Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

Formulae
*not all these are given in the exam

RH
1
1
1
= RH 2 2
2
n
nf

ni
f
2
ni
E
h
E = hf
f
c
c = f
f

h
h
=
m
mv
v
p
h
px
x
2
h
A
A4
4
Z X Z 2Y + 2 He

Wavelength
Rydbergs Constant

Energy of photon
Plancks Constant
Frequency
Speed of Light
Frequency
Wavelength
Wavelength
Plancks Constant
Mass
Velocity
Uncertainty in position

Plancks Constant
Alpha Decay

X ZA 1 Y + 0+1 e + v

+ Beta Decay

X ZA Y +

Gamma Decay

A
Z
A
Z

Joules
6.626 x 10-34
Hertz
3 x 108
Hertz
Metres
Metres
6.626 x 10-34
Kilograms

J
Js-1
Hz
m s-1
Hz
m
m
Js-1
Kg
m s-1

6.626 x 10-34

Js-1

Uncertainty in momentum

Beta Decay

X ZA +1 Y + 01 e + v

m
m -1

Series number

A
Z

Metres
1.097 x 107

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

1.

Problems with the Rutherford model of the atom led to the

search for a model that would better explain the observed
phenomena.

Thomson (in 1897)

The discovery of electrons (vacuum tube experiment) had changed the view on indivisibility
of atoms. Thomson was able to determine the charge and mass of electrons and the mass of
electron was found to be 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, Hydrogen. He concluded
that electrons should be sub-atomic.
H+

Cathode

Anode

Canal rays

+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+

He proposed a crude model of the atom,

known as the plum-pudding model. Negative
electrons are like plums in the positive
pudding.

Rutherfords Experiment
! Alpha particles were fired at a thin gold foil and were observed how they were scattered.
Most of the alpha particles passed through with only small deflections.
! Rutherford proposed that the only way that the alpha particles could be deflected through
large angles was if all the atoms positive charge and nearly all its mass was
concentrated in a small dense nucleus with the electrons some distance away.
! Rutherford showed that the atom is mostly empty space, with almost all of its mass
contained in a small, positively charged nucleus.
! Rutherford estimated the atom was 10-10m in diameter, and the nucleus of 10-19m. Most of
the atom is empty space.
! Rutherford proposed a solar system model of the atom, where orbiting electrons were
held to the positive nucleus by electrostatic attraction.
! Rutherfords model was criticised because an orbiting electron would emit
electromagnetic radiation and spiral into the nucleus.
Inadequacies of Rutherfords Atom:
! What is the nucleus made up of?
! What keeps the negative electrons from being attracted into the positive nucleus?
! How are the electrons arranged around the nucleus?

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

The Hydrogen Spectrum

In the visible and near UV light, the emission spectrum of hydrogen consists of the series of
lines corresponding to specific wavelengths.
Balmers formula gives the wavelength of the emission lines for hydrogen
m

Wavelength
Metres
7
Rydbergs
Constant
1.097
x
10
m -1
RH
1

1
1
= RH 2 2
2
n
nf
Series number

ni
f
2
ni

Planck
Max Planck found that he could only get agreement between theory and experiment for Black
Body Radiation by making a fundamental change to the laws of physics.
Planck proposed that Energy is not emitted by a hot object continuously as classical physics
said it should but rather it is emitted in little bursts or packets of energy. QUANTA of energy.
E
Energy of photon
Joules
J
Plancks Constant
6.626 x 10-34
Js-1
h
E = hf
Frequency
Hertz
Hz
f
8
c
Speed of Light
3 x 10
m s-1
Frequency
Hertz
f
c = f
Hz
Wavelength
Metres
m

Bohrs Postulates
1. Electrons can revolve in certain allowed orbits without radiating energy. This postulate
accounts for the observed stability of atom. Why these stationary states existed was
unknown.
2.

When an electron falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits
energy that is quantised by Plancks relationship E2 E1 = E = hf
The 2nd postulate explains the line emission spectra. Emissions of energy is
discontinuous and corresponds to a transition between two stationary states. Since the
energy is quantised, the frequency of the emitted radiation is predetermined. A
transition between different states will lead to different frequencies.

3.

Angular momentum is quantised and can only take values of

principal quantum number.

nh
where n is the
2

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

The Bohr model was able to provide a physical basis for the Balmer series formula.
hf = E f Ei
=

hc

1
1
E 2 E1
2 1
nf
ni

1
1
= E1 2 2
n
ni
f
1
1
= E1 2 2
n
ni
f
E 1
1
= 1 2 2
hc n f
ni
1
1
= RH 2 2
n
ni
f

RH
nf
ni

The spectral lines of hydrogen

Series Name
Discovered
Lymen
Balmer
Paschen

1906-14
1885
1908

1
E
2 1
ni

Ef =

1
E
2 1
nf

Wavelength
Rydbergs Constant

c = f

Ei =

f =

Metres
1.097 x 107

m
m -1

Series number

Spectral
Region

Energy Level
nf

UV
UV & Visible
Infrared

1
2
3

ni
2, 3, 4
3, 4, 5
4, 5, 6,

Limitations to the Bohr Model

1
It was an ad hoc mixture of classical and quantum physics. It assumed that some laws of
classical physics held and others did not.
2

It did not work for multi-electron atoms.

It could not explain the relative intensities of the spectral lines. Some lines were more
intense than others were. The reason this occurred was unknown.

Carbon spectral lines were found to consist of a number of very fine and close lines.
The cause of these hyperfine spectral lines could not be explained.

The splitting of spectral lines when the sample was placed in a magnetic field the
Zeeman effect could not be explained.

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

2.

The limitations of classical physics gave birth to quantum

physics.

Particle and Wave Properties

Louis de Broglie generalised the equation derived for a photon to include anything with
momentum.
De Broglie proposed that if a physical phenomenon such as light, which was considered to
have a wave nature as well as a particle nature, it could be described by the expression:

h
mv

Using Einsteins mass-energy equation and Plancks formulae, we equate and get:
E = hf
E = mc 2
c = f
hc
mc 2 =

c=v
h
mc =

h
mv =

Wavelength
Metres
Plancks Constant
Js-1
6.626 x 10-34
h
Mass
Kilograms
Kg
m
Velocity
v
m s-1
De Broglie referred to these as matter waves. This wavelength is comparable to atomic
dimensions. It should be possible to prove the wave nature of matter by observing some
characteristic wave property such as interference or diffraction.

h
mv

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Confirmation by Davisson and Germer

For de Broglies proposal to be confirmed, particle > wave, and wave > particle properties of
this physical phenomena had to be proven.
In 1923 Davisson and Germer proved the wave nature of matter by observing some
characteristics of wave properties such as diffraction.
Davisson and Germer scattered electrons from the surface of a nickel crystal and obtained an
intensity pattern of the reflected electrons that showed diffraction effects. This proves that
electrons of particle nature also have wave characteristics.
In Davissons and Germers apparatus,
electrons are emitted by cathode and
Cathode
accelerated by anode, by voltage V.
The energy of electron is eV.
V
e
This electron beam is allowed to fall on the
nickel crystal and the reflected beam is
detected at various positions of the detector.
Anode
The maximum reflection occurs at a certain
angle , which corresponds to constructively
interfering waves passing a slit.
Numerical calculations based on the balanced
nature gives a relation.

Detector
Nickel Crystal

Stability of Electron Orbits

The concept of matter waves made it possible to show how the electrons could be stable in
their orbits around the nucleus. If a integral number of electron wavelengths fitted into the
circumference of the electron orbit, standing waves could be possible and no energy would be
lost.
Integral number of electron wavelengths = Circumference
n
= 2r
h
=
mv
nh
= 2r
mv
mvr

nh
2

Bohrs 3rd Postulate

Now that it is a standing wave, no energy is lost and the wave would not collapse, explaining
the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom.
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
Uncertainty of position of a particle is related to the uncertainty of the momentum.
Uncertainty in momentum
p
h
px
Uncertainty in position
x
2
Plancks Constant
6.626 x 10-34
Js-1
h
The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in
the instant. The converse is true.

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

3.

Today, quantum physics is used in a range of technologies,

including electron microscopes.

Wave Characteristics of the Electron Microscope

! The invention of the compound microscope in the 16th Century, provided a magnification
up to a maximum of 1500 times.
! To obtain a better resolving power, a high speed which made a small wavelength was
needed.
! Electrons are focused by electromagnetic devices rather than by a glass lens like in a light
microscope.
! Specimens viewed in an electron microscope must be dead as the interior of the electron
microscope is under a high vacuum so that air will not deflect the electrons.
! The electron microscope can magnify up to 1 000 000 times.
! Electron microscopes work in an analogous way to light microscopes except they use a
focused electron beam instead of light to form an image.
! Types:
! Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), in which electrons pass through the
specimen.
! Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), produces a 3D image of the specimen by
reflection of the electrons off the specimen.
! In all Electron Microscopes:
! An electron source produces a stream of electrons that are accelerated towards the
specimen by an accelerating potential difference.
! Metal apertures and magnetic lenses confine and focus the electron beam.
! Other magnetic lenses focus the bean on the specimen
! Interactions inside the specimen affect the electron beam. These effects are converted
into an image.
Magnetic Lens
! Electromagnetic lenses consist of a solenoid with magnetic pole pieces that concentrate
and determine the shape of the field
! In electron microscopes, the electromagnetic lenses have a variable focus and the
specimen to objective distance is kept constant.
! Magnification is achieved by varying the current in the objective lens coil.

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4.

The work of Chadwick and Fermi in producing artificial

transmutations led to practical applications of radiation.

Chadwick
In 1930, Bothe and Becker fired alpha particles at beryllium which resulted in the emission of
a penetrating type of radiation. The radiation proved not to be gamma rays event though these
were the expected penetrating radiation.
Protons

?
Be

Paraffin

In 1932, Chadwick measured the momentum of energy of the protons and used the laws of
conservation of momentum to prove that the unknown rays were neutral particles slightly
heavier than the protons.
1. Since ionisation is the principal method of detecting radiation, the uncharged neutrons
would be hard to detect, as they would cause little or no ionisation.
2. The addition of the proton-rich paraffin enhances the detection. The neutrons eject
protons as a result of elastic collisions and as these cause ionisation they are readily
detected. (Juliot and Curie)
3. By applying the laws of conservations of momentum and energy, Chadwick was able to
prove the existence of the neutron.
As a result of the work of Rutherford and Chadwick, the nucleus was shown to consist of
protons and neutrons.
Nucleons
Protons and Neutrons are collectively called Nucleons.
Protons are the positive subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons are the subatomic particles with no electric charge and a mass almost equal to that
of a proton.
Property
Proton
Neutron
-27
Mass
1.672 x 10 kg
1.675 x 10-27 kg
Charge
+1.6 x 10-19 C
Neutral

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

Transmutation
Transmutation occurs when one element changes into another element. Natural
transmutations occur in radioactive decay such as alpha and beta decay. Gamma decay is not
an example of transmutation.
In all transmutations, the mass number and atomic number are conserved.
A
Mass number = number of nucleons
A
Z
Atomic number = number of protons/ electrons
Z X
X
Element
Isotopes
Same atomic number = same chemical properties
Different mass number = different nuclear properties.

Helium nucleus

Charge
Mass

DECAY
Electrons

+2
4

Range in Air
Stopped by:

EM waves
Short wavelength,
High frequency
High energy
0
0

1
1
1860

Short
Paper

Medium
Aluminium

Long
Lead

Alpha Decay
ZA X ZA 42Y + 42 He
Alpha particles have a definite range, therefore a definite energy is needed for a particular
reaction with the excess energy being carried off by a gamma ray of specific energy.
Beta Decay

+ Beta Decay
_

v is a particle called the

antineutrino.

ZA X ZA +1 Y + 01 e + v
ZA X ZA 1 Y + 0+1 e + v
Beta particles have a varying range, therefore have a variable energy. Since a particular
nuclear charge should have specific energy, it was predicted that the excess energy was
carried off by a tiny neural particle, the neutrino, so that the laws of conservation of mass/
energy and momentum were still obeyed.

Gamma Decay
ZA X ZA Y +
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an element into a new element by the
emission of , and rays.
Natural radioactivity is exhibited by all of the natural occurring isotopes above Bismuth (Bi)
in the periodic table.

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Fermi
Enrico Fermi was the first to realise the neutrons potential. He bombarded as many of the
known elements as possible with neutrons. In the majority of cases new isotopes were
formed.
When Fermi reached Uranium, the heaviest known element, the results were confusing. He
failed to discover nuclear fission in their experiments with Uranium. The breakdown of the
nucleus into two nuclei of roughly equal size a process the called nuclear fission.
Pauli & The Neutrino
! In 1930, Pauli suggested that an undiscovered particle might also be emitted in beta decay
which accounted for the missing energy and momentum.
! In 1932, the Italian physicist Fermi, constructed a mathematical theory of beta decay that
incorporated Paulis hypothesised particle.
! Fermi believed that this particle would have no electric charge, no mass, and no magnetic
properties, spin like electrons, travels at the speed of light and would have almost no
interaction with matter. It would, have energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.
! He named this particle the Neutrino
! He also hypothesised that a fourth force of nature, called the weak nuclear force is
involved in beta decay.
! Neutrinos are very small fundamental particles with no charge or rest mass.
! When the masses before and after were measured, a discrepancy arose. The electron was
found to have less energy then expected from the mass-defect (on average one third of the
energy that should be associated with the electron disappeared) and nothing could be
found to make up the deficit.
Forces between Nucleons and the Strong Nuclear Force
! Electrostatic attraction holds the electrons in the atom.
! The force of gravitational attraction is a million times weaker than the electrostatic force,
and is consequently negligible within the atomic nucleus.
! Nuclear particles (nucleons) are held together by a force that operates only within the
atomic nucleus. This strong nuclear force operates between protons and protons, neutrons
and neutrons, and protons and neutrons.
! While the strong nuclear force is much stronger than the electrostatic force, it operates
only over very short distances of about 2.3 x 10-15m.
! If the nucleons are brought closer together than 0.7 x 10-15m, the nuclear force pushes
them apart, and if they are pulled further apart, the force draws them back together, just as
if they were joined by a spring.
! If the nucleons are moved large distances apart, the nuclear force rapidly declines to zero.
Mass Defect/ Binding Energy
The mass of the atom is less than the sum of the masses of its components. This difference is
called the Mass Defect.
To separate the particles of a nucleus, we must overcome the forces holding the nucleus
together. This requires work to be done and energy to be put into the system. Conversely, if
the separate particles were to come together to form a nucleus, then energy would be
released. This energy is called Binding Energy. The energy appears as a difference in mass
between the actual mass of the nucleus and the mass calculation from the sum of the
theoretical particles.

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Atomic Mass Unit

Based on
1 mole of

12

C --- taken as 12 units

6
12
6

C --- has a mass of 12g

6.022 x 1023 atoms --- have a mass of 12g

12
g
6.022 1023
12 10 3
=
kg
6.022 1023
1
12 10 3
=

kg
12 6.022 1023
= 1.6 x 10-27

mass of 1 atom

mass of 1 unit

This is equivalent to energy

E = mc2

) (

= 1.6 10 27 3 108
= 1.5 x 10-10 J

1 electron volt (eV) is the energy of 1 electron through 1 volt

E = qV
= (1.6 x 10-19) x 1
= 1.6 x 10-19
1eV = 1.6 x 10-19
1.5 10 10
1.6 10 19
= 931.5 x 106 eV
= 931.5 Mev

Energy in Reactions

1amu

12
6

C+

1
0

Total LHS
12.0000
1.0087 +
13.00087

Mass Defect
12
6

C
Total RHS
13.0034

This is a decrease in mass = 0.00053

Change in energy = 0.0053 + 931.5
= 4.94 Mev
This energy is emitted as gamma rays.

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

Controlled and Uncontrolled Nuclear Chain Reactions

In a controlled chain reaction, only one neutron from each fission is available to split another
uranium atom. These neutrons are absorbed by control rods made of materials such as
cadmium.
In an uncontrolled chain reaction, each neutron released by the uranium atom as it splits is
allowed to hit another uranium atom. There is a rapid build-up of atoms undergoing fission
and a rapid release of energy.

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5.

An understanding of the nucleus has led to large science

projects and many applications.

Fission Reactor
! The purpose of a nuclear reactor is to release nuclear energy at a controlled rate.
! Nuclear fission reactors can be classified as either:
1. Thermal reactors where the neutrons producing the fissions have energy comparable
to gas particles at normal temperatures. Most commercial reactors are of this type.
2. Fast reactors where the neutrons producing the fissions have large energies.
Thermal Reactors
! Fuel
The nuclear fuel must contain fissionable material. Most reactor fuel is a mixture of
fissionable and fertile material. The smallest possible amount of fissionable material that will
sustain a chain reaction is the critical mass.
! Moderator
Since the neutrons liberated by a chain reaction have high initial speeds (energies) they need
to be slowed down to thermal energies. This can be achieved by collisions with atoms that
wont readily absorb neutrons in moderators. Moderators include:
1. Ordinary water
2. Heavy water
3. Graphite
4. Beryllium
! Control Rods
To control the rate at which fission occurs in a reactor, a means of absorbing excess neutrons
is required. Most reactors use water or heavy water or moveable control rods made of steel
that contains a high proportion of neuron-absorbing cadmium or boron. Most reactors have
two sets:
1. Regulating rods for routine control
2. Safety rods for emergency shutdown
If the reaction is proceeding too fast, the control rods are pushed further into the reactor core
and absorb additional neutrons so causing the reaction to slow down. Conversely, pulling the
control rods further out of the reactor core allows more neutrons to initiate a fission.
! Coolant
To cool the reactor core to prevent it from melting down and to extract useful heat, reactors
use a coolant. The most common coolant is light water, but heavy water, liquid sodium and
helium are also used.
! Radiation Shield
Concrete shielding is used to protect workers from radiation emitted by the reactor, and the
core and cooling system are enclosed in a large cylindrical building designed to withstand
pressure in the event of a cooling system failure. Types of shields:
1. A shield designed to protect the walls of the reactor from radiation damage and at the
same time reflect neutrons back into the core
2. A biological shield that is used to protect the reactor personnel. This consists of many
centimetres of high-density concrete

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! Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes.

! Radioactive tracers are used to trace the movement and storage of materials in chemical,
biological or physical systems. This can be on the large scale to the molecular or atomic
level.
Medical Applications
Nuclear medicine involves the use of radioisotopes in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
! Isotopic Tracing/ Scanning
A radioisotope of the same element as one being investigated is introduced into the body,
usually by intravenous injection. Different organs take up the isotope in different amounts.
By detecting the resulting emissions the distribution and concentration of the isotopes can be
determined. This in turn can lead to the recognition of any abnormalities. The radioisotopes
have short half-lives and decay before causing damage to the body.
! Radiotherapy
In radiotherapy, radiation is used to destroy abnormal cells inside the body. The radiation
penetrates the abnormal cells, killing them or inhibiting their growth. Nearby healthy cells,
affected by the radiation have a greater ability to recover. The amount of radiation used has to
be closely monitored and limited.
! Beta Emitters
By injecting a chromic phosphate solution containing the beta emitter P-32 into the
tumour, the beta particles affect only the tumour and tissue in that range. The damage
done to the tumour slows down the fluid production.
! Cancer Treatment
Cancer radiotherapy relies on gamma emitters. The radiation can be administered by:
1. Implanting the actual radioactive material in the tumour
2. Exposing the body to an external emitter that directs the rays to penetrate the body
and the tumour
Industrial Applications
! Measuring Wear in Machinery
Radioactive tracing can be used to investigate the amount of wear in machine parts by
making part of the machine radioactive.
After operating the machine for some time, the amount of wear can be determined by
measuring the amount of radioactivity in the lubrication oil The greater the radioactivity, the
more wear experience by the machine part.
! Thickness Control
The thickness of metal or plastic as it is manufactured can be monitored using radioisotopes.
The amount of radiation passing though the metal or plastic is determined by the thickness.

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! Power Supply
The heat produced by the radioisotope plutonium-238 can be converted into electricity to
power a cardiac pacemaker.
! Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a method for estimating the age of ancient artefacts. It relies upon the
fact that there is a fixed proportion of radioactive Carbon-14 in the atmosphere together with
the stable Carbon-12.
The proportion of Carbon-14 in the sample under test can be determined to give an estimate
of the age of the sample. However, Carbon dating is of use for only relatively recent material
up to about 70 000 years.
! Half-life
The half-life of an element is defined as the time it takes for half a given mass of an element
to decay into a new element. It may vary from microseconds to millions of years.

Neutron Scattering
Neutron scattering is a powerful method of analysing the internal structure and properties of
matter using neutrons.
A neutron is an uncharged particle with a mass slightly greater than that of the proton. Free
neutrons interact with matter in a number of ways depending upon their velocity and the
nature of the target. They include:
1. Scattering
2. Absorption
3. Capture
! Neutrons, because of their neutral charge, penetrate matter more easily than do charged
particles.
! Neutrons with energies of < 1eV18 are termed slow neutrons. Those with energies > 1keV
are referred to as fast electrons.
! In neutron scattering, an energetic recoil nucleus is produced. The energy of the recoil
nucleus varies depending on the type of collision.
! If the neutron collides with a hydrogen nucleus it can transfer almost all its energy in a
single collision.
! The neutron scattering technique has been used to look inside bulk matter to determine its
structure and properties. It has been used in the development of magnetic materials for
computer data storage and in the determination of the structure of superconductors and
even in identifying the structure of viruses.
Neutron Activation Analysis
Certain elements can be made radioactive by bombarding them with a flux of neutrons. These
radioactive elements then decay and the emitted particles have energies that allow them to be
readily measured. Neutron activation analysis is also used to identify specific trace elements
in hair in forensic investigations.

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6.

Our attempts to understand the structure of matter is an

ongoing process.

Use of Accelerators as a Probe to Investigate the Structure of Matter.

! The stability of a nucleus is determined by the value of the binding energy per nucleon.
The larger this value the more stable the nucleus.
! To investigate the nuclear force and the nature of the fundamental particles, the nucleus
needs to be disrupted. To do this, energy must be put into the nucleus.
! This energy input requires particle accelerators to accelerate to particles to the required
energy.
! Particle accelerators include:
Van de Graff A continuous high voltage supply that could be used to accelerate protons and
Generators
other ions to energies of 0.5MeV.
! Charge spray out an insulated bell. The charges are picked up and
distributed on a metal dome.
! As the charge increases, the potential of the dome increases.
! This is the potential used to accelerate the ions in the vacuum tube to hit
the target.
Cyclotrons

Used to accelerate Ions.

! A uniform field is applied to two semi-circular Dees. Dees are
connected to an alternating voltage source.
! When D1 becomes positive, D2 becomes negative. The ion particle is
accelerated towards D2.
! As the ion enters D2, then under the magnetic field it winds a circular
path, (Dees are hollow).
! As the ion comes out of D2, the potential reverses. D2 becomes positive
and D1 negative, and the ion gets accelerated.

Betatron

Used to accelerate Electrons.

Synchrotron

Used to accelerate particles to energies of 500GeV.

Linear
Accelerators

A series of drift tubes connected to an oscillator in such a way that each tube
has the opposite polarity to the preceding tube.

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

The Standard Model

! The standard model is a theory that attempts to describe all interactions of subatomic
particles. Its success lies in its ability to use a small number of particles and interactions
to explain the existence of hundreds of particles and their interactions.
! The standard model has two main components to explain the four fundamental forces.
FORCE
RELATIVE STRENGTH
RANGE (m)
Strong Nuclear
1
10-15
-5
Weak Nuclear
10
10-17
1
Electromagnetic
Infinite
137
Gravity
6 x 10-39
Infinite
1. The electroweak theory describes interactions through the electromagnetic and
weak forces.
2. Quantum Chromodynamics the theory of the strong force.
Matter and Force-Carrier Particles.
Baryons
Hadrons
Mesons
Electron
Electron-Neutrino
Muon
Matter

Leptons
(Weak
Interactions)
Muon-Neutrino
Tau
Tau-Neutrino
Gluon
Bosons
(force carriers)

Photon
Weakon

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Quarks
Quarks are fundamental particles with charges 13 e and 23 e . They are considered point-like
in that they have no measurable size and are fundamental since they have no known
components. There are six varieties of quarks.
! Each quack has a quantum property called colour.
! Quarks can be red, blue or green.
! Quarks of different colour charge attract each other.
! Quarks of similar colour charge repel each other.
! When quarks combine to form hadrons, they do so in certain colour combinations. The
net colour charge is zero.
! Quarks do no exist in isolation. They are always combined with one or two quarks to
form composite particles called hadrons.
Hadrons
Hadrons always have an integral charge and although individual quarks have colour-charge,
hadrons are colour-neutral.
Hadrons are classified as either:
! Bargons (3 quark combinations). Bargons interact through the strong force.
! Mesons (2 quark combinations). Mesons are unstable and decay in millionth of seconds.
Leptons
Leptons are particles with little or no mass. They do no experience they strong force, but
rather they interact through the weak force.
! Like quarks, each lepton has an antilepton.
! Unlike quarks, leptons exist independently.

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Physics Quanta to Quarks 4

Generations
Generation

!
!
!
!

Quark

Charge
Lepton
Charge
2
+
Up
Electron
-1
3
First
1
Electron
0
Down
neutrino
3
2
+
Charm
Muon
-1
3
Second
1

Muon-neutrino
0
Strange
3
2
+
Top
Tau
-1
3
Third
1

Tau-neutrino
0
bottom
3
Each generation consists of a set composing each charge type of quark and lepton.
The 1st generation particles constitute everyday matter.
The 2nd and 3rd generation particles are unstable and decay into 1st generation particles.
Each generation is more massive than the previous one.

Force-Carrier Particles
The four fundamental forces are carried by force-carrier particles bosons. They are:
1. Gravity Graviton
2. Electromagnetic Photon
3. Strong Nuclear Gluon
4. Weak Nuclear - Weakon

Problems with the Standard Model

The standard model explains some phenomena but not all. It cannot explain:
1. Why quarks have the masses they do
2. Why the top quark is so massive
3. It does not incorporate gravity.

High Energy Particle Physics and Cosmology

! Formation of black holes may involve energies that would cause the four fundamental
forces of nature to recombine.
! Big Bang Theory is built on a foundation of modern particle physics.
1. String theory may explain the incredibly rapid early expansion of the universe.

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