VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Module A: Definition, Context and Knowledge of School

Violence
Unit A1: Understanding the Definition and Context of School
Violence
Rosario Ortega1, Virginia Sanchez1,
Luc Van Wassenhoven2, Gie Deboutte2 and Johan Deklerck2
1
Spain
2
Belgium
Objectives of Unit A1

To be aware of a range of interpretations of school violence

To be able to consider the key factors involved in a definition of school
violence from a variety of perspectives
To understand the social and cultural contexts where school violence
takes place
To interpret violent behaviour within a complex social system
To evaluate and integrate different theoretical perspectives of school
violence

Facilitation skills to be developed through this Unit

Knowledge and understanding of:
current thinking about definitions of school violence
the relationships between social context and school violence
the links between school climate and school violence
the importance of creating a supportive and caring school community
Personal qualities and attributes include:
being able to adopt a critical and reflective stance in the analysis of
complex social phenomena
being able to reflect on others ideas through open debate
being able to integrate different theoretical perspectives on school
violence

Pre-unit reading
Council of Europe. (2002). Violence in schools A challenge for the local
community. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publications.
http://www.coe.int/t/e/integrated_projects/violence/06_Our_publications/Viol
ence%20in%20schools%20a%20challenge%20for%20the%20local%20com
munity.pdf
Smith, P. K. (2003). Violence in schools: An overview. In P. K. Smith (Ed.),
Violence in schools. The response in Europe (pp. 1-14). London:
RoutledgeFalmer,
Vettenburg, N. (1999). Violence in schools: Awareness-raising, prevention,
penalties. General Report. Luxembourg: Council of Europe Publications.

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

World Health Organization (WHO). (2002). Violence - a global public health

problem. Chapter 1, pp. 3-21, World Report on Violence and Health.
Geneva: Author.
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/inde
x.html

Summary of current thinking and knowledge about the definition

and context of school violence
Definitions of school violence
What is school violence? In general, the definition can cover the following
categories: verbal, physical, sexual and psychological violence; social exclusion;
violence relating to property; violence relating to theft; threats; insults; rumourspreading (Smith, Morita, Junger-Tas, Olweus, Catalano, & Slee, 1999; Smith,
2003). Olweus (1999, p.12) defines it as aggressive behaviour where the actor
or perpetrator uses his or her own body or an object (including a weapon) to
inflict (relatively serious) injury or discomfort upon another individual. Definitions
which go beyond physical harm include the one given by the World Health
Organization (WHO, 2002) which includes threats as well as actual violence,
while Debarbieux (2003) identifies ideological and historical influences on the
ways in which a society chooses to define the phenomenon of violence. As he
writes:
What we call violence is ideologically and historically determined. Our current
concern about violence in education also reflects our changing relationship to
violence. From being accepted, if not actually encouraged, it has become
intolerable to us in Europe. This is not a universal phenomenon but it is an
indication of a new shared vision of childhood. This vision oscillates between the
continuing notion of totally uncivilised children requiring a form of orthopaedic
[sic] correction and the consequences of what in 1900 the Swedish educationalist
Ellen Key called the century of the child, with affection preferred to restraint, and
prevention to punishment (Debarbieux, 2003, pp. 43-44).
In her report to the Council of Europe, Vettenburg (1999) concluded that there
was no clear definition of school violence, which made it difficult, amongst other
things, to ascertain whether school violence was on the increase or to make valid
comparisons between different countries rates of school violence. However, as
Debarbieux (2003) points out, there is now greater awareness of the need to
accept a multiplicity of definitions of school violence from a range of
perspectives, including those of children and young people. This enables
researchers and practitioners to build up a solid base of knowledge and to
accumulate hypotheses which can be retained or discarded in the light of
research findings as they emerge.
The context of school violence
In order to be able to understand the complex phenomenon of school violence,
a comprehensive analysis of the economic, cultural, school and individual

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

context in which it is generated is necessary. The VISTA analysis adopts a

bio-ecological perspective (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
1998). (See Figure 1).

Wider
Context

School Context

Interpersonal
Context

Individual

Figure 1. Bio-ecological model for understanding the prevention of school

violence (adapted from World Health Organization, 2002)
Most researchers in the field now take account of social-cultural factors, such
as race, gender and social class in their analysis of the problem. Risk and
protective factors relating to violence are found at each level in the model,
including the individual, the interpersonal, the school and the wider social
context. Risk factors are those factors that render an individual more likely to
develop problems in the face of adversity; they do not in themselves
necessarily cause difficulties. Protective factors are those factors that act to
protect an individual from developing a problem even in the face of adversity.
It is very hard to unravel specific causative factors since the interacting
variables are multiple but longitudinal research studies that follow childrens
development from an early age can identify those risk and protective factors
that appear in chains of causation, so offering an evidence base for the design
of interventions.
In order to understand why school violence occurs, VISTA recommends an open
and flexible approach rather than a simple cause-and-effect analysis. In the next
section, following Bronfenbrenners model, we explore ways in which different
contexts individual, interpersonal, school and the wider society - can either
promote or reduce the phenomenon of school violence (Farrington, 1998).
Individual context
Researchers have studied in depth the individual characteristics of boys and girls
who become aggressors, as well as those who become victims. Aggressive
boys and girls are impulsive, with low self control and low resistance to frustration
(Baldry & Farrington, 2000). In addition, several studies have shown that
aggressive children display important cognitive deficits relating to the
interpretation of social events, giving hostile attributions to ambiguous social
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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

situations (Dodge & Frame, 1982). Recent research has also found that
differences with regard to social and cognitive skills between girls and boys, can
help us understand the gender differences found in children involved in violent
and criminal behaviour. Key social and cognitive skills seem to protect girls from
getting involved in these kinds of actions, compared to boys (Bennett, Farrington,
& Huesmann, 2004).
Theory of mind explains why some children bully their classmates (Smorti,
Ortega, & Ortega, 2002; Sutton, Smith, & Swettenham, 1999). Bullies seem to be
good cognitive strategists, able to sense the details of their actions and, in
consequence, are able to notice others pain, although with limited empathy
(Menesini, Snchez, Fonzi, Ortega, Costabile, & Lo Feudo, 2003). With regard to
victims, studies have shown that they tend to have low self esteem, are shy, and
have difficulty in making friends.
Interpersonal contexts
At the same time, violence must be considered in the context of interpersonal
relationships. For example, friends can be either a protective or a risk factor for
being victimized, depending on the quality of the friendship (Adams, Bukowski, &
Bagwell, 2005). Fundamentally, the nature of family relationships plays a critical
role in the development of peer relationships at school (Smith, Bowers, Binney, &
Cowie,1993). Farrington (1998) indicates three family factors linked to the risk of
engaging in school violence:
Absence of affection and emotional warmth between fathers and mothers and
in general in the family group which is apparent in the first years of school life.
Existence and use of physical or psychological violence in the family group;
living in a family setting where domestic violence is common.
Absence of rules, guidelines and reasonable controls, coming from adults,
about conduct, attitudes, childhood activities.
Regarding parenting styles, Baldry and Farrington (1998) found that boys who
bully tended to have authoritarian and punitive parents, whereas victims tended
to have authoritarian parents with low self-esteem. Other studies found a
relationship between mothers over-protectiveness and male victims; for female
victims, there was a significant relationship with perceived mother rejection
(Finnegan, Hodges, & Perry, 1998)
Attachment theory suggests that early on children develop an internal working
model of relationships which explains, for example, the victims psychological
defencelessness and the perpetrators unjustified aggression. Studies aimed at
exploring the relationships between bullying problems and attachment have also
found that insecure children are more likely to be involved in bully/victim
problems (Smith & Myron-Wilson, 1998), especially for being a victim of bullying.
Attachment theory can help to explain, for example, the high probability that
children from families where abuse occurs (between parents as well as from
parents to children) are likely to repeat the same insecure patterns in the
relationships they have with peers.

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

School context
Interpersonal relationships, grounded in the family, are further developed at
school. Violence flourishes in institutional environments, such as schools, in
which frequent contact among the participants can perpetuate stereotypical roles
of dominance and submission (Ortega, 1994). Stable contexts like schools have
the potential to create conditions that encourage positive relationships through
the process of convivencia, the action of living with others, with a spirit of
solidarity, fraternity, co-operation, harmony, a desire for mutual understanding,
the desire to get on well with others, and the resolution of conflict through
dialogue or other non-violent means (Ortega, del Rey, & Mora-Merchn, 2004,
p. 169). It is essential to know how the social networks that support convivencia
are established, as well as the counteracting forces that undermine convivencia.
No school is the same as another, just as no pupil is the same as another. Some
pupils lack motivation, or are bored at school, or resent rules and regulations;
some have difficult family backgrounds, or may be abused or bullied at home.
An important source of conflict between teachers and pupils involves the system
of discipline that the school adopts. In this sense, several programmes to
combat bullying and violence in schools emphasise the importance of discipline
systems for the containment of school violence (e.g., Olweus, 1999; OMoore &
Minton, 2004; Ortega, 2003; Ortega, del Rey, Snchez, Ortega-Rivera, MoraMerchn, & Genebat, 2003; Ortega & Lera, 2000; Smith, 1997)
Additionally, it is the social networks formed by pupils and teachers, and their
particular ways of behaving towards one another, that underpin convivencia.
Conflicts are an inevitable part of social life and schools are no exception.
Relationships amongst peers, and between teachers and pupils are a common
source of conflict in schools. Teachers often complain about the behaviour of
their pupils while not considering the impact that their own behaviour may have
on the school climate. However, there is no better way to create convivencia and
a non-violent culture than to face up to conflicts in an honest and problem-solving
way, whether they occur amongst the pupils or amongst the teaching staff.
Those conflicts must be resolved in a positive way since they provide pupils and
teachers with a source of real learning and of a chance to change.
Unresolved conflicts and unchallenged bullying behaviour can be selfperpetuating and so contaminate the processes of convivencia in the school.
The concept of convivencia allows us to explain the phenomenon of school
violence within the framework of interpersonal relationships that take place at
school. At the same time, the idea of convivencia can help us with the
prevention and reduction of school violence by harnessing those very
interpersonal processes that are embedded in the life of the school. If we grasp
this idea, we may not need to employ outside agencies to resolve the problem of
violence since the solution lies within the structures and networks of the school
itself.

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

The wider context

Sociologists and criminologists offer a wider perspective by charting the influence
that culture, society and politics exert on school violence. From this point of view,
school violence is regarded as a result of social pathology and social
vulnerability (Vettenburg, 1999; Walgrave, 1992) since there are certain sectors
of the population that are particularly at risk of engaging in violence. These
particular groups benefit less from the positive things institutions have to offer
(Vettenburg, 1999, p. 38) since too often they only confront the authority exerted
by society (as represented in this case by the school) but rarely experience the
benefits that society has to offer. They frequently have negative experiences
within the educational system (for example, learning difficulties, suspension and
exclusion, lack of respect from staff, under-achievement, low morale) which can
result in poor motivation, disaffection and a general sense of hostility towards the
school as a system.
Hargreaves (2003) underlines the impact of globalization on the educational
system and on the origins of violence. In capitalist societies, people tend to
behave in an individualistic, competitive way which perpetuates social class
differences and highlights the situation of disadvantaged groups. Potentially,
these cultural differences can have an impact on levels of violence in different
countries (Ortega et al., 2003). In fact, recent surveys have shown how
communities with a strong commitment to equality of opportunity have lower
levels of direct aggression (Bergeron & Schneider, 2005). It is all the more
important for the education system to promote the values of collaboration,
cooperation and creativity by actively working to develop a positive school culture
in schools.

Responsibilities of the Unit facilitators

Your tasks within this Unit are to:
send to all participants information about when and where the session will
be held and details of preparatory reading to be done
familiarise yourself with the Unit text and the facilitators notes
plan the session to meet the needs of the participants
ensure that all relevant resources/materials are copied and/or prepared
lead the session and all the activities

Sequence of activities for Unit A1

This Unit represents a one-day training of five hours plus breaks.
Activity 1 Icebreaker: The name game (15 minutes)
Purpose
To get to know everyones names
To begin to interact positively and purposefully with other members of the
group
Materials
None
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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Procedure
One person begins by saying their name. The person beside them then has to
say the first persons name and their own. The third person says the first and
second persons names and then their own. This goes on until everyone has
said their own name and all the others preceding them. The facilitator goes last
in order to show that taking the risk of not remembering a name is valued and
that it is all right to make mistakes.
Debriefing
The activity does not need debriefing but the facilitator can point out that some
people found it easier than others to remember names. However, the memory
process was also enabled through the co-operation, helpfulness, empathy and
support of the group. An additional benefit is often that people begin to help
others when they cannot remember the persons name and the process of
valuing individuals different strengths, so crucial to group cohesion, begins.
Activity 2 Introduce your neighbour (30 minutes)
Purpose
To begin to feel more comfortable in the group by interacting purposefully
with one member
To discover your own level of skill in questioning someone else and in
talking about yourself and in listening
To get everyone speaking in the large group, even those who would
normally avoid it
Materials
None
Procedure
Ask the participants to get into pairs, preferably with someone they do not know.
Ask each person to find out some interesting or amusing things about their
partner for example, what they like to do, where they live, unusual places that
they have visited, whether they own a pet, etc. The information should not be
too personal or revealing. Each participant has a short time (3-5 minutes) to do
this. Then they must come back to the large group and each person must
introduce their partner to the group based on the information they have gathered.
Debriefing
Without pointing out individuals, it is worth noting that some people seem to have
listened well and remembered the information given them whilst others did not. If
you discuss it in the group, you will probably find that some people took up more
than their share of time talking. This can be pointed out without judgement by
saying that one of the things you hope each person will learn is which skills they
need to work on.

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Activity 3 Defining school violence (70 minutes)

Purpose
To be aware of a range of interpretations of school violence
Materials
Resource 1 Individual examples of school violence
Resource 2 The essential characteristics of these examples of school violence
Resource 3 Our definition
Flipchart
Procedure
First, hand out Resource 1 Individual examples of school violence which
participants complete individually. Allow 10 minutes for the individual task. Then
form groups of 4 or 5 and give each group one copy of Resource 2 The essential
characteristics of these examples of school violence. Ask the groups to
complete as a group a summary of the essential characteristics and the
distinctive elements of these individual examples as shown in Resource 2. Allow
30 minutes for this task. Bring all the small groups into the plenary and ask a
representative of each group to present their findings. These are summarised by
the facilitator on a flipchart. Finally, in plenary, the large group tries to formulate
a possible definition of school violence, based on the characteristics and
elements identified by the small groups. The definition is documented by the
facilitator on Resource 3 Our definition. Allow 30 minutes for this part of the
discussion, including the debriefing.
Debriefing
Key discussion points are noted by the facilitator and participants are invited to
comment on the process of arriving at the group definition (or definitions if the
plenary did not reach consensus). Perhaps some people took up more than their
share of time talking. Perhaps some opinions were discounted. The process of
attempting to reach consensus can be discussed without judgement by saying
that the next activity will illustrate the difficulties that experts experience when
trying to arrive at a common definition of school violence.
Activity 4 School violence as defined by international experts (70 minutes)
Purpose
To understand the definition of violence from a range of perspectives
Materials
Resource 4 Definitions by international experts
Procedure
Ask participants to return to their small groups and hand each group a copy of
Resource 4. Ask the groups to compare Our definition with the definitions of the
international experts. Allow 30 minutes for the small group discussion. Ask
participants to return to the plenary where the facilitator notes key points on a
flipchart. Allow 40 minutes for this part of the activity, including the debriefing.
Points for discussion could include the following questions, adapted from Smith
(2003):
1. Is violence necessarily physical?

VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

2. Is violence necessarily against a person?

3. Does violence actually have to be manifested as behaviour that
damages someone or something, or is just the threat of this sufficient?
4. Is violence still violence if it is legal?
5. Does violence have to be done by somebody, or can it be done more
impersonally by a social group or an institution?
6. Has the definition of violence changed over time?
Debriefing
The facilitator ends the activity by pointing out that by thinking, discussing and
working with definitions we are enabled to understand how different opinions and
perspectives arise across cultures and over time. Not only that: the way people
look at school violence determines their attitudes and reactions to it.
Activity 5 The context of school violence (115 minutes)
Purpose
To get participants to identify what they know about the context of school
violence and to listen to the perspectives of others
Materials
Resource 5 Case study of a violent incident
Resource 6 Types of school violence
Resource 7 Summary of case studies
Resource 8 Model of the school system
Procedure
Individual task: The facilitator gives each person a copy of Resource 5 Case
study of a violent incident. Each person is asked to think about and write down a
specific case of school violence that they have experienced or observed. They
are asked to describe the protagonists, events and contexts where this violence
took place and to complete as many of the boxes as they can. Allow 30 minutes
for this part of the activity.
Group task: Participants form small groups of 4-5 people. Each member of the
group shares the example of school violence that they have entered into
Resource 5 Case study of a violent incident. The facilitator then gives each
group a blank copy of Resource 6 Types of school violence and Resource 7
Summary of case studies. Once each example has been shared, the group task
is to reach consensus about how to complete Resources 6 and 7 collectively,
taking into consideration their individual cases. Allow 40 minutes for this part of
the activity.
Plenary: Each small group reports back to the plenary session on their process
of reaching agreement about the content of each of the boxes in Resources 6
and 7. The facilitator summarises the responses from each group on a flipchart
(Resource 7 Summary of case studies). Allow 25 minutes for this part of the
activity.

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Debriefing (20 minutes)

For this part of the activity the facilitator may find it helpful to use the theoretical
content described in the summary of current thinking (individual, interpersonal,
social, school contexts). It is important to conclude with reference to the links and
influences of different related factors, not only the simple influence of one of them
on school violence. The analysis, using Bronfenbrenners bio-ecological model,
should be continued in the plenary session. Finally, for the analysis of school
context, Resource 8 Model of the school system can be used to synthesise the
findings of the activity with the theoretical points about convivencia as described
in the Summary. The facilitator can indicate how convivencia is facilitated in
schools or how it may be inhibited. This is also an opportunity to share
commonalities and differences in the ways in which the groups have interpreted
the task. Explore what are the most common themes and those that are least
common. Discuss what each person will take away with them to their own school
setting. Compare findings and discuss how they confirm or disconfirm the VISTA
model. Key aspects of the debriefing should include the following:

School violence is a complex phenomenon which requires complex

interventions.

It is important to have a clear definition of violence (Unit A1)

and an analysis of what is happening in our schools (Module D).

We need to select the most relevant and whole interventions for our schools
(see again Modules D and E, for different examples of preventative and
integrative practices).

and share responsibilities inside and outside schools (see Module B).

We need to provide interpersonal and organisational support

and to reflect about the schools we want, and about the education we want
to give our students.

References
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during early adolescence as moderated by reciprocated friendship status
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characteristics and parental styles. Journal of Community and Applied
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Baldry, A. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Individual risk factors for school
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(1999). The nature of bullying. London and New York: Routledge.
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of mind: A narrative alternative. Cultura y Educacin, 14(2), 147-159.
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critique of the 'social skills deficit' view of anti-social behaviour. Social
Development, 8, 117-127.
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Walgrave, L. (1992). Dlinquance systematise des jeunes et vulnrabilitit

socitale. Paris/Gnve: Mridiens/Mdecine et Hygine.
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Further reading and additional materials

Books and articles
Gittins, C. (2006) (Ed.). Violence reduction in schools How to make a
difference. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publications.
Websites
Council of Europe Violence in Schools A Challenge for the Local Community.
Luxembourg: Council of Europe Publications.
http://www.coe.int/t/e/integrated_projects/violence/06_Our_publications/Violence
%20in%20schools%20a%20challenge%20for%20the%20local%20community.pd
f
Council of Europe Responses to violence in everyday life in a democratic society
http://www.coe.int/T/E/Integrated_Projects/violence/
UK Observatory for the Promotion of Non-Violence
http://www.ukobservatory.com

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 1 Individual examples of school violence

Note down, individually, one or two situations in your school in which violence
occurred.

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 2 Group discussion of the essential characteristics of

these examples of school violence
Tell one another, in small groups, about your experiences noted in Resource 1
What are the essential characteristics? What are the distinctive elements?

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

DISTINCTIVE ELEMENTS

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 3 Our definition

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 4 Definitions by international experts

DEFINITIONS OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE

GROUP COMMENTS

Violence is defined as behaviour intended to cause injury, but it also includes

threats (Baldry & Farrington, 2006, p. 107).

Violence is not only an exceptional, brutal, unpredictable fact originating

outside school, but also the result of frequent banal irritating, small
aggressions Violence will be viewed through three groups of variables: crime
and offences, micro-violence and the feeling of insecurity (Debarbieux, Blaya,
& Vidal, 2003, p. 18).

De-linquency denotes the absence of an experienced link with the victim(ized

environment), which can be found in the etymological root of the word itself.
Developing, reinforcing or repairing a link of an existential quality with the
environment is therefore a key issue. Persons who are developing a feeling of
linkedness with their environment will deal with it in a different, more
respectful way (Depuydt & Deklerck, 1998, p. 137).

Antisocial behaviour in schools refers to the full spectrum of verbal or non

verbal interactions between persons active in or around the school and involving
malicious or allegedly malicious intentions causing mental, physical or material
damage or injury to persons in or around the school and violating informal rules
of behaviour (Huybregts, Vettenburg, & DAes, 2003, p. 35).

Violence or violent behavior is aggressive behaviour where the actor or

perpetrator uses his or her own body or an object (including a weapon) to inflict
(relatively serious) injury or discomfort upon another individual (Olweus,
1999, p.12).

Violence is aggressive behaviour that may be physically, sexually or

emotionally abusive. The aggressive behaviour is conducted by an individual or
group against another, or others. Physically abusive behaviour, is where a child,
adolescent or group directly or indirectly ill treats, injures, or kills another or
others. The aggressive behaviour can involve pushing, shoving, shaking,
punching, kicking, squeezing, burning or any other form of physical assault on a
person(s) or on property. Emotionally abusive behaviour, is where there is
verbal attacks, threats, taunts, slagging, mocking, yelling, exclusion, and
malicious rumours. Sexually abusive behaviour is where here is sexual assault
or rape (OMoore, n.d.).
http://www.comune.torino.it/novasres/newviolencedefinition.htm

Interpersonal violence and bullying are an illegal way of confronting motives

and needs where one person, group or institution has a dominant role and forces
others to submit to it, being physically, socially and morally harmed (Ortega,

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

2006, p. 31).

The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against

oneself, another person, or against a group or a community, that either results in
or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death or psychological harm,
maldevelopment or deprivation (WHO, 2002, p. 5).

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 5 Case study of a violent incident

Participants (Do not use their real names)

What happened among the

participants?

Participants
characteristics

Where did the action take

place?

Related Contextual Factors

You can represent the case with a drawing or diagram if you want:

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 6 Types of school violence

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*

e.g. social exclusion

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 7 Summary of case studies

Society

Individual
characteristics
of participants

School context

Dynamics of
interpersonal
relationships

Conclusions

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VISTA Unit A1: Understanding the definition and context of school violence

Resource 8 Model of the school system

Interpersonal
Relationships

Activity

Discourse

Teachers subsystem

Working

Organization and
cooperation

Teachers/pupils subsystem

TeachingLearning

Culture: scientific and social

knowledge

Pupils/pupils subsystem

Learning

Culture: scientific and social

knowledge

CONVIVENCIA in the school

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