustrated by the images below (source size effect; compare A & B, source to object
distance; compare B & D, and object to detector distance; compare B & C).
Li
br
The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturers specifications for a given Xray or gamma ray source. Industrial X-ray tubes often have focal spot sizes of 1.5 mm
squared but microfocus systems have spot sizes in the 30 micron range. As the source
size decreases, the geometric unsharpness also decreases. For a given size source, the
unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing the source to object distance, but this
comes with a reduction in radiation intensity. The object to detector distance is usually
kept as small as possible to help minimize unsharpness. However, there are situations,
such as when using geometric enlargement, when the object is separated from the
detector, which will reduce the definition.
In general, in order to produce the highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source
size should be as close to a point source as possible, the source-to-object distance
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 26 of 47
232 of 356.
ria
l
ate
dT
oo
ls
yM
Where;
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Li
br
Abrupt changes in thickness and/or density will appear more defined in a radiograph
than will areas of gradual change. For example, consider a circle. Its largest dimension
will be a cord that passes through its centerline. As the cord is moved away from the
centerline, the thickness gradually decreases. It is sometimes difficult to locate the
edge of a void due to this gradual change in thickness.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will
reduce definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the
image. Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection
situations.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 27 of 47
233 of 356.
ate
ria
l
The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine grain
film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a coarse
grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will
increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess
of the radiograph.
rw
ith
Ed
ito
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a couple
of different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is
because incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film.
However, the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent
areas, as well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident radiation.
Fluorescent screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is
associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of photons that interact with
the screen from one area to the next.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the film determines how dense
the film will become when other factors such as the developing time are held constant.
The number of photons reaching the film is a function of the intensity of the radiation
and the time that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used to describe the
control of the number of photons reaching the film is exposure.
Li
br
Page 28 of 47
234 of 356.
ria
l
used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. For example, if one film is
exposed at 100 kV for 6 mA.min and a second film is exposed at the same energy for 3
mA.min, then the relative exposure would be 2.
ate
The location of the characteristic curves of different films along the x-axis relates to the
speed of the film. The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the slower the
film speed (Film A has the highest speed while film C has the lowest speed). The shape
of the characteristic curve is largely independent of the wavelength of the X-ray or
gamma ray, but the location of the curve along the x-axis, with respect to the curve of
another film, does depend on radiation quality.
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a
radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph
of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate the exposure
produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the
same density with a second type of film.
ud
Fr
ee
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
A type B Film was exposed with 140 kV at 1 mA for 10 seconds (i.e., 10 mA.s) and
the resulting radiograph had a density of 1.0. If the desired density is 2.5, what
should be the exposure?
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
From the graph, the log of the relative exposure of a density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log
of the relative exposure when the density of the film is 2.5 is 2.12.
The difference between the two values is 0.5.
10 0.5 = 3.16
Therefore, the exposure used to produce the initial
radiograph with a 1.0 density needs to be multiplied
by 3.16 to produce a radiograph with the desired
density of 2.5.
So the new exposure must be:
10 mA.s x 3.16 = 31.6 mA.s (at 140 kV)
Page 29 of 47
235 of 356.
ate
ria
l
yM
Exposure Calculations
rit
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ary
er
an
dT
oo
ls
Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many
variables that affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that affect the density
of the radiograph include:
Li
br
Page 30 of 47
236 of 356.
ria
l
known that the intensity of the radiation transmitted through a material varies
exponentially with the linear attenuation coefficient and the thickness of the material.
By calculating the intensity from these equations one can directly calculate the
required exposure knowing that the exposure is inversely related to the intensity as:
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The figure below shows exemplary exposure charts for two materials for a specific Xray generator for the flowing parameters: film density of 2.0 without screens, 910 mm
source-to-film distance, Industrex AA film & 7 minutes development time.
Li
br
ary
For gamma-ray sources, however, the required exposure can be more easily calculated
since the radiation spectrum is well known for each different radiation source. The
exposure is usually expressed in
Curie-Time units and the data
can be represented in the form
of chars or in tabulated form.
The figure shows a typical
exposure chart for Ir-192 at the
following parameters: film
density of 1.75 without screens,
455 mm source-to-film
distance, II-ford film & 6
minutes development time.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 31 of 47
237 of 356.
ria
l
It should be noted that such charts are valid for the specified parameters, but of course
using the data in the charts one can calculate the exposure for different set of
parameters such as different source-to-film distance, different type of film, or different
density.
ate
Example 1:
Answer: 190 s
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
rit
er
Example 2:
Answer: 104 s
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
A 12.5 mm thick Steel plate is to be radiographed without screens using Ir-192 source
at 455 mm distance. Knowing that the source activity was 100 Ci before 30 days, what
is the required exposure time (for same density, film type, and development parameters
as used for the chart) if the plate is to be place behind a 50 mm thick concrete wall
while it is being exposed?
Li
br
ary
PD
To make such calculations more easy, radiographic modeling calculators and programs
can be used. A number of such
programs are available from
different sources and some are
available online. These programs
can provide a fair representation
of the radiograph that will be
produce with a specific setup and
parameters. The figure shows a
screen shot of an online calculator
available at the (www.ndt-ed.org)
website.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 32 of 47
238 of 356.
ate
ria
l
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQIs), which are also referred to as penetrameters. IQIs
provide means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and
definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of change in
material thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a
certain level of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness.
Without such a reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and
defects could go undetected.
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a
block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if placed
directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI
should also be placed slightly away from the edge of
the part so that at least three of its edges are visible
in the radiograph.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. The two most commonly used IQI types are: the holetype and the wire IQIs. IQIs come in a variety of material types so that one with
radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being radiographed can be
used.
Hole-Type IQIs
Li
br
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material group
classification of hole-type image quality indicators. Hole-type IQIs are classified in eight
groups based on their radiation absorption characteristics.
A notching system is used to indicate the IQI material. The
numbers on the IQI indicate the sample thickness that the
IQI would typically be placed on. Also, holes of different
sizes are present where these holes should be visible on
the radiograph. It should be noted however that the IQI is
used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique
and not intended to be used as a measure of the size of a
cavity that can be located on the radiograph.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 33 of 47
239 of 356.
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Wire IQIs
dT
oo
Film Processing
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
PD
Fi
ll
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemical solutions for
controlled periods of time. Film processing basically involves the following five steps:
Li
br
ary
Development: The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide
grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop
more rapidly, but given enough time the developer will convert all the silver ions
into silver metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains
to pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops the development process by
diluting and washing the developer away with water.
Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer
dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the processing chemicals.
Drying: The film is dried for viewing.
Page No.
Page 34 of 47
240 of 356.
ria
l
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
Viewing Radiographs
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 35 of 47
241 of 356.
ria
l
RADIATION SAFETY
Radiation Health Risks
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
As mentioned previously, the health risks associated with the radiation is considered to
be one the major disadvantages of radiogaphy. The amount of risk depends on the
amount of radiation dose received, the time over which the dose is received, and the
body parts exposed. The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable by
the human senses complicates matters further. However, the risks can be minimized
and controlled when the radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to
the radiation safety rules. The active laws all over the world require that individuals
working in the field of radiography receive training on the safe handling and use of
radioactive materials and radiation producing devices.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated (and
somehow understood) causes of disease. The primary risk from occupational radiation
exposure is an increased risk of cancer. Although scientists assume low-level radiation
exposure increases one's risk of cancer, medical studies have not demonstrated
adverse health effects in individuals exposed to small chronic radiation doses.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Page 36 of 47
242 of 356.
ria
l
effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.
Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others.
Studies have not been able to conclusively determine the cause of such differences.
ate
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
There are many sources of harmful, high energy radiation. Industrial radiographers are
mainly concerned with exposure from X-ray generators and radioactive isotopes.
However, it is important to understand
that eighty percent of human exposure
comes from natural sources such as
radon gas, outer space, rocks and soil,
and the human body. The remaining
twenty percent comes from man-made
radiation sources, such as those used
in medical and dental diagnostic
procedures.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
One source of natural radiation is cosmic radiation. The earth and all living things on it
are constantly being bombarded by radiation from space. The sun and stars emit
electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths. The dose from cosmic radiation varies in
different parts of the world due to differences in elevation and the effects of the
earths magnetic field. Radioactive materials are also found throughout nature where
they occur naturally in soil, water, plants and animals. The major isotopes of concern
for terrestrial radiation are uranium and the decay products of uranium, such as
thorium, radium, and radon. Low levels of uranium, thorium, and their decay products
are found everywhere. Some of these materials are ingested with food and water,
while others, such as radon, are inhaled. The dose from terrestrial sources varies in
different parts of the world. Locations with higher concentrations of uranium and
thorium in their soil have higher dose levels. All people also have radioactive isotopes,
such as potassium-40 and carbon-14, inside their bodies. The variation in dose from
one person to another is not as great as the variation in dose from cosmic and
terrestrial sources.
There are also a number of manmade radiation sources that present some exposure to
the public. Some of these sources include tobacco, television sets, smoke detectors,
combustible fuels, certain building materials, nuclear fuel for energy production,
nuclear weapons, medical and dental X-rays, nuclear medicine, X-ray security systems
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 37 of 47
243 of 356.
ria
l
and industrial radiography. By far, the most significant source of man-made radiation
exposure to the average person is from medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays,
nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy.
ate
There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter
when addressing the biological effects of working with X-rays or gamma-rays. These
measures are: Exposure, Dose, Dose Equivalent, and Dose Rate. A short description of
these measures and their units is given below
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Dose or Absorbed Dose: While exposure is defined for air, the absorbed dose is the
amount of energy that ionizing radiation imparts to a given mass of matter. In other
words, the dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by and object. The SI unit for
absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), but the rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is
commonly used (1 Gy = 100 rad). Different materials that receive the same exposure
may not absorb the same amount of radiation. In human tissue, one Roentgen of X-ray
or gamma radiation exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose. The size of
the absorbed dose is dependent upon the intensity (or activity) of the radiation source,
the distance from the source, and the time of exposure to radiation.
Li
br
Dose Equivalent: The dose equivalent relates the absorbed dose to the biological
effect of that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of radiation is multiplied by a
quality factor to arrive at the dose equivalent. The SI unit is the Sievert (Sv), but the
rem (Roentgen Equivalent in Man) is commonly used (1 Sv = 100 rem). The table
below presents the Q factors for several types of radiation.
Type of Radiation
Rad
Q Factor
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
10
20
X-Ray
Gamma Ray
Beta Particles
Thermal Neutrons
Fast Neutrons
Alpha Particles
Page 38 of 47
Rem
1
1
1
5
10
20
Page No.
244 of 356.
ria
l
Dose Rate: The dose rate is a measure of how fast a radiation dose is being received.
Dose rate is usually presented in terms of mR/hr, mrem/hr, rad/min, mGy/sec, etc.
Knowing the dose rate, allows the dose to be calculated for a period of time.
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure: acute and
chronic. An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation
during a short period of time. An acute exposure has the potential for producing both
non-stochastic and stochastic effects. Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
continuous exposure, is long-term, low level overexposure. Chronic exposure may
result in stochastic health effects and is likely to be the result of improper or
inadequate protective measures.
Time
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1) limiting the
time spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance away from the source,
3) and using shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation.
Li
br
The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation.
Therefore, a person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than
necessary. If a survey meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of 4 mR
will be received if a person remains at that location for one hour. The
received dose can be simply calculated as: Dose = Dose Rate x Time
When using a gamma camera, it is important to get the source from the
shielded camera to the collimator (a device that shields radiation in some
directions but allow it pass in one or more other directions) as quickly as
possible to limit the time of exposure to the unshielded source.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 39 of 47
245 of 356.
ate
ria
l
Distance
Shielding
PD
F
Fi
ll
Exposure Limits
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between the
radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the more
dense the material the more shielding it will provide. Lead and
concrete are the most commonly used radiation shielding materials
primarily because they are easy to work with and are readily
available materials. Concrete is commonly used in the construction
of radiation vaults. Some vaults will also be lined with lead sheeting
to help reduce the radiation to acceptable levels on the outside.
ary
PD
Li
br
Current guidelines are based on the conservative assumption that there is no safe level
of exposure. This assumption has led to the general philosophy of not only keeping
exposures below recommended levels or regulation limits but also maintaining all
exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA). ALARA is a basic requirement of
current radiation safety practices. It means that every reasonable effort must be made
to keep the dose to workers and the public as far below the required limits as possible.
In general, most international radiation safety codes specify that the dose rate must
not exceed 2mR/hour in any unrestricted area. The specifications for the accumulated
dose per year differ between radiation workers and non-workers. The limits are as
follows:
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 40 of 47
246 of 356.
ria
l
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ary
PD
Fi
ll
The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-body or
extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over an area of 10 cm2.
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from an
external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue
depth of 0.3 cm.
Li
br
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of ionizing
radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm.
The total effective dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the whole-body.
Page 41 of 47
247 of 356.
ria
l
(this is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to radiation workers). The same limit
also applies to persons under the age of 18 years.
Non-radiation Workers and the General Public
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public is only 2% of the
annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation worker can receive a whole
body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from industrial ionizing radiation. This
exposure would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from natural background radiation
and the 0.05 rem/year from man-made sources such as medical X-rays.
an
ud
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
0-25 rem
25-50 rem
50-100 rem
100-200 rem
200-400 rem
400-500 rem
500-1,000 rem
Over 1,000 rem
ary
Fr
ee
rit
er
Listed below are some of the probable prompt and delayed effects of certain doses of
radiation when the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour
period.
The delayed effects of radiation may be due either to a single large overexposure or
continuing low-level overexposure.
Li
br
No definite symptoms
First Week
No definite symptoms
Second Week
No definite symptoms
Page No.
Page 42 of 47
248 of 356.
Fourth Week
ria
l
Third Week
First Week
Second Week
Third Week
Fourth Week
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
First Day
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Radiation Detectors
Ed
ito
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Li
br
ary
PD
Page 43 of 47
249 of 356.
Survey Meters
ate
ria
l
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes having a voltage
applied to them. Whenever the device is brought near radioactive substances, the gas
becomes ionized. The electric field created by the potential difference between the
anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move to the anode while
the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in an electrical
signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as a value.
Fr
ee
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a
predetermined exposure has been received. It is required that these
electronic devices be worn by an individual working with gamma
emitters. These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures in
industrial radiography by alerting the radiographer to exposure levels or
dosages of radiation above a preset amount. It is important to note that
audible alarms are not intended to be and should not be used as
replacements for survey meters. Modern survey meters have this alarm
feature already built in.
Pocket Dosimeter
Li
br
Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading of his or
her exposure to X-rays or gamma rays. As the name implies, they are commonly worn
in the pocket. The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the
wearer an immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the
advantage of being reusable. The limited range, inability to provide a permanent
record, and the potential for discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping
are a few of the main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.
The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read Pocket
Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 44 of 47
250 of 356.
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
PD
F
Fi
ll
Film Badges
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
Li
br
ary
PD
Page 45 of 47
251 of 356.
ria
l
dT
oo
ls
yM
ate
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel monitoring device are that it
provides a permanent record, it is able to distinguish between different energies of
photons, and it can measure doses due to different types of radiation. It is quite
accurate for exposures greater than 100 mR. The major disadvantages are that it must
be developed and read by a processor (which is time consuming) and prolonged heat
exposure can affect the film.
er
an
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a
film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be
processed to determine the dose received, if any. TLDs can measure
doses as low as 1 mR and they have a precision of approximately
15% for low doses which improves to approximately 3% for high
doses. TLDs are reusable, which is an advantage over film badges.
However, no permanent record or re-readability is provided and an
immediate, on the job readout is not possible.
Li
br
ary
PD
A TLD has a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a solid
crystal structure. When a TLD it is exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient
temperatures, the radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal causing some of the
atoms in the material to produce free electrons and become ionized. The free
electrons are trapped and locked into place in the imperfections in the crystal lattice
structure.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons
in the process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the
captured energy from ionization as light, hence the name thermoluminescent. Instead
of reading the optical density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges, the
amount of light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of
thermoluminescent material is measured. The glow curve produced by this process is
then related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated many times.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 46 of 47
252 of 356.
Safety Controls
ate
ria
l
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not detectable by the human senses and the
resulting damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a variety of safety controls
are used to limit exposure. The two basic types of radiation safety controls used to
provide a safe working environment are engineered and administrative controls.
Engineered controls include shielding, interlocks, alarms, warning signals, and material
containment. Administrative controls include postings, procedures, dosimetry, and
training.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
Engineered controls such as shielding and door interlocks are used to contain the
radiation in a cabinet or a radiation vault. Fixed shielding materials are commonly
high density concrete and/or lead. Door interlocks are used to immediately cut the
power to X-ray generating equipment if a door is accidentally
opened when X-rays are being produced. Warning lights are
used to alert workers and the public that radiation is being
used. Sensors and warning alarms are often used to signal that
a predetermined amount of radiation is present. Safety
controls should never be tampered with or bypassed.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
When portable radiography is performed, most often it is not practical to place alarms
or warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes (or cordon off tape)
and signs are used to block the entrance to radiation areas and to
alert the public to the presence of radiation. Occasionally,
radiographers will use battery operated flashing lights to alert the
public to the presence of radiation.
Li
br
Safety regulations classify the areas surrounding the location where ionizing radiation
is present into restricted areas and controlled areas according to the radiation intensity
level:
Restricted areas: Areas with a dose rate higher than 300 mR/h must be secure so that
nobody can enter this area. If anybody accidently enters this area, radiation must be
terminated and the person must be checked. Access is only permitted under specific
conditions and if there is an absolute need for it, the body dose should be calculated
and the personal dose measured.
Control areas: These are areas with dose rates which are equivalent to or higher than
0.75 mR/h. Control areas must be cordoned off and provided with a radiation warning
signs.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Radiographic Testing
Page 47 of 47
253 of 356.
ria
Dr. S. P. Tyagi
X-ray film:
The X-ray film is the medium that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. The x-ray film
ate
is somewhat similar to photographic film in its basic composition. However unlike photographic
film, the light (or radiation) sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both sides of the base of Xray film so that it can be used with intensifying screens.
oo
ls
yM
dT
1: Film base: The central portion of the x-ray film is the base which supports the fragile
an
photographic emulsion on both of its surface. Ideally the base must be flexible as well as quite
i
g
a
rit
er
strong so that the films can be repeatedly snapped into x-ray illuminators (Viewing boxes).
Secondly, it must withstand any geometric distortion due to the heat of the developing process
Ty
Fr
tud
ee
and finally, the base must provide a uniform, highly transparent, optical background.
P
S
r
ith
Historically, photographic glass plates were used as the X-ray film base followed by
ito
rw
cellulose nitrate in early 1920s. Later cellulose triacetate base was developed in 1924 to avoid
Ed
the highly flammable nature of cellulose nitrate. Finally, a stronger, thinner, more
ry
S
lP
DF
dimensionally stable film base made of polyester was developed in 1960 and that has replaced
Li
bra
PD
Fil
2: Film Emulsion: The X-ray film emulsion is composed of a mixture of gelatin (derived from
cadaver bones) and small silver halide crystals (grains). The gelatin serves as a matrix which
keeps the silver halide grains well dispersed and prevents their clumping. The developing and
Page No.
254 of 356.
fixing solutions can penetrate the gelatin very rapidly without changing the strength or
permanence of the gelatin. Small crystal grains of silver halide (1.0 to 1.5 microns in diameter)
comprise the light sensitive substance in the emulsion. These grains, known as silver-iodo-
ria
bromide, are typically between 90 and 99% silver bromide and between 1 and 10% silver
iodide.
oo
ls
yM
ate
The atoms in the silver-iodo-bromide crystal are arranged in a cubic lattice and each
crystal contains many point defects, where a silver ion is displaced and is free to move through
the crystal. It is the mobility of these silver ions that contributes to the formation of the latent
image. In its pure form the silver halide crystal has low photographic sensitivity. The emulsion
is sensitized by heating it under controlled conditions with a reducing agent containing sulphur.
This result in the production of silver sulphide at a site on the surface of the crystal referred to
as a sensitivity speck. It is the sensitivity speck that traps electrons to begin formation of the
latent image centres.
an
dT
In the process of film exposure, the energy from absorbing a photon of light is sufficient
to liberate an electron from a bromide ion in the crystal. The electron travels freely through the
crystal until it is trapped at a site of crystal imperfection such as a dislocation defect or a
sensitivity speck composed of an AgS molecule. A free silver ion is attracted to the negative
charge and combines with the charge (is reduced) to form an atom of metallic silver (which is
optically black). The single atom of silver acts as an electron trap for another electron and then
attracts another atom of silver which is then reduced to metallic silver. This process continues
while the exposure to light continues.
rit
er
i
g
a
Fr
tud
ee
Ty
rw
ith
P
S
r
Ed
ito
3: Adhesive layer: In general, the emulsion and the base do not adhere to each other. For this
lP
DF
reason, the emulsion must be attached to the film base using a thin layer of suitable adhesive
Fil
ry
S
PD
4: Protective layer: To protect the emulsion, which would be easily scratched and damaged by
normal handling, a very thin outer protective layer is applied (again usually made of gelatin).
Li
bra
one surface of film base. These films are used with single intensifying screen cassette with the
film placed in front of the screen, i.e. on the side facing the X-ray tube. These are specific
purpose films used when higher spatial resolution of image is desired.
Double coated: These are routine purpose x-ray films having photosensitive coatings on
both sides of base and used with double screen cassette with the film sandwiched between the
Page No.
255 of 356.
screens. Such films require lesser exposure factors and lesser processing times. For example
the image can be produced in 1/2 the time required to produce an image on the single sided
ria
film.
Screen films: These films are used along with intensifying screens and are therefore
ate
ultimately exposed by light and not the X-rays. These films require lesser exposure factors and
processing time for development of radiographic image. The emulsion coating of such films is
also thinner. Such films are versatile and used for most general purpose diagnostic
an
dT
oo
ls
yM
radiography.
rit
er
i
g
a
Fr
tud
ee
Ty
ith
P
S
r
rw
Non-screen films: These films are used without intensifying screens and require more
Ed
ito
exposure factors and prolonged processing time for production of comparable radiographic
lP
DF
density to that of non-screen films. They have relatively thicker emulsion and therefore
ry
S
radiographic image formed on such films have excellent details. Such films are used for specific
PD
Fil
purposes such as detection of hail-line fracture or any subtle tissue change that remains
unrecognized in traditional routine radiograph.
Li
bra
intensifying screen in order to increase the sensitivity of the system. The principle emission
from traditionally used calcium tungstate intensifying screens is blue light. Therefore, it is
imperative that the films to be used with such intensifying screens must be sensitive more
towards blue light. The photographic emulsion containing silver bromide is coincidently cream
Page No.
256 of 356.
coloured that absorbs ultraviolet and blue light, but reflects green and red light and therefore
such films have been used without any problem with calcium tungustate intensifying screens.
However many rare earth intensifying screens principally emit greener lights and
ria
therefore, x-ray films to be used with such screens should be made sensitive to greener
spectrum of light as well. For this, suitable dyes are added in their photosensitive emulsion of
the films. (Such green light sensitive orthochromatic films also require suitable change in x-ray
ate
darkroom safe light colour and intensity). Now a day blue light emitting rare earth intensifying
screens are also available.
High lite films from 3M company were more or less not sensitive to room light
yM
(particularly yellow lights) and therefore, allowed all the procedures of dark room in a
dT
oo
ls
an
i
g
a
rit
er
Film speed refers to the relative sensitivity of X-ray film to a given amount of radiation.
Faster films require lesser exposure but produce grainy images that lack definition. They
ee
Ty
Fr
tud
also have narrow film latitude. Speed wise x-ray films may be categorized as following-
rw
ito
lP
DF
Ultrafast films
Ed
ith
P
S
r
ry
S
Standard speed films are versatile as they have wide film latitude but require greater exposure.
PD
of radiographic densities.
Fil
Film Latitude: It refers to the range of exposure factors that produce diagnostically useful range
Li
bra
1. Films should be stored in a cool (10-200c) and low humidity (40-60%) environment.
2. Film boxes should be kept vertically without any pressure on them.
3. Films should never be stored near a source of heat, irradiation or water.
4. Films should be loaded and unloaded from a cassette on a dry and clean bench inside
the dark room under a proper safe light.
5. Films should be handled delicately and any accidental splashing of processing solutions
should be avoided.
Page No.
257 of 356.
7. If an x-ray film has been exposed, the cassette should immediately be transferred to the
ria
8. The wet processed film should be kept upright in a film drier for its drying.
9. The wet films should never be touched with fingers to avoid finger marks over films.
ate
Intensifying screen:
These screens are fitted in x-ray cassettes and interact with x-rays to convert most of
their radiant energy (>95%) in to visible light thereby, exposing the x-ray film finally with light
(and not the x-rays). The amount of light emitted by the intensifying screen is proportional to
oo
ls
yM
dT
Generally the x-ray films are more sensitive to light rays than the x-rays and therefore
an
the use of intensifying screens allow reduction in the exposure factors without affecting the
i
g
a
rit
er
Ty
ee
Base: Provides a strong, smooth, but flexible support for the fluorescent layer. This is
Fr
tud
1.
P
S
r
ito
rw
ith
constructed usually from paper, cardboard or polyester with total thickness not exceeding
Li
bra
PD
Fil
ry
S
lP
DF
Ed
2.
Substratum: It is the bonding layer between the base & the phosphor layer. It may be
reflective, absorptive or transparent in nature.
3.
Phosphor (Fluorescent) Layer: This is the active layer of the intensifying screen that
consists of fluorescent crystals, which emit light when struck by x-radiation. Examples of
Page No.
258 of 356.
typical phosphor materials include calcium tungstate & rare earth phosphors. Earlier
barium lead sulphate and zinc cadmium sulphide were also used as phosphor materials.
The rare earth screens may have any of the following types of phosphor material-
ria
ate
X-ray absorption efficiency and their light conversion ratio of rare earth screens are far
superior to calcium tungustate type films. For example rare earth screen film combination
has 12 times faster speed than par speed tungustate screen film combination and
oo
ls
Super-coat: This is a transparent external protective layer which helps in resisting surface
dT
4.
yM
an
abrasion. It is constructed from cellulose acetate and has anti-static and waterproofing
i
g
a
rit
er
qualities.
Fr
tud
ee
Ty
ito
ry
S
lP
DF
Ed
rw
ith
P
S
r
Fil
The material in the cassette box must be as little absorbing as possible. Presently, the
PD
best material for this is carbon fibre, giving a very rigid structure combined with low density
Li
bra
Page No.
259 of 356.
Radiography
Ref:
r
te
M
y
d
ls
o
To
l
ia
n
http://www.ge-mcs.com/download/x-ray/GEIT-30158EN_industrial-radiography-image-forming-techniques.pdf
ra
e
rit
http://onlineshowcase.tafensw.edu.au/ndt/content/radiographic/task8/accessible.htm
W
ee
http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pair-production
r
F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_image
th
i
rw
o
t
di
E
DF
P
ill
F
PD
d
u
t
EME-062
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
260 of 356.
l
ia
M
y
r
te
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
261 of 356.
l
ia
Radiographic image
Latent image
r
te
M
y
ls
oemulsion,
When light or X-radiation strikes a sensitive
the portions
o
T
d
an undergo a change;
receiving a sufficient quantity of radiation
r
e
rit crystals are converted into
extremely small particles of silver halide
W
ee
r
metallic silver.
F
th
i
w
These traces of silver are so dminute
that the sensitive layer remains
ti or
E
to all appearances unchanged.
The number of silver particles
DF
P
produced is higher in the
ill portions struck by a greater quantity of
F
PD where struck by a lesser quantity.
radiation and less high
Developing the latent image
Development is the process by which a latent image is converted
into a visible image. This result is obtained by selective reduction
into black metallic silver of the silver halide crystals in the emulsion.
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
262 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
263 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
Contrast
ols
The contrast of an image is defined
as the
o
T
d
an
r
e
rit
relative brightness between
an image and the
W
e
re
F
ith
adjacent background.
w
r
ito
d
E
F
D
The contrast between
two densities D1 and
ll P
i
F
PD
D2 on an X-ray film is the density difference
between them and is usually termed the
radiographi o trast .
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
264 of 356.
r
te
M
y
l
ia
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
265 of 356.
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
266 of 356.
Film interpretation
and reference radiographs
l
ia
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
E
b
i
L
r
a
r
267 of 356.
r
te
M
y
l
ia
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
268 of 356.
n
ra
r
te
M
y
ls
o
To
l
ia
rit
d
u
t
S
y
th
i
rw
ee
Fr
D
ll P
it
Ed
b
i
L
r
a
r
F
PD
Page No.
269 of 356.
l
ia
X-ray Videos
r
te
M
y
d
u
t
S
y
b
i
L
r
a
r
Page No.
270 of 356.
Ultrasonic Testing
yM
ate
ria
l
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
rw
ith
ud
Basic Principles
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Page 1 of 36
271 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:
Advantages
PD
F
Fi
ll
Disadvantages
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Li
br
ary
PD
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 2 of 36
272 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
PHYSICS OF ULTRASOUND
Wave Propagation
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Li
br
Page 3 of 36
273 of 356.
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in the
direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in other
directions. Hence, a number of different types of sound waves are possible. Waves can
be characterized by oscillatory patterns that are capable of maintaining their shape
and propagating in a stable manner. The propagation of waves is often described in
terms of what are called wave modes.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most often
used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces, various types of
elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible. Some of
these wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves are also useful for ultrasonic
inspection.
Though there are many different modes of wave propagation, the table summarizes
the four types of waves that are commonly used in NDT.
Li
br
Wave Type
Longitudinal (Compression)
Transverse (Shear)
Surface - Rayleigh
Plate Wave - Lamb
Particle Vibration
Parallel to wave direction
Perpendicular to wave direction
Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode
Component perpendicular to surface
Since longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed previously, surface and plate
waves are introduced here.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 4 of 36
274 of 356.
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel at the surface of a relatively thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. A surface wave is a combination of
both a longitudinal and transverse motion which results in an elliptical motion as
shown in the image. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of
the solid. As the depth of an individual atom from the
surface increases, the width of its elliptical motion
decreases. Surface waves are generated when a
longitudinal wave intersects a surface slightly larger
than the second critical angle and they travel at a
velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave.
Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very
sensitive to surface defects (and other surface
features) and they follow the surface around curves.
Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect
areas that other waves might have difficulty reaching.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Plate (or Lamb) waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be
generated in materials a few wavelengths thick (thin plates). Lamb waves are
complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to the test surface throughout
the thickness of the material. They are influenced a great deal by the test wave
frequency and material thickness. Lamb waves are generated when a wave hits a
surface at an incident angle such that the parallel component of the velocity of
the wave (in the source) is equal to the velocity of the wave in the test material.
Lamb waves will travel several meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate,
wire, and tubes.
o With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but
the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex
motion of the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface waves.
Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a symmetrical
fashion about the median plane of the plate. This is
sometimes called the extensional mode because
the wave is stretching and compressing the plate in
the wave motion direction.
The asymmetrical Lamb wave mode is often called
the flexural mode because a large portion of the
motion is in a normal direction to the plate, and a
little motion occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In this mode, the
body of the plate bends as the two surfaces move in the same direction.
Page No.
Page 5 of 36
275 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Where;
an
d
To
o
ls
: wavelength (m)
: velocity (m/s)
: frequency (Hz)
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
PD
F
St
Ed
ary
PD
Fi
ll
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the
transducer that will be used in order to control the wavelength. The wavelength of the
ultrasound used has a significant effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity.
A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the
wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being detected.
Li
br
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection to
describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate small
discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency (shorter
wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are
close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also
generally increases as the frequency increases.
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways.
Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a
balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before
selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness, and the
discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As frequency
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 6 of 36
276 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from small
imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains and thus
require lower frequencies to be used for evaluations of these products. Wrought and
forged products with directional and refined grain structure can usually be inspected
with higher frequency transducers.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at
higher frequencies, the penetration depth (the maximum depth in a material that
flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of the
ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center axis of
the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later.
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
ito
rw
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
Li
br
Page 7 of 36
277 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
properties of the material and is independent of the amplitude of the sound wave.
Newton's Second Law says that the force applied to a particle will be balanced by the
particle's mass and the acceleration of the particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second
Law is written as F = m a. Hooke's Law then says that this force will be balanced by a
force in the opposite direction that is dependent on the amount of displacement and
the spring constant. Therefore, since the applied force and the restoring force are
equal, m a = k x can be written.
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given material, it can
be seen that the acceleration a and the displacement x are the only variables. It can
also be seen that they are directly proportional. For instance, if the displacement of
the particle increases, so does its acceleration. It turns out that the time that it takes a
particle to move and return to its equilibrium position is independent of the force
applied. So, within a given material, sound always travels at the same speed no matter
how much force is applied when other variables, such as temperature, are held
constant.
rw
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is because
the mass of the atomic particles and the spring constants are different for different
materials. The mass of the particles is related to the density of the material, and the
spring constant is related to the elastic constants of a material. The general
relationship between the speed of sound in a solid and its density and elastic constants
is given by the following equation:
Where;
Li
This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the type of wave
(longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are used. It must also be
mentioned that the subscript attached to in the above equation is used to
indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with respect to the wave type and
Page No.
Page 8 of 36
278 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials, the elastic constants are the same for
all directions within the material. However, most materials are anisotropic and the
elastic constants differ with each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum
plate, the grains are elongated in one direction and compressed in the others and the
elastic constants for the longitudinal direction differs slightly from those for the
transverse or short transverse directions.
To
o
ls
For longitudinal waves, the speed of sound in a solid material can be found as:
Where;
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
While for shear (transverse) waves, the speed of sound is found as:
PD
Fi
ll
Where;
ary
br
From the above equations, it can be found that longitudinal waves travel faster than
shear waves (longitudinal waves are approximately twice as fast as shear waves). The
table below gives examples of the compressional and shear sound velocities in some
metals.
Li
Material
Compressional velocity
Shear velocity
6320
5890
4800
4660
6070
3130
3240
2400
2330
3310
Aluminum
Steel (1020)
Cast iron
Copper
Titanium
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 9 of 36
279 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. In
idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is reduced due to the spreading
of the wave. In natural materials, however, the sound amplitude is further weakened
due to the scattering and absorption. Scattering is the reflection of the sound in
directions other than its original direction of propagation. Absorption
is the conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The
combined effect of scattering and absorption is called attenuation.
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of sound frequency.
rit
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Where;
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
The Decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. The difference
between two measurements X1 and X2 is described in decibels as:
ary
PD
The intensity of sound waves (I) is quantified by measuring the variation in sound pressure using a
transducer, and then the pressure is transferred to a voltage signal. Since the intensity of sound
waves is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude, the ratio of sound intensity in
decibels can be expressed as:
br
where;
Li
Use of dB units allows ratios of various sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 10 of 36
280 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Acoustic Impedance
an
d
To
o
ls
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because
molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure
results in a wave propagating through the solid.
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
The acoustic impedance ( ) of a material is defined as the product of its density ( ) and
the velocity of sound in that material ( ).
ith
Where;
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
Fi
ll
The table gives examples of the acoustic impedances for some materials:
Acou. Imp.
2
(kg/m s)
17.1 x 106
Titanium
Water
(20C)
(20C)
46.1 x 106
28 x 106
1.48 x 106
413
PD
Steel
Copper
ary
Aluminum
41.6 x 106
Air
Li
br
Page 11 of 36
281 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
To
o
ls
er
an
d
Where
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal the total
amount of incident energy, the transmission coefficient is calculated by simply
subtracting the reflection coefficient from one (
).
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
Taking for example a water steel interface and calculating the reflection and
transmission coefficients (using the acoustic impedance information given in the
previous table), we get = 0.88 and = 0.12. This means that the amount of energy
transmitted into the second material is only 12% while 88% is reflected back at the
interface. If we convert the amounts of reflection and transmission to decibels, we find
that to be -1.1 dB and -18.4 dB respectively. The negative sign indicates that
individually, the amount of reflected and transmitted energy is smaller than the
incident energy.
Li
br
Page 12 of 36
Page No.
282 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Note that in such calculation the attenuation of the signal as it travels through the
material is not considered. Should it be considered, the amount of signal received back
by the transducer would be even smaller.
Q: What portion of the signal will be reflected at an Air-Steel interface?
A: 99.996%
ls
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
Li
br
Where;
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 13 of 36
283 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
To
o
ls
an
d
Mode Conversion
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed
into another form. For example, when a longitudinal wave hits an interface at an angle,
some of the energy can cause particle movement in
the transverse direction to start a shear wave. Mode
conversion occurs when a wave encounters an
interface between materials of different acoustic
impedances and the incident angle is not normal to
the interface. It should be noted that mode
conversion occurs every time a wave encounters
an interface at an angle. This mode conversion
occurs for both the portion of the wave that passes
through the interface and the portion that reflects
off the interface.
Li
In the previous section, it was pointed out that when sound waves pass through an
interface between materials having different acoustic velocities, refraction takes place
at the interface. The larger the difference in acoustic velocities between the two
materials, the more the sound is refracted. However, the converted shear wave is not
refracted as much as the longitudinal wave because shear waves travel slower than
longitudinal waves. Therefore, the velocity difference between the incident
longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not as great as it is between the incident and
refracted longitudinal waves. Also note that when a longitudinal wave is reflected
inside the material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a smaller angle than the
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 14 of 36
284 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
reflected longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact that the shear velocity is less
than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Where;
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can be written
as follows:
St
Ed
ito
Critical Angles
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material (and thus the wave
is refracted), there is an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
longitudinal wave to become 90. This is angle is known as the first critical angle.
The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90 for
the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic
energy is in the form of an inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the
interface and decays exponentially with depth from the interface. This wave is
sometimes referred to as a "creep wave". Because of their inhomogeneous nature and
the fact that they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh
surface waves in NDT.
Li
When the incident angle is equal or greater than the first critical angle, only the mode
converted shear wave propagates into the material. For this reason, most angle beam
transducers use a shear wave so that the signal is not complicated by having two
waves present.
In many cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
shear wave to become 90. This is known as the second critical angle and at this
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 15 of 36
285 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following shear
wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface (Rayleigh)
waves will be generated.
The incident angle for angle-beam transducers is somewhere between the first and
second critical angles such that a shear wave, at a desired angle, is introduced into the
material being inspected.
rw
ito
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
The figure shows the mode of waves introduced into a steel surface as a function of
the incident angle of the wave generated by the transducer. It can be seen from the
figure that the incident angle for angle
beam (shear) transducers ranges
between 30 to 55. But it is important
to remember that, due to refraction,
the angle of the shear wave inside the
material is completely different than
the incident angle.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
Li
br
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of the
sound pressure at any point of interaction is the sum of the amplitudes of the two
individual waves. First, let's consider two identical waves that originate from the same
point. When they are in phase (so that the peaks and valleys of one are exactly aligned
with those of the other), they combine to double the pressure of either wave acting
alone. When they are completely
out of phase (so that the peaks of
one wave are exactly aligned with
the valleys of the other wave),
they combine to cancel each
other out. When the two waves
are not completely in phase or
out of phase, the resulting wave
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 16 of 36
286 of 356.
is the sum of the wave amplitudes for all points along the wave.
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
When the origins of the two interacting waves are not the
same, it is a little harder to picture the wave interaction, but
the principles are the same. Up until now, we have primarily
looked at waves in the form of a 2D plot of wave amplitude
versus wave position. However, anyone that has dropped
something in a pool of water can picture the waves radiating
out from the source with a circular wave front. If two objects
are dropped a short distance apart into the pool of water,
their waves will radiate out from their sources and interact
with each other. At every point where the waves interact, the amplitude of the particle
displacement is the combined sum of the amplitudes of the particle displacement of
the individual waves.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
As stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points along the face of the
transducer. The image shows what the sound field would look like if the waves
originated from just three points (of course there are more than three points of origin
along the face of a transducer). It can be seen that where the waves interact near the
face of the transducer and as a result there are extensive fluctuations and the sound
field is very uneven. In ultrasonic testing, this is
known as the near field or Fresnel zone. The sound
field is more uniform away from the transducer in
the far field or Fraunhofer zone. At some distance
from the face of the transducer and central to the
face of the transducer, a uniform and intense wave
field develops.
Wave Diffraction
Li
br
Page 17 of 36
287 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Li
br
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the
transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness.
Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the desired radiated
wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active
element.
Page 18 of 36
288 of 356.
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
factors, including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a transducer.
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown in the figure. To get as much
energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching layer is placed
between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance
matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the
desired wavelength. This keeps waves that are reflected within the matching layer in
phase when they exit the layer. For contact transducers, the matching layer is made
from a material that has an acoustical impedance between the active element and
steel. Immersion transducers have a matching layer with an acoustical impedance
between the active element and water. Contact transducers also incorporate a wear
plate to protect the matching layer and active element from scratching.
br
ary
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
characteristics of a transducer. Using a backing material with an impedance similar to
that of the active element will produce the most effective damping. Such a transducer
will have a wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity and higher resolution (i.e.,
the ability to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity in the material). As
the mismatch in impedance between the active element and the backing material
increases, material penetration increases but transducer sensitivity is reduced.
Li
The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies associated with a transducer. The
frequency noted on a transducer is the central frequency and depends primarily on the
backing material. Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and
below the central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer with
high resolving power. Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency
range and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 19 of 36
289 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower
frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in a material,
while high frequency crystals (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but
greater sensitivity to small discontinuities.
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not originate from a
point, but instead originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric element. The
sound field from a typical piezoelectric transducer is shown in the figure where lighter
colors indicating higher intensity. Since the ultrasound originates from a number of
points along the transducer face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected
by constructive and destructive wave
interference as discussed previously. This
wave interference leads to extensive
fluctuations in the sound intensity near
the source and is known as the near
field. Because of acoustic variations
within a near field, it can be extremely
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when they are positioned
within this area.
br
ary
The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the near
field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is more uniform is
called the far field. The transition between the near field and the far field occurs at a
distance, , and is sometimes referred to as the "natural focus" of a flat (or unfocused)
transducer. Spherical or cylindrical focusing changes the structure of a transducer field
by "pulling" the point nearer the transducer. The area just beyond the near field is
where the sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore,
optimal detection results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.
Li
For a round transducer (often referred to as piston source transducer), the near field
distance can be found as:
Where;
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 20 of 36
290 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
As the sound waves exits the near field and propegate through the material, the sound
beam continiously spreads out. This phenomenon is usually referred to as beam spread
but sometimes it is also referred to as beam divergence or ultrasonic diffraction. It
should be noted that there is actually a difference between beam spread and beam
divergence. Beam spread is a measure of the
whole angle from side to side of the beam in the
far field. Beam divergence is a measure of the
angle from one side of the sound beam to the
central axis of the beam in the far field. Therefore,
beam spread is twice the beam divergence.
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Beam spread occurs because the vibrating particle of the material (through which the
wave is traveling) do not always transfer all of their energy in the direction of wave
propagation. If the particles are not directly aligned in the direction of wave
propagation, some of the energy will get transferred off at an angle. In the near field,
constructive and destructive wave interference fill the sound field with fluctuation. At
the start of the far field, however, the beam strength is always greatest at the center of
the beam and diminishes as it spreads outward.
Li
br
The beam spread is largely influenced by the frequency and diameter of the
transducer. For a flat piston source transducer, an approximation of the beam
divergence angle at which the sound pressure has decreased by one half (-6 dB) as
compared to its value at the centerline axis can be caculated as:
Where;
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 21 of 36
291 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
: the beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal is at half
strength
: sound velocity in the material
: diameter of the transducer
: frequency of the transducer
Transducer Types
an
d
To
o
ls
rit
er
Transducers are classified into two major groups according to the application.
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally
hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to
withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers
have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along
a surface. They often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their
useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial
materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the
component being inspected.
Li
br
ary
Page 22 of 36
292 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Li
br
ary
PD
Page 23 of 36
293 of 356.
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the
introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle
beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with
minimal longitudinal wave contamination.
Couplant
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals and that make it possible to
scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive
transducers are often then required to further define the details of a discontinuity.
Li
br
Page 24 of 36
294 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
ary
PD
Fi
ll
br
Li
Pulser-Receivers
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose ultrasonic testing. Along
with appropriate transducers and an oscilloscope, they can be used for flaw detection
and thickness gauging in a wide variety of metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites.
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique, low-cost ultrasonic measurement
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 25 of 36
295 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
capability. Specialized portable equipment that are dedicated for ultrasonic inspection
merge the pulser-receiver with the scope display in one small size battery operated
unit.
The pulser section of the instrument generates
short, large amplitude electric pulses of controlled
energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic
pulses when applied to an ultrasonic transducer.
Control functions associated with the pulser circuit
include:
an
d
To
o
ls
Pulse length or damping: The amount of time the pulse is applied to the transducer.
Pulse energy: The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical pulser circuits will apply
from 100 volts to 800 volts to a transducer.
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which represent
the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified signal is available as an
output for display or capture for signal processing. Control functions associated with
the receiver circuit include:
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
Signal rectification: The signal can be viewed as positive half wave, negative half
wave or full wave.
Filtering to shape and smoothing
Gain, or signal amplification
Reject control
Data Presentation
Li
br
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The
three most common formats are known in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan
presentations. Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and
evaluating the region of material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic
scanning systems can display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a
function of time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical
axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the traveled distance within the
material) is displayed along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-scan
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 26 of 36
296 of 356.
an
d
To
o
ls
yM
ate
ria
l
display allow the signal to be displayed in its natural radio frequency form (RF), as a
fully rectified RF signal, or as either the positive or negative half of the RF signal. In the
A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the
signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known reflector.
Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal time
axis.
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
In the illustration of the A-scan presentation shown in the figure, the initial pulse
generated by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is near time zero. As
the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are likely to
appear at different times on the screen. When the transducer is in its far left position,
only the IP signal and signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen
on the trace. As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW
will appear later in time, showing that the sound has traveled farther to reach this
surface. When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time
scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal. Since the
IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that flaw B is
about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample. When the
transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since the sound
travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound will no longer be
reflecting from it.
br
B-Scan Presentation
Li
The B-scan presentation is a type of presentation that is possible for automated linear
scanning systems where it shows a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen.
In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound waves is displayed along the
vertical axis and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal
axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions
in the scan direction can be determined. The B-scan is typically produced by
establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity is great enough
to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 27 of 36
297 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
sound reflected from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the
material. In the B-scan image shown previously, line A is produced as the transducer is
scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the transducer
moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced. When the
transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at
similar depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a
limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors
near the surface.
C-Scan Presentation
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Li
br
High resolution scans can produce very detailed images. The figure
shows two ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter. Both images
were produced using a pulse-echo technique with the transducer
scanned over the head side in an immersion scanning system. For
the C-scan image on the top, the gate was set to capture the
amplitude of the sound reflecting from the front surface of the
quarter. Light areas in the image indicate areas that reflected a
greater amount of energy back to the transducer. In the C-scan
image on the bottom, the gate was moved to record the intensity
of the sound reflecting from the back surface of the coin. The
details on the back surface are clearly visible but front surface
features are also still visible since the sound energy is affected by
these features as it travels through the front surface of the coin.
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 28 of 36
298 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500 kHz
and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound
waves when excited by electrical pulses. Typically, lower frequencies are used to
optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly attenuating or highly scattering
materials, while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize resolution in
thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials. It is possible to measure most
engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, composites,
epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological
specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal
often is possible, as is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer
materials.
Page 29 of 36
299 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Angle beam inspection is somehow different than normal beam inspection. In normal
beam inspection, the backwall echo is always present on the scope display and when
the transducer basses over a discontinuity a new echo will appear between the initial
pulse and the backwall echo. However, when scanning a surface using an angle beam
transducer there will be no reflected echo on the scope display unless a properly
oriented discontinuity or reflector comes into the beam path.
Fr
ee
ud
where
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
If a reflection occurs before the sound waves reach the backwall, the reflection is
usually referred to as first leg reflection. The angular distance (Sound Path) to the
reflector can be calculated using the same formula used for normal beam transducers
(but of course using the shear velocity instead of the longitudinal velocity) as:
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
where
Li
br
If a reflector came across the sound beam after it has reached and reflected off the
backwall, the reflection is usually referred to as second leg reflection. In this case, the
Sound Path (the total sound path
for the two legs) and the Surface
Distance can be calculated using
the same equations given above,
however, the Depth of the
reflector will be calculated as:
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 30 of 36
300 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions,
lack of side-wall fusion, lack of intermediate-pass fusion, lack of root penetration,
undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks. With the exception of single gas
pores all the listed defects are usually well detectable using ultrasonics.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using straight beam transducer in
conjunction with angle beam transducers.
To
o
ls
ito
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to
inspect the actual weld. This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and
heat-affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the
material around the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will
bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam.
where
br
Based on such calculations, the inspector can identify the transducer locations on the
surface of the material corresponding to the face, sidewall, and root of the weld.
Li
The angle of refraction for the angle beam transducer used for inspection is usually
chosen such that (
). Doing so, the second leg of the
beam will be normal to the side wall of the weldment such that lack of fusion can be
easily detected (the first leg will also be normal to the other wall). However, for
improving the detectability of the different types of weld discontinuities, it is
recommended to repeat the scanning using several transducers having different angles
of refraction.
Page No. 301 of 356.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 31 of 36
yM
ate
ria
l
When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the orientation of a
flaw is well known, the length of a crack can be determined by a technique known as
crack tip diffraction.
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
One common application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length of
a crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this case,
when an angle beam transducer is
scanned over the area of the flaw, an
echo appears on the scope display
because of the reflection of the
sound beam from the base of the
crack (top image). As the transducer
moves, a second, but much weaker,
echo appears due to the diffraction
of the sound waves at the tip of the
crack (bottom image). However,
since the distance traveled by the
diffracted sound wave is less, the
second signal appears earlier in time
on the scope.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Crack height ( ) is a function of the ultrasound shear velocity in the material ( ), the
incident angle ( ) and the difference in arrival times between the two signal ( ).
Since the beam angle and the thickness of the material is the same in both
measurements, two similar right triangles are formed such that one can be overlayed
on the other. A third similar right triangle is made, which is comprised on the crack, the
length and the angle . The variable is really the difference in time but can
easily be converted to a distance by dividing the time in half (to get the one-way travel
time) and multiplying this value by the velocity of the sound in the material. Using
trigonometry, we can write:
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 32 of 36
302 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
If the material is relatively thick or the crack is relatively short, the crack base echo and
the crack tip diffraction echo could appear on the scope display simultaneously (as
seen in the figure). This can be attributed to the divergence
of the sound beam where it becomes wide enough to cover
the entire crack length. In such case, though the angle of the
beam striking the base of the crack is slightly different than
the angle of the beam striking the tip of the crack, the
previous equation still holds reasonably accurate and it can
be used for estimating the crack length.
To
o
ls
Calibration Methods
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibrations must
occur. First, the electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to ensure that they
are performing as designed. This operation is usually performed by the equipment
manufacturer and will not be discussed further in this material. It is also usually
necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibration" of the equipment. This user
calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for
use in a large variety of applications. The user must "calibrate" the system, which
includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that
the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved.
Li
br
ary
Page 33 of 36
303 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
signal. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the
actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
To
o
ls
The material of the reference standard should be the same as the material being
inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble that of the actual
flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard reference
samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely represent real flaws. In
most cases the artificially induced defects in reference standards are better reflectors
of sound energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce indications
that are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would produce. Producing more
"realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can
only make an estimate of the flaw size.
er
an
d
Reference standards are mainly used to calibrate instruments prior to performing the
inspection and, in general, they are also useful for:
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
PD
Fi
ll
br
ary
A wide variety of standard calibration blocks of different designs, sizes and systems of
units (mm or inch) are available. The type of standard calibration block used is
dependent on the NDT application and the form and shape of the object being
evaluated. The most commonly used standard calibration blocks are those of the;
International Institute of Welding (IIW), American Welding Society (AWS) and
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Only two of the most commonly
used standard calibration blocks are introduced here.
Li
Page 34 of 36
304 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
ary
PD
Fi
ll
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
br
Li
The miniature angle-beam block is used in a somewhat similar manner as the as the
IIW block, but is smaller and lighter. The miniature angle-beam block is primarily used
in the field for checking the characteristics of angle-beam transducers.
With the miniature block, beam angle and exit point
can be checked for an angle-beam transducer. Both
the 25 and 50 mm radius surfaces provide ways for
checking the location of the exit point of the
transducer and for calibrating the time base of the
Page No.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Ultrasonic Testing
Page 35 of 36
305 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
instrument in terms of metal distance. The small hole provides a reflector for checking
beam angle and for setting the instrument gain.
PD
F
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
o
ls
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll
Page 36 of 36
306 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
307 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
308 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
309 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
310 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
311 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
312 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
313 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
314 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
315 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
316 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
317 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
318 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
319 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
320 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
321 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
322 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
323 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
324 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
325 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
326 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
327 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
328 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
329 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
330 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
331 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
332 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
333 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
334 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
335 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
336 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
337 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
338 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
339 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
340 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
341 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
342 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
343 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
344 of 356.
ary
Li
br
DF
lP
Fil
Ed
ito
ith
Fr
ee
er
rit
dy
rw
Stu
PD
dT
ls
oo
ria
l
ate
M
an
Page No.
345 of 356.
ria
l
Gail R Stultz
gstultz@modalshop.com
Richard W Bono
rbono@modalshop.com
Mark I Schiefer
mschiefer@modalshop.com
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ud
Fr
ee
Abstract
1.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Rapid conversion of machined parts to powdered metal and cast is driving industries, especially
automotive. Due to the high expectations of both primary manufacturers and end consumers,
defects cannot be tolerated even in million piece quantities. There is, in effect, a growing
requirement for zero defect supply chain commitments. To achieve zero defect output,
manufacturers are making the commitment to move to online NDT. This type of online inspection
requires accuracy, reliability, and high throughput. Resonant Acoustic Method NDT (RAM NDT)
provides a proven technique exhibiting these pivotal performance requirements and automates
economically. RAM NDT tests, reports and screens for most common part flaws in a manner
similar to the way NASA tests flight hardware and automotive manufacturers validate their new
car designs. Utilizing structural dynamics and statistical variation, RAM NDT provides mature,
laboratory proven technology in a robust, economical, process-friendly manner.
Motivational Example
Li
br
As with most powdered metal component suppliers, Company ABC is already doing spot
magnetic particle testing on batches of parts from a given production run. The problem starts
when a customer, say an automotive manufacturer, experiences field failures. The result is that
Company ABC is put on parts-hold and has to pay for both containment and 100% field
inspection on the customer site. At the risk of permanently damaging the companys reputation
and losing both existing and new business, significantly larger part batches are subjected to
magnetic particle inspection, with 100% of the production lots inspected via a 300% visual part
sort where each part is visually inspected by three separate technicians. Everyone who can be
pulled from another job is pulled in to help out during this time of crisis. To ensure necessary
quality, 100% end-of-line part inspection must be implemented; traditional NDT techniques such
Page No.
346 of 356.
ria
l
as magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, eddy current and X-ray, or purely visual inspection, are
painstaking, subjective manual processes. As a result, rarely does the 100% inspection continue,
and the cycle of flawed-parts roulette continues.
2.
yM
ate
Providing relief and security for the high volume manufacturer, RAM NDT offers reliable
inspection, with quantitative, objective results. This technique is easily automated to eliminate
human error with fast throughput for cost effective 100% inspection, simple and straightforward
with minimal disruption to production. RAM NDT is a volumetric, resonant inspection technique
that measures the structural integrity of each part to detect defects on a component level. With a
large number of successes on the production lines of powdered metal, cast and forged parts, RAM
NDT is the simple, effective solution to this common problem.
History
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
The history of NDT techniques used for quality control testing in part manufacturing dates back
to the beginning of the industrial manufacturing era. Initially, the basic visual inspection of the
operators themselves served as the primary means of monitoring part acceptability. More
sophisticated NDT techniques evolved, and magnetic particle inspection eventually became the
de facto standard for testing ferrous metallic components such as castings, forgings and, more
recently, powdered metals. This subjective and visual technology has remained essentially
unchanged for the past 50+ years, yet continues to be the most common inspection tool for such
parts.
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Traditional NDT techniques focus on detecting and diagnosing defects. They use visual
techniques or imaging to scan for any indication of defects. For the case presented in our
motivational example, identifying the type of defect itself is secondary to identifying the
defective parts. While diagnosing specific defects is applicable when evaluating and inspecting
some systems, such as gas pipelines or similar, it is not appropriate for high volume 100%
manufactured part inspection. For these components it is of primary importance to detect if a part
is non-conforming rather than why. Therefore, an end-of-line go/no go objective inspection,
such as by RAM NDT, is preferred here to a subjective diagnosis.
Li
br
ary
Scanning methods include magnetic particle testing (MT), ultrasonic testing (UT), eddy
current/electromagnetic testing (ET), dye penetrant testing (PT), X-ray/radiographic testing (RT)
and visual testing (VT). The fundamental difference between these traditional NDT techniques
and resonant inspection (RI) is this scanning methodology. Scanning methods are manual and
require subjective interpretation by an operator. As a result, the operator requires a certain level
of technical training and/or certification to properly diagnose such indications of defect and infer
the effects on the functionality of a part. Additionally, whenever such a technique requires the
judgment of an operator, overall reliability suffers. In Jurans Quality Handbook, Juran states
that operators average only 80% reliability this statistic is a reflection of the human
interpretation factor, not the accuracy of the techniques themselves, see ref 1. None of these
scanning techniques allow for efficient, cost effective or reliable quality control testing of 100%
of manufactured parts of any appreciable volume. It should be noted that in some cases eddy
current techniques can be implemented as a whole part test by using an encircling coil, easily
automated with high throughput. However, in these cases the effectiveness of ETs flaw
detection is reduced, limited to detecting on certain types or configurations of surface flaws.
Page No.
347 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
Resonant inspection, conversely, measures the structural response of a part and evaluates it
against the statistical variation from a control set of good parts to screen defects. Its volumetric
approach tests the whole part, both for external and internal structural flaws or deviations,
providing objective and quantitative results. This structural response is a unique and measurable
signature, defined by a components mechanical resonances. These resonances are a function of
part geometry and material properties and are the basis for RI techniques. By measuring the
resonances of a part, one determines the structural characteristics of that part in a single test.
Typical flaws and defects adversely affecting the structural characteristics of a part are given in
Table 1 for powdered metal, cast and forged applications. Many of the traditional NDT
techniques previously discussed can detect these flaws as well, but often only RI can detect all in
a single test, throughout the entire part (including deep sub-surface defects), in an automated and
objective fashion.
Table 1. Typical structural defects detectable by resonant inspection.
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
Cast
Forged
Powdered Metal
Cracks
Cracks
Cracks
Cold shuts
Missed or double strikes
Chips
Porosity
Porosity
Voids
Hardness/density
Hardness
Hardness/density
Inclusions
Inclusions
Inclusions
Heat treat
Heat treat
Heat treat
Compressive & residual stress Quenching problems
Decarb
Nodularity
Laps
Oxides
Gross dimensions
Gross dimensions
Gross dimensions
Raw material contaminants
Raw material
Raw material
contaminants
contaminants
Missed processes/operations
Missed
Missed
processes/operations processes/operations
ary
PD
Fi
After defective parts have been sorted with RI, complimentary traditional NDT techniques may
provide a means for subjective diagnosis on the smaller subset of parts. This is useful for
determining a defects root cause and ultimately improving the production processes. Table 2
provides a generic NDT selection table stating the capabilities of the various methods. The
ASME has published standards that detail each of the traditional NDT methodologies mentioned
here, see ref 2-8.
Table 2. General overview of common NDT techniques.
Li
br
Defect Type
Cracks/chips/porosity/voids
Missed
processes/operations
Material property
Structurally significant
Production lot variations
Defect Location
ET
MT/PT
UT
RT
RAM
Yes
Yes/No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes
Yes
Yes/No
Yes
Yes/No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes/No
Page No.
348 of 356.
Yes
Yes
Yes/No
No
Yes
Yes/No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Medium
High
Medium
Low
High
Medium
High
Medium
High
Low
High
High
High
Low
Low
Yes/No
Medium
Medium
No
N/A
N/A
Yes/No
Complex
High
No
Complex
High
Yes
Easy
Low/Medium
ria
l
Yes
No
No
Theoretical Background
ols
3.
Yes
No
No
yM
ate
Surface (external)
Internal
Brazing/bonding/welding
Speed/Training/Cost
Part throughput
Training requirements
Overall inspection costs
Automation Capacity
Quantitative results
Automation requirements
Automation cost
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
Modal analysis is defined as the study of the dynamic characteristics of a mechanical structure or
system. All structures, even structures such as metal gears or similar parts that are apparently
rigid to the human eye, undergo deformation. These deformations can be described using modal
analysis. Specifically, all structures have mechanical resonances, where the structure itself
amplifies any energy imparted to it at certain frequencies. For example, tuning forks or bells will
vibrate at very specific frequencies, their natural frequencies, for long periods of time with just a
small tap. The sound that is made is directly due to these natural frequencies. In fact, any noise
generated by a structure is done so by vibration, which is simply a pattern of summed sinusoidal
deformations. RAM NDT utilizes this structural dynamic behavior to evaluate the integrity and
consistency of parts.
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
For illustrative purposes, consider the single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) mass, spring, damper
system in Figure 1. It has one DOF because its state can be be determined b one quantity (x), the
displacement of the mass. The elements of this simplified model are the mass (m), stiffness (k)
and damping (c). The energy imparted into the system by the excitation force (f) is stored in the
system as kinetic energy of the mass and potential energy of the spring and is dissipated by the
damping. The mathematical representation of the SDOF system, which is called its equations of
motion, is given in Equation (1) below.
ary
.
mx(t) + cx(t) + kx(t) = f(t)
(1)
The solution to the equation of motion produces an eigenvalue problem which yields the
undamped natural frequency as
br
>n =
k
m
(2)
Li
Equation (2) reveals the natural frequencies, or resonances, of a system that are determined by its
mass (i.e., volume and density) and stiffness (i.e., Young's modulus and cross-sectional
geometry). While in Equation (2) holds only for an SDOF system, the underlying relationship of
mass and stiffness can be generalized for more complex systems. That is, an increase in stiffness
will increase the natural frequency and an increase in mass will decrease the natural frequency.
For example, consider the strings on a guitar. The larger diameter strings (more mass) produce
lower tones than the smaller strings (less mass). Also, a string has a higher pitch when tightened
Page No.
349 of 356.
Mass
m
Excitation Force
f
ols
Displacement
x
Damping
c
yM
ate
Stiffness
k
ria
l
(increased stiffness) than when loosened (decreased stiffness). It is these fundamental properties
of the resonances of a system that RAM NDT utilizes to evaluate the integrity and consistency of
parts.
er
an
d
To
ll P
DF
St
4.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
The natural frequencies are global properties of a given structure and the presence of structural
defects causes shifts in these resonances. For example, a crack will change the stiffness in the
region near the crack and a variation in density or the presence of porosity will change the mass.
A crack defect typically reduces the stiffness in the material, thus decreasing the natural
frequency. Similarly, porosity in a cast part reduces mass, thus increasing the natural frequency.
These shifts are measurable if the defect is structurally significant with respect to the either the
size or location of the flaw within a specific resonance mode shape. With some defects, a shift in
resonant frequency can also be noticed audibly, such as a cracked bell that does not ring true.
ary
PD
Fi
An introductory overview of the resonant inspection technique and theoretical background has
previously been presented in Sections 2 and 3, respectively. This portion of the paper discusses
in more detail the specific implementation of resonant inspection and the associated advantages
of the Resonant Acoustic Method.
Li
br
RI is basically experimental modal analysis simplified for application to high volume production
manufacturing and quality control testing. The generic, step-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. Excite the part with a known and repeatable force input. This force is typically generated
by a controlled impact or actuator providing broadband or sinusoidal energy over the
appropriate frequency range of analysis.
2. Measure the structural response of the part to the applied input force using a dynamic
sensor such as a microphone or accelerometer (vibration pickup) and a high-speed analog
to digital converter (ADC) with appropriate anti-aliasing filters.
3. Process the acquired time data with a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for analysis in the
frequency domain.
4. Analyze the consistency of the frequency spectrum from part to part by comparing to a
spectral template created from known good parts. Mechanical resonances are indicated
as peaks in the frequency spectrum of the response. Good parts (structurally sound)
have consistent spectral signatures (i.e. the mechanical resonances are the same among
Page No.
350 of 356.
ria
l
parts) while bad parts are different. Generally these templates are setup to evaluate the
consistency of the frequency and amplitude of ten or fewer peaks. Any deviation in (a
range of) peak frequency or amplitude constitutes a structurally significant difference that
provides a quantitative and objective part rejection.
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
The Resonant Acoustic Method technique performs resonant inspection by impacting a part and
listening to its acoustic spectral signature with a microphone. The controlled impact provides
broadband input energy to excite the part and the microphone allows for a non-contact
measurement of the structural response. The parts mechanical resonances amplify the broadband
input energy at its specific natural frequencies, measured by the microphone above the
background noise in the test environment. An example of such a spectrum from 0 to 40 kHz is
given in Figure 2.
rw
ith
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
Gross defects can often be distinguished directly by the human ear, but human hearing is
subjective and limited to approximately 20 kHz maximum. By analyzing data beyond 20 kHz, to
upwards of 50 kHz, much smaller defects can be detected, even across production lots given
reasonable process control. Typically, these defects cause frequency shifts as shown in Figure 3.
These shifts are a function of how the specific defect affects the mechanical resonance, which is
dependent upon the specific defect location with respect to the deformation pattern of the
resonance. Fortunately, mechanical resonances are global properties of a structure, and generally
a defect will alter at least one resonant frequency. For this reason, it is good practice to set up
multiple criteria ranges for analysis.
Page No.
351 of 356.
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
An additional signal processing tool for improving analysis and sorting of good parts versus
defective parts is implemented with a time delay function. Often times a defect may not cause a
substantial shift in resonant frequency, but instead reduces the structures capability to hold its
tone over time. By delaying the structural response measurement (many times just milliseconds)
the resonant peak is not measurable from defective parts because the energy decays too rapidly.
The peak in the frequency spectrum disappears, shown in Figure 4. A practical example of this is
a cracked bell when struck, it does not ring for an extended period of time as a good bell
would.
rit
Figure 4. Data showing resonance of good part against defective part, processed using time delay
technique causing the peak to disappear.
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
RAM NDTs basic measurement procedure allows for easy automation and very high part testing
throughput. There is no part preparation required no magnetizing, cleaning, immersion, etc.
Expendable costs associated with such preparation, such as chemicals and waste removal, are
eliminated. The single impact and non-contact response measurement (via microphone) can be
made as a part is moving down a conveyor, often as fast as a part per second. The parts do not
need to be physically stopped; nor are they required to be precisely located with expensive
robotics on contact actuators and vibration pickups. Simple guides are typically adequate to
rotate/position the part for impact and allow flexibility to test many different types of parts or
geometries. Given this capacity for automation and throughput, and its quantitative analysis with
objective results, RAM NDT is ideal for plant floor, high volume quality control test applications.
Li
br
ary
PD
The core system components are shown in Figures 5 and 6. From the rugged microphone and
industrial electric impactor to the NEMA 4 smart digital controller, the packaging is ideally suited
for dirty, plant environments such as ductile iron foundries. A typical conveyor system for fully
automated testing is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 5. Industrial electric impact hammer designed for millions of impacts and rugged
microphone for non-contact response measurement, shown mounted on conveyor section.
Page No.
352 of 356.
ria
l
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
Figure 6. Smart digital controller measures signals and processes data, independent of PC, with
internal digital relay outputs.
ud
Fr
ee
Figure 7. Fully automated system on 4 ft conveyor section, shown with acoustic chamber for
testing parts.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
Successful implementation of RAM NDT depends upon proper setup of the accept/reject criteria
ranges in the part template. Each type and/or geometry of part requires a separate template. Parts
need to be tested in the same manufacturing state. Typically, templates can be setup quickly with
just a few dozen parts in less than a hour. This sample set should include both good parts
(ideally with at least several from different production batches) and parts with the expected
variety of flaws. It is recommended to validate the template and resulting part sort with a larger
statistical data set of a few hundred pieces. Often other NDT techniques, for example magnetic
particle inspection, are complimentary in this regard, or destructive evaluations are commonly
used for correlation as well. Once the specific parts template is verified for accuracy, large
volumes of parts can be 100% tested quickly and reliably.
br
System validation can be performed using a controlled set of known parts. Parts of a given type,
both good and defective, are kept as standards and run through the automated system for
validation on a regular basis. Across batches over time, signatures often show trends where
mechanical resonances shift due to acceptable variations in material properties (density, etc.) or
process variations (heat treatment, etc.) By investing time upfront with this type of system
validation procedure, process engineers and technicians have a better understanding of their parts
and manufacturing processes and ensure the reliability of their inspection system.
Li
5.
The manufacturer of the powdered metal sprocket shown in Figure 8 below needed to automate
inspection, primarily for cracks and flawed teeth. The initial part template was set up using 70
Page No.
353 of 356.
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
samples. 30 of these were visually inspected as good parts, while the remaining 40 were
determined to have a variety of flaws such as broken, chipped and cracked teeth as shown in
Figure 9. Typical data from several parts is shown in Figure 10, where frequency shifts down
from cracks (two blue traces left of acceptance box) and up from broken teeth (red, pink and olive
traces right of box) are clearly displayed against the two good samples (black/gray traces peak
within box). These physical flaws correlate nicely with the theory presented in Section 2. A
crack is simply a weaker spring (lower stiffness, k, in Eq. 1) and a broken tooth reduces mass
(lower mass, m, in Eq. 1) which affects the resonant frequency accordingly.
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
Li
br
Figure 9. View of powdered metal sprocket with chipped, broken and cracked teeth, as indicated,
clockwise from top.
Page No.
354 of 356.
yM
ate
ria
l
er
an
d
To
ols
Results of this evaluation showed that the flawed samples could be reliably sorted from the good
parts. Of note, one of the good samples had significant shifts in resonances, indicating the
presence of structural defects. (This is common, often related to the inability of visual scanning
techniques such as magnetic particle testing to detect internal flaws.) Given the volumetric,
whole-part testing by RAM, this part was successfully sorted and contained where subjective,
visual inspection failed.
DF
St
Conclusion
ll P
6.
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
The resulting template configured for this sprocket was implemented successfully in production,
with millions of parts reliably tested per year. Prior to RAM NDT, the facility was scrapping 68% of production parts and still had field failures returned by their customers, all while trying to
keep up with 100% inspection via magnetic particle testing. RAM NDT reduced this scrap rate to
under 2% by eliminating false rejects (for example, a part that has a flaw indication on its surface
yet is structurally sound.) Additionally, and more importantly, RAM NDT has prevented any
defective parts from shipping to customers.
br
ary
PD
Fi
The RAM NDT technique serves quality minded manufacturers who are dissatisfied with visual
detection techniques such as magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, or X-ray, which are time
consuming, costly and subjective. RAM NDT allows for simple integration of a turnkey system
that is a reliable, fully automated method for quality control and process improvement. This
rapidly growing technique creates an economical, on-line inspection system that provides for zero
defect product supply. Unlike previous implementation of resonant inspection which are
excessively complicated and costly to automate, RAM NDT is fast, simple and reliable, and
easily re-configurable. As a result, powdered metal and casting manufacturers around the world
have proven the benefits of RAM NDT resonant inspection over their traditional inspection
techniques.
References
Li
7.
[1] Juran, Joseph M. and Godfrey, A. Blanton, Fifth Edition, Jurans Quality Handbook,
McGraw-Hill.
[2] ASTM E1444-01 Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Examination.
Page No.
355 of 356.
Li
br
ary
PD
Fi
ll P
DF
St
Ed
ito
rw
ith
ud
Fr
ee
rit
er
an
d
To
ols
yM
ate
ria
l
Page No.
356 of 356.