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CarlRogersViewofPersonalWholeness:AnEvaluationandCritiquefromaChristianPerspective

InstituteforChristianTeaching
G.C.EducationDepartmentofSeventhdayAdventists

CARLROGERS'VIEWOFPERSONALWHOLENESS:
AnEvaluationandCritiquefromaChristianPerspective

By

HenryH.Lamberton
FacultyofReligion
LomaLindaUniversity

Preparedforthe
InternationalFaithandLearningSeminar
heldat
UnionCollege
Lincoln,Nebraska
June,1993

13293InstituteforChristianTeaching
12501OldColumbiaPike
SilverSpring,MD20904,USA

ThePurposeandApproachofthisPaper
Thispaperwillidentifyandcomparetwoconceptionsofmeaningthathavebeenespecially
influentialincontemporaryculture.TheseareChristianityandhumanisticpsychology.Thelater,
whichissometimesreferredtoaspsychology's"thirdforce"(becauseitfollowedandrepudiated
psychoanalysisandbehaviorism),rosetoprominenceafterWorldWarII,withAbrahamMaslowand
CarlRogersasitsmostinfluentialleaders.
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CarlRogersViewofPersonalWholeness:AnEvaluationandCritiquefromaChristianPerspective

ItisalmosttritetosaythathumanisticpsychologyhashadamajorimpactonAmerican
culture.JonesandButman,(1991)creditRogerswithhavingoriginatedwhat,"hasprobablybeenthe
mostwidelyadaptedapproachtopeoplehelpingthathaseverbeendeveloped.Applicationsforthe
business,educational,familial,group,individual,maritalandparentalcontestaboundintheliterature"
(p.272).By1973,fifteenyearsbeforehisdeath,Rogersobservedthattheentirebodyofhis
publishedbooksandarticleshadbeentranslatedintoJapaneseandsignificantpotionsofitinto
numerousotherlanguages(Rogers,1974).AnationalopinionsurveyofAmericancounselingand
clinicalpsychologiststhatwaspublishedin1982(Smith)rankedRogersaspsychotherapy'smost
influentialfigure,eventhoughveryfewofthosepolledadheredstrictlytohismethods.Butmore
lastingthanRogers'approachtotherapyhavebeenthebeliefshearticulatedaboutthenatureand
potentialoftheindividualself.
Whilethisperspectivehasundergonenumerousadaptations,includingvulgarizations,mostof
itsbasicpresuppositionsabouthumannatureandwholenesshavenotchangedandcanbeidentified
(Vitz,1977).Christianity,ofcourse,hasalsoundergonemanyadaptationsandvulgarizations,andfor
thisreasonIwilltrytolimitwhatIsayaboutChristianthinkingtopointsoverwhichthereiswide
agreement.Iwillprimarilyconfinemyselftopresentationsofonewriterwithineachperspectiveand
tostatementseachmakesaboutpersonalwholenessorpsychologicalorspiritualmaturity.Ihave
chosenHenriNouwenasarepresentativeoftheChristianperspectiveandhaveusedCarlRogersasa
representativeforthehumanisticperspective.Bothofthesewriterspresentdevelopedviewsofhow
toachievepersonalfulfillmentandobtainamorecooperativesociety,andtheybothapplytheir
systemstothealleviationofpsychologicalproblems,suchasanxietyanddepression,aswellasto
issuesofinterpersonalrelationships.
TheChristianviewreflectsmyowncommitmentandformsthebackgroundfromwhichthis
critiqueisdeveloped.However,IwillgivearelativelybriefsynopsisofNouwen'sviewsandthen
devotemostofthispapertoadiscussionofRogers'thinking.

Nouwen'sChristianPerspectiveonWholeness
Nouwen(1981),whohaspublishedsomethirtytitlesintheareaofChristianspirituality,
summarizeshisunderstandingof"thespirituallife"inhisbooktitled,MakingAllThingsNew:An
InvitationtotheSpiritualLife.Inthisbookheshowshowaspiritualreorientationcanbecomea
curativeforanxietyandpurposelessness.HeusesashisstartingpointthewordsofJesus:"Donot
worry...butsetyourheartsonHiskingdomfirst."Withrespecttothecausesofworry,Nouwen
observesthatoneofthewaysinwhichwemodernsmostcommonlydescribeourlivesistosaythat
wearebusy.Buteveninourbusynesswefindthatourenergiesandattentionareoftenlessconsumed
byouroccupationsthanbyourpreoccupations.Personalpreoccupations,whichincludeobsessions
with,"whatifs,"anddoubtsaboutwhetherwecanmeettheexpectationsofothers,"fillourexternal
andinternallivestothebrim"(p.28).
Often,alongwiththesensethatourlivesare"filled,"wehavethedisquietingsensethatthey
are"unfulfilled."Nouwensaysthatsomeofthemostcommonsentimentsbeneaththissenseof
unfulfillmentareboredom,(whichcomesfromasenseofdisconnectednessandfromquestioningthe
valueofwhatwedo)resentment(whichwemayexperiencewhenwesensewearebeingusedand
manipulatedforrandomandmeaninglessends)anddepression.Thelatteriswhatweexperience
whenwebegintofeelthat,"ourpresencemakeslittledifference[and]thatourabsencemaybe
preferred"(p.31).Frequently,thedynamicofdepressionistheendresultoflivesthatarefilled,but
fragmentedanddisconnected.
ItisagainstthisbackgroundthatNouwenappliesJesus'wordsaboutworry.Henotesthat.
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"Jesusdoesnotrespondtoourworryfilledwayoflivingbysayingthatweshouldnot
besobusywithworldlyaffairs...[orby]tellingusthatwhatwedoisunimportant,
valueless,oruseless...Heasksustoshiftthepointofgravity,torelocatedthecenter
ofourattention...tomovefromthe'manythings'tothe'onenecessarything.'"

ForNouwen,themoststrikingfeatureofJesus'ownlifewastheunwaveringnatureofHis
focus.ThisfocusconsistedofwhatNouwencalls,"singlemindedobedienceofHisFather,"(Nouwen
contraststhenegativeconnotationsof"obedience"inoursocietywithJesus'intimateandtrusting
relationshipwithGod)whichHemaintainedinthemidstoftheunpredictableandchangingneeds
aroundHim.WhenJesussaid,"setyourheartsonHiskingdomfirst,"Hemeant,saysNouwen,that
wewereto,"makethelifeoftheSpiritwithinandamongusthecenterofallwethink,sayordo."
Thisrequiresaselftransformation,somethingwhichmaybeexperiencedaseithersuddenorgradual.
Suchatransformationdoesnotremovethedifficultiesoflife,butitplacestheminacontext
thatispurposeful,meaningfulandunifying.Thistransformationisanactofgracebutthisdoesnot
meanithappensautomatically.Nouwenidentifiestwoprimarymethodologies,whichhecalls
"disciplines,"whichplaceusinapositionthatfacilitatesthechangesGodmakesinus.(Whileitis
notmyintentiontoendorseallofthemethodsNouwensuggestsforpracticingthesedisciplines,Ido
agreewiththeimportanceofthetwodisciplinesheidentifies.)Thefirstis"solitude,"bywhichhe
meansregulartimessetasideforprayer,meditationandthecontemplationofscripture.Hedescribes
solitudeas,"thesimple,thoughnoteasy,waytofreeusfromtheslaveryofouroccupationsand
preoccupationsandtobegintohearthevoicethatmakesallthingsnew"(p.75).
ThesecondmeansofsettingourheartsonthekingdomisthroughwhatNouwencallsthe
disciplineofcommunity.ItisrelatedtothefirstdisciplinebecauseGodspeakstousthroughothers
aswellasinsolitude.Community,asNouwendefinesit,"haslittletowithmutualcompatibility"and
itstandsincontrasttothemanygroups,"thathaveformedtoprotecttheirowninterests,todefend
theirownstatus,ortopromotetheirowncauses."Hestatesthat,"throughthedisciplineof
communitywepreventourselvesfromclingingtoeachotherinfearandloneliness,and[becomeable]
tolistentotheliberatingvoiceofGod"(pp.8183).Anelementofdisciplineisrequiredtomaintain
relationshipswithpersonstowardswhomwefeellittlenaturalattraction.
Insummary,Nouwenseesbothindividualandsocialwholenessasachievedbyaregeneration
thatcomesthroughaspiritualconnectionwithGod.

CarlRogers'HumanisticPerspectiveofWholeness
RogersandNouwenagreethatwholenessinvolvesmovingawayfromaslavishconcernwith
theexpectationsandevaluationsofothersandacorrespondingreorientationtoasinglesourceof
meaningandauthority.
ForRogers,however,thissourceofmeaningisnotdiscoveredbyknowingGod,butthrough
recoveringcontactwithones'realandauthenticself.Rogers(1951)linkedhistheoryofhuman
fulfillmentwiththemethodsofsciencewheneverhecould.Thefollowingquotationillustratesthis
linkaswellashisexplicitrejectionoftheneedforanyexternalsourceofmeaningorauthority:
Civilizationhithertohaslookedfortheorientationofsocietythroughanimposed
'system'derivedfromsomeextrinsicauthority,suchasreligion,'cultural'education,or
politicalsuasion.Thebiologistconceivesanorderemanatingfromtheorganismliving
inpoisesinitsenvironment.Ournecessity,thereforeistosecurethefreeflowof
forcesintheenvironmentsothattheorderinherentinthematerialwearestudying
mayemerge(p.62).

AlthoughRogerswentconsiderablybeyondbiologicalmethodsasabasisforhisconclusions
abouthumannature,hedidplaceagreatemphasisonwhathesawastheflowofforceswithinthe
individual.Theseforceswerepartofthe"selfexperience"whichbecameforhimtheultimatesource
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oftruthandmeaning.
ItistoexperiencethatImustreturnagainandagaintodiscoveracloser
approximationtotruthasitisintheprocessofbecominginme.NeithertheBiblenor
theprophetsneitherFreudnorresearchneithertherevelationsofGodnormancan
takeprecedenceovermyowndirectexperience(1961,pp.2324).

Thesestatementsillustrateakeydifferencebetweenthesourcesofauthorityandmeaningfor
thetwoperspectivesbeingconsidered,buttheyalsorevealthatRogersdidnotclaimultimate
allegiancetoempiricalresearchasabasisforunderstandingpersons.Bothofthesepointswillbe
commentedonfurtherbutitwillbeusefultofirstsummarizewhatRogersmeantbypersonal
experienceandhowthismeaningrelatedtohistheoryofpersonalityandmentalhealth.
JonesandButman(1991)havesuggestedthatthe"Coreassertionof[Rogers']personality
theoryisthatthereisbutonesinglemotivationalforceforallhumanity:thetendencytowardself
actualization"(p.257).Hetaughtthateverypersonhasaninnatetendencytowardthepositive
developmentofactualizationofhisorheruniquepotentialtothegreatestextentpossible.Persons
alsohadanotherinnatecapacitycalledan,"organismicvaluingprocess"whichprovidedhumanswith
theabilitytochoosebetweenwhatwillenhancepersonalfulfillmentandwhatwillnot.
Rogers'theoryofmentalhealthandabnormality,assummarizedbyJonesandButman(1991),
includesseveralkeyconceptsandterms.Hebelievedthatiftheparentsofagrowingchildprovidedit
withanatmosphereofunconditionalpositiveregardandacceptance,thechildwouldbeblessedwitha
completeawarenessofitsactualizingtendencyandvaluingcapacity.Thisawareness,orself
experience,ofthechild'snaturalinclinationswouldconstituteareliableguideforitsongoingprocess
ofactualization.Asthechild'sconsciousawarenessdeveloped,hisorherselfconcept(i.e.perception
ofwhoheorsheactuallyis)woulddevelopinamannerthatwascongruentexpectationsand
evaluationsofothers.Inaddition,thechild'sidealself,whichwashisorherunderstandingofwhathe
orsheshouldbe,wouldalsobecongruentwithselfexperiencesinceheorshewouldnotaspiretobe
somethingotherthanwhatheorshewas.Thus,afullyfunctioningandmentallyhealthyindividual
wouldbeonewhoseselfexperiences,selfconceptandidealselfarecongruent.Suchanindividual
wouldexistcomfortablywithhisorherchangingfeelingsandexperiencesandwouldbesuccessfully
guidedbythem.Incongruitiesthatmightoccurwouldbeminimalandabletobequicklyovercome.
Unfortunately,childrenrarelydevelopinsuchanopenandacceptingenvironment.The
expectationsanddemandsofparentsandothersmakeitimpossibleforthemtoachieveacceptanceby
relyingontheirinstincts.Theseexternalinfluencescausethemtodenypartsoftheirselfexperience
andtodevelopdistortionsinwhotheyperceivethemselvestobeandwhotheybelievetheyshould
become.Asaconsequence,theirinternalevaluatingprocessbecomesimpaired,andthechoicesthey
makeareadverselyaffected.InRogers'theory,lackofcongruencebetweenvariousaspectsoftheself
islargelyresponsibleforfailuresinlivingandformentalsufferingordiscomfort(Jones&Butman,
1991).
ThistheoryofpersonalityprovidesthebasisforRogers'conceptionoftherapy.Thetherapist's
taskistocreateanatmosphereofcompleteacceptanceandunconditionalpositiveregardsothatthe
selfactualizingpotentialandorganismicvaluingprocesscansafelyemergeandthevarious
dimensionsoftheselfcanbecomeintegrated.Thishappenswhenthepersonintherapyisableto
replaceadoptedorimposedvalueswiththoselearnedfromorganicexperiences.Onewayinwhich
Rogersexplainedthisprocessisseeninthefollowingquotation:
Ifa[personintherapy]givesuptheguidanceofanintrojectedsystemofvalues,what
istotakeitsplace?...Gradually[thepersonintherapy]comestoexperiencethefact
thatheismakingvaluejudgments,inawaythatisnewtohim,andyetawaythatwas
alsoknowntohiminhisinfancy.Justastheinfantplacesanassuredvalueuponan
experience,relyingontheevidenceofhisownsenses...sotheclientfindsthatitis
hisownorganism,whichsuppliestheevidence,uponwhichvaluejudgmentsmaybe
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made.Hediscoversthathisownsenses,hisownphysiologicalequipment,canprovide
thedataformakingvaluejudgmentsandforcontinuouslyrevisingthem(1951,pp.
522523).

AnillustrationoftheextentofRogers'confidenceintheinnatetendencyofhumanbeingsto
makegoodchoicescanbeseeninaspeechhedeliveredtostudentsataMidwestcollegein1957.
Thebasicnatureofthehumanbeing,whenfunctioningfreelyisconstructiveand
trustworthy.Formethisisaninescapableconclusionfromaquartercenturyof
psychotherapy...Wedonotneedtoaskwhowillsocializehim,foroneofhisown
deepestneedsisforaffiliationandcommunicationwithothers.Ashebecomesmore
fullyhimself,hewillbecomerealisticallysocialized.Wedonotneedtoaskwhowill
controlhisaggressiveimpulsesforashebecomesmoreopentoallofhisimpulses,his
needstobelikedbyothersandhistendencytogiveaffectionwillbeasstrongashis
impulsestostrikeoutortoseizeforhimself.Hewillbeaggressiveinsituationsin
whichaggressionisrealisticallyappropriate,buttherewillbenorunawayneedfor
aggression..Theonlycontrolofimpulseswhichwouldexist,orwhichwouldprove
necessary,isthenaturalandinternalbalancingofoneneedagainstanother,andthe
discoveryofbehaviorswhichfollowthevectormostcloselyapproximatingthe
satisfactionofallhisneeds(Rogers1961,194195).

Criticsofhumanismhavesometimesequateditsemphasisonselfactualizationwith
selfishnessbutthisisnotcompletelyaccurate(Jones&Butman,1991).Humanistsbelievethatthe
dispositiontorelatepositivelytoothersisaninnatepartofaperson'snaturaltendencytoactualize.
OneofRogers'mostfarreachingassertionswasthatinterpersonalandsocialproblemsarecausedby
thefailureofindividualstofullyactualizeandacceptthemselves.Rogers(1951)describedthispart
ofhistheoryinthisway:
Theimplicationsofthisaspectofourtheoryaresuchastostretchtheimagination.
Hereisatheoreticalbasisforsoundinterpersonal,intergroup,andinternational
relationships.Statedintermsofsocialpsychology,thispropositionbecomesthe
statementthattheperson(orpersonsorgroup)whoacceptshimselfthoroughly,will
necessarilyimprovehisrelationshipswiththosewithwhomhehaspersonalcontact,
becauseofhisgreaterunderstandingandacceptanceofthem...Thuswehave,in
effect,apsychological"chainreaction"whichproblemsofsocialrelationships(pp.
520522).

ThisquotationillustratestheextenttowhichRogerswaswillingtoapplyhisphilosophical
assumptionsabouthumannatureandmentalhealthtosocialproblems.Fewtheoristshavebeenas
explicitashewasinstatingtheirconclusionsandextendingthemtotheirlogicalend(Jones&
Butman,1991).

AChristianCritiqueofHumanism
TherearemanyelementsinRogers'theorythatChristiansshouldbeabletoaffirmandbenefit
from.Someofthesepositivepointsincludehisinsistenceonunderstandingpersonsinawholistic
ratherthananatomized,reductionisticmannerhisstressonthecapacityofindividualstochangeand
growhisemphasisontheimportanceofdevelopinganawarenessandunderstandingofones'feelings
andinternalconflictsandhisbeliefthateverypersonhasthepotentialtodevelopinauniqueand
individualizedmanner(Jones&Butman,1987).Furthermore,hissingularcontributiontowardan
understandingofthedynamicsandpowerofempathiclistening,andhisemphasisonthegrowththat
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isproducedwhenpeoplearetreatedwithhonesty,opennessandunconditionalpositiveregarddeserve
muchcommendation.However,therearefundamentalpointsatwhichRogers'theoryofpersonality
andbehaviorhavebeenlegitimatelyquestionedandcriticized.
Severalwritershavewrittenindepthcritiquesofhistheoriesfromaphilosophical,scientific,
and/ortheologicalperspective(e.g.Browning,1987Geller,1982Hart,1992Jones&Butman,
1991May,1982,citedinGreening,1984Vitz,1977).Iwilldiscussanumberofthecriticisms
whichareespeciallyimportantandaddcommentsfromotherauthors.Iwillbeginbyemphasizing,as
Vitz(1977)did,thequasireligiousnatureofhumanistictheoryandthetypeofevidenceuponwhich
itisbased.Iwillthenconsidersomeoftheontological,epistemological,andethicalissuesraisedby
Rogers'viewofpersonsandconcludebyidentifyingsomeofthepotentialpsychologicalandsocial
consequencesofhistheory.

HumanisticPsychology'sReligiousCharacter
Vitz(1977)isoneofanumberoftheoristswhocallattentiontotheovertly"religious"
elementsinhumanisticpsychology.Ifonedefinesreligionasadevelopedsystemforascribing
ultimatemeaningandpurposetolifeandwhichisdependentuponsomethingbeyondthemethodsof
empiricalobservationforitsverification,thenVitziscertainlyright.Browning(1987)observesthat
humanismhasatleasttwoimportantelementsthatitholdsincommonwithreligiousfaith.Theseare
"metaphorsofultimacy"andamodelfororderingtheinnerlife.Regardlessofwhetheritis
defensibletospeakofhumanismasareligion,itsbasicclaimsabouthumannatureandvalueshave
notbeenempiricallyverifiedandarenotamenabletosuchverification.Thisisapointaboutwhich
Rogersexpressedexplicitagreementneartheendofhiscareer,whenreferringtohislegendaryand
vigorousargumentsagainstB.F.Skinner'sbehaviorism.Atthattimehesaid,"Ihavecometorealize
thatthebasicdifferencebetweenabehavioristicandahumanisticapproachtohumanbeingsisa
philosophicalchoice.Thiscertainlycanbediscussed,butcannotpossiblybesettledbyevidence"
(Rogers,1974).
AlthoughmanyofRogers'philosophicaldescendantshavebeenlessreadytoadmit,orless
awareof,thesubjectivebasisfortheirconclusionsthanhewas,therearesignsofagrowing
willingnessamongtherapistsandtheoreticians,(e.g.Rutan,1992)toacknowledgethatalltheoriesof
mentalhealtharevaluebasedandare,assuch,beyondthescopeofempiricalverification.
Thispointisimportantforbeginningadiscussionofthemeritsofanytheoryofpersonalityor
change,(althoughitdoesnotimplythatempiricalevidencemaynotbeusedtoargueforonetheory
overanother).Onceitisaccepted,adiscussionofthemeritsofatheorysuchashumanism,including
itsreligiousmerits,canproceedonamoresoundbasis.

OntologicalProblemswiththeTheoryofHumanNature
RogersandNouwenbothseehumansassufferingfrominternalandexternalconflicts.
Nouwen,however,doesnotattributeallinternalsufferingtothefalsedemandsandexpectationsof
others.Hestatesthatourlivesarebroken,boundbysin,andinneedof"radicaltransformation,"by
the"workoftheHolySpirit"(pp.5053).Thisconclusionthattherearedefectsinhumannatureat
themostbasicandindividuallevel,whilevariouslyinterpretedastocauseandextent,isoneofthe
mostbasicbeliefsofChristianityandmostmajorreligions,(Solzhenitsyn,1975,citedinVitz,1977).
ManyChristianinterpretersconcludethathumannatureismadeupofamixtureofbothgoodandbad
tendencies,ratherthanasbeingwhollyoneortheother.Thismeansthatsomeexperienceofinner
conflictispartofwhatitmeanstobehuman.
Rogers(1951),ontheotherhand,assertsthat"the[human]organismhasonebasictendency
andstrivingtoactualize,maintain,andenhancetheexperiencingorganism[andthat]ratherthan
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manyneedsandmotives,itseemsentirelypossiblethatallorganicandpsychologicalneedsmaybe
describedaspartialaspectsofthisonefundamentalneed"(pp.487488).Hefurthermaintainsthat
themovementofthissingletendencyis,"inthedirectionofanincreasingselfgovernment,self
regulation,andautonomy,andawayfromheteronymouscontrol,orcontrolbyexternalforces[and
thatthistendency]appearstobeinthedirectionofsocialization,broadlydefined"(p.488).This
positionrejectsthatthereisanypartofhumannaturethatisbasicallydefectiveoroutofbalance.
EricFromm(1947,citedbyVitz,1977)emphasizedthiswhenhesaidthat,
Thepositiontakenbyhumanisticethicsthatmanisabletoknowwhatisgoodandto
actaccordinglyonthestrengthofhisnaturalpotentialitiesandofhisreason,wouldbe
untenableifthedogmaofman'sinnatenaturalevilnessweretrue(p.19).

Thisargumentforasinglemotiveforcethatisbothindividuallyandsociallyconstructive
raisesanumberofproblems.Vitz(1977)pointsoutthatitrunscounter,invariousways,tothe
conclusionsofmanypsychologists(particularlythoseinthepsychodynamictraditionsuchasFreud&
Klien)ethnologists(includingNobellaureatesKonradLorenzandNikoTinbergen)andbiologists
(suchasLudwigvonBertalanffy)whohaveseendynamicssuchasconflict,and/ortendenciestoward
destructiveaggression,asaninnatepartofthehumanofthehumancharacter.
Onwhatevidencehavehumanistsbasedtheirconclusionsforasingle,harmoniousmotivating
force?Browning(1987)pointsoutthathumanisticpsychologistsdonotderivetheideaoftheself
actualizationtendencyasamoralnormfromobservationallybasedexplanationsofhuman
motivation.Ratherthey"identifyavarietyofgoodswhichtheyrecognizetobemorallyjustifiableon
groundsindependentofthefactsofhumanmotivation(ourvarioustendenciesandneeds)andthen
attributethemtoourbiologicallygroundedactualizationtendency"(p.74).
Asecondproblemwiththesinglemotivetheoryofhumanbehavioristhatitlogicallyrequires
thecompleteexternalizationofresponsibilityforinnerconflicts.JonesandButman(1991)illustrate
thisdifficultyinthefollowingwords:
Suggestingonedrive,andatotallygoodoneatthat,leadstoattributingallhuman
distresstoforcesexternaltotheperson.Ifweeverexperienceconflict,itcannotbe
duetoatruestrugglewithinourselves,butrathertoapseudostugglebetweenourtrue
selves(allgood)andsomesortoffalseselves,whicharepresumedtohaveoriginated
externallyfromhowsignificantothershavetreatedus(pp.265266).

SinceRogerschampionedvirtuesofindividualfreedomandautonomy,itisparadoxicalthat
thisaspectofhistheorywouldseemtoencouragepeopletoassumethepsychologicalstanceofbeing
victims.Thereisathirdproblemwiththesinglemotivationaltheoryofhumannaturethatshouldbe
noted.WhenRogersextendshistheoryofactualizationintothearenaofinterpersonalrelationships
andsuggeststhatitcontainsthekeytosocialharmony,hecreatesalogicalhurdleofenormous
proportions.Browning(1987),inadetaileddiscussionofthisassertion,notesthatitrequiresoneto
maintainthatthereisa"preestablishedharmonyofallpotentialities."(p.760).Whenappliedjustto
themicrocosmofasinglefamilyunit,itnecessitatesthebeliefthat,"theselfactualizationofthe
potentialsofanyonememberofthefamilycouldoccurwithoutinterferingwithorimpedingtheself
actualizationofanyothermemberofthefamily"(p.82).Whenappliedtotheinternationallevel,as
Rogersdoes,thebeliefthatallpotentialitiesharmonizerequiresagiantleapoffaith.Yetthisisthe
leaphumanismtake.Browning(1987)referstostatementsbyMaslow(1965)whichspecifically
pointinthisdirectionandthensummarizestheunderlyingpositionasfollows:
Theactualizationofourvariouspotentialscanbemorallyjustifiedasourprimary
obligationsimplybecausetheworld,atitsdepth,isbasicallyharmonious,andall
undistortedandbasicneeds,potentials,andselfactualizationscomplementeachother
andleadtomutualityandreciprocity(p.82).

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Thequestionthatthistheoryfailstoadequatelyexplainiswhysocialdisharmonycontinues
unabatedifthenaturaltendenciesofeachindividualinsocietyandtherealandtruebalanceofmoral
forcesintheworldareharmoniousandgood.TheChristianbeliefthatsinhascausedadisruptionof
harmonywithineachindividualaswellaswithintheentireuniverse(Rom.8:22),providesamore
simpleandparsimoniousexplanationforhumanevilthandoesthehumanisticview.TheChristian
viewsuggeststhat,"ourgoodimpulsesandourbadimpulses,ourloveforandrebellionagainstGod,
arebothrepresentativeofourtrueselves"(Jones&Butmanp.266).Italsomaintainsthatself
enhancementandsocialharmonycomeaboutthroughaspiritualregenerationofourtrueselves.This
isoneofthemostbasicontologicaldistinctionbetweenthetwotheoriesofhumannature.

EpistemologicalProblemsandIssues
Rogers'theorynotonlymeritscriticismforitspositiononthenatureofhumannature,italso
raisesepistemologicalandethicaldifficulties.Withrespecttothesourcesofknowledge,Rogers'
emphasizeontheultimatereliabilityofselfexperience(whenitisincongruencewiththeorganismic
valuingprocess)differssignificantlyfromChristianthought.TheChristiantraditionalholdsthatall
ofhumannaturehasbeenaffectedbysinandthereforenopartofitisperfectlytrustworthy.
ManyChristianswouldaffirmKant'sbeliefthathumanshaveanawarenessof"themorallaw
within,"andinthissenseagreethathumanshave,(atleastundernormalcircumstances)anintrinsic
senseofrightandwrong(Lewis,1943Malony,1986).Forthis,aswellasotherreasons,aBiblically
ChristiantheologywouldrejectanysuggestionthattheGospelcallsuponpersonstoliveinawaythat
isoutofharmonywiththeirtrueselves.ItshouldalsobenotedthatProtestanttheologyhasgiven
particularemphasistotheimportanceoflivinginharmonywithones'conscienceormoralintuition.
ButChristianthinkinghasstoppedshortofsuggestingthatthesubjectiveexperienceoftheindividual
isthefinalarbiterofmoralandreligioustruth.Ithasemphasizedtheimportanceofothersourcesof
truth,themostfundamentalofwhicharetheprinciplesandteachingscontainedinScriptureaswellas
othersourcesofdivinerevelation,suchastheroleofthediscerningcommunity.JonesandButman
(1991)contrastthisapproachtotruthwiththatofRogerswhotheydescribeas,"optimisticaboutones'
experienceasthebasisofdeterminingtruth,butratherpessimisticaboutthevalueofculture,dogma,
traditions,andsystemsofmorality"(p.263).

EthicalProblemsandIssues
ItishardlynecessarytonotethattheChristianviewofpersonalwholenessincludesan
acceptanceofethicalimperatives.Nouwen,forexample,speaksofobediencetoGodasanethical
idealandhisemphasisondisciplineandcharactertransformationhaveethicaldimensionsaswell.
Rogers,ontheotherhand,clearlystatedthathistheoryconstitutedareactionagainst,andan
alternativeto,religiousethicalimperatives.
Butoneofthemostdistinguishingfeaturesofhistheoryofpersonalityisitsimplicitethical
system.Browning(1987)notesashiftinthewritingsofRogersandotherhumanisticpsychologists
fromsimplymaintainingthat,"thetendencytowardselfactualizationisthebasicnatureofhumansto
theassertionthatitisgoodandthat,therefore,allhumansshouldpursuethelifeofselfactualization"
(p.70).Thus,actualizationofones'selfbecomesamoralobligation.Buthumanism'sunderstanding
ofindividualandsocialpathologycreatesanevenmorefarreachingmoralimperative.Thisisthe
imperativetoavoidimposingvaluesonothers.Thelogicofthismoralstanceisclear.Sincetheself
isgoodandobligationsandexpectationsplacedonusbyothersarethecauseofindividualandsocial
pathology,thenteachingothershowtoliveisnotonlyunnecessary,butindividuallydehumanizing
andsociallydestructive.Freedomandunconditionalpositiveregard(whichexceptforduringthe
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"therapeutichour"areoftendowngradedtothevirtueoftolerance),bothofwhichareimportantand
necessaryvalues,becomethehighestvaluesbecausetheyareultimatelytheonlyvaluesthatare
believedtobenecessary.
Christianethicsholdsthattheprincipleofagapeloveisthehighestvirtueandthatitsclearest
expressionisseeninthepersonofJesus.Thisloveisnotpossibleunlessaccompaniedbythevirtue
offreedom,butitismorethanfreedom.Itisunconditional,butisnotthesamethingasunconditional
positiveregardintheRogeriansense.Itstrengthensandintegratestheself,butitisalsoself
sacrificing(Roberts,1985).
Agapelove'sselfsacrificingqualitycannotbeeasilyornaturallyintegratedintotheRogerian
ideaofpersonalfulfillment.Butagapelovesacrificeswhengenuinegood(as,opposedtosuchfalse
goodsastheenablingofaddictionsortheperpetuationofabuse)willbebroughtaboutbydoingso.
Whentheselfisrespectedandappreciated(asitshouldbe),andwhenitisgiventoothersfroma
positiveoffreedomandspiritualstrength,thegivertransmitssomethingofgreatvalue,andaccording
toChristianthinking,isblessedwithadepthofmeaningandjoythatcanonlybeunderstoodin
spiritualorreligiousterms.ThisiswhatJesusreferredtowhenhesaidthattheone,"wholoseshis
lifeformysakewillfindit"(Matt.10:39Mk.8:35)

SocialandPsychologicalProblemsofHumanisticPsychology
Rogers'theoryofhumannatureandtherapydevelopedasreactionagainstwhathesawtobe
thedogmatismofconservativeandlegalisticreligionandtherationalisticqualitiesofpsychoanalysis
(Jones&Butman,1991).Itquicklydeveloped,asthispaperhasattemptedtoshow,itsownsetof
faithassumptionsandethicalimperativesandhastakenonthequalitycharacteristicofreligiousbelief
formanypeople.
Itneedstobeemphasizedthathumanisticpsychologywouldnothaveexperiencedandrapid
acceptanceifmanyofitsideashadnotalreadybeenembeddedinAmericanpoliticalandeconomic
philosophy(Bloom,1987Browning,1987Rogers1951Vitz,1977).Rogers'andMaslow'stheories
werepopularizedduringtheyearsimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarIIwhentheAmericaneconomy
wasenjoyingunprecedentedgrowth.Theeconomicsystemthatproducedthisprosperitychampioned
individualism,creativityandthebeliefthattheprimaryroleofgovernmentwaslimitedtothatof
protectingthefreedomofitscitizenstopursuetheirownselfinterest.Humanisminferredthatthese
politicalandeconomicprinciplescouldbeappliedwithequalsuccesstothearenasofindividualand
socialmorality.ThislinkingofpoliticalandindividualvalueswaswhatHauerwas(1981)referredto
whenheobservedthat,"ourprivatemoralityhasincreasinglyfollowedtheformofourpubliclife.
Peoplefeeltheironlypublicdutyistofollowtheirowninterestsasfaraspossible,limitedonlybythe
rulethatwedonotunfairlylimitothers'freedom"(p.79).
IdrawattentiontothisconnectionbetweenAmericanculturalvaluesandthepopularityof
humanism'stheoryoftheselffortworeasons.OneistonotethatRogersandhisfellowhumanists
didnotoriginateacompletelynewwayofthinkingasmuchastheyhelpedpopularizeandextendone
whichwasalreadypresentwithintheculture.Theotheristonotethatproblems,whichhavebecome
increasinglyapparentinAmerica'spoliticalsystemillustratetheinadequacyofthepursuitofprivate
needsasanethicalideal.Citizensandthemediafrequentlyexpressoutragewhenpoliticalleadersput
personalinterestsorthebenefitsoflocalconstituentsabovethegoodofthelargersociety,whileatthe
sametimeprofessingallegiancetoabeliefsystemwhichsaysthatpursuingone'sselfinterestisan
individual'sprimarymoralobligationandthatitisdestructivetoquestionorcriticizetheethical
choicesofothers.Theymayhavethedisquietingsensethattheylackanintegratedmoralvisionbut
beunawareoftheextenttowhichthissensearisesfromcompetingandcontradictorybeliefsabout
whatmakeslifegood.
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Thehumanisticunderstandingofpersonhoodandwholenessfostersapublicmoralitythat
Hauerwas(1981)hasaptlyreferredtoas"vulgarrelativism,"namely,arelativizedviewofmost
ethicalprinciplescombinedwithanonrelativizedviewoftheprincipleoftoleration(p.104).The
psychologicalandspiritualresultisadiminishmentofavitalpartofwhatitmeanstobehuman,for,
asHauerwassays,"Intheinterestsofsecuringtolerance,weareforcedtopaythepriceofhavingour
differencesrenderedmorallyirrelevant"(p.104).Bloom(1987)hasarguedthatmanycollege
studentsbelievethatthereisanecessaryconnectionbetweentheprinciplesoftolerationand
relativismbecausetheyhavebeentaughtthatabeliefinthelatterisnecessarytoavoidprejudice.But
relativismultimatelyunderminesallprinciples,includingtheprincipleoftoleration.Thusitprovides
culturewithaninsufficientmeansforitsownsustenance(Bloom,1987Hauerwas,1981).
TheRogerianconceptionthatouronlyinnatetendencyistoselfactualizeinawaythatis
goodforourselvesandothers,mayseemtoremovetheannoyingconceptsofguiltandsinfromthe
psyche,butitdoesso,asalreadymentioned,atthecostofeitherdenyingevilaltogetherorattributing
responsibilityforitentirelytoothers.Thislattertendencycanleadtoanundiscriminatinguseof
psychologicaltasks,whichemphasizeemotionalindependencefromsignificant,othersasa
prerequisitetomentalhealth.Itcanthusaffectthewayweseekabalancebetweenindividuationand
intimacy.Astrongemphasisonindividuatingtasksisclearlyindicatedincaseswhereselfesteemhas
beendamagedbyovercontrolandabuse,butinRogerianlogicanycontrolthatdoesmorethan
guaranteeagrowingchild'sphysicalsafetyanddevelopmentisovercontrol.
AfinaldifficultywithRogerianviewofhumannatureistheunrealisticexpectationsit
creates.Itpromisesthatsatisfyinginterpersonalrelationships(aswellasfreedomfrominner
conflicts)willcomenaturallyifpeoplelearntoacceptthemselvesfully.Itdeemphasizesorrejects
theimportanceofdevelopingcharacterthroughovercominginnatetendenciestowardselfishness,and
createsthefalseexpectationthatfamiliesandcommunitiescanbeheldtogetherwithoutsacrifice.

ABiblicalBasisforAcceptingPersons
Manypeopleareattractedtotheconvictionthathumansarebynatureinnatelyandcompletely
goodbecausetheyequatebeinggoodwithbeingofworthandvalue,and/orbecausetheyhavebeen
taughttobelievethatifpeoplearenotbasicallygoodtheymustbebasicallyevil(whichisinterpreted
as"entirely"evil).Jesus,however,neverconnectedthebasisofhumanworthwiththeissueofhuman
nature,nordidhesaythatallourtendencieswerecompletelyevil.Hetaughtthatpeoplewereof
valuebecauseGodcreatedthemandlovedthem.Asahistoricalfigure,heisperhapsmostwidely
admiredforhowhecombatedprejudiceandacceptedpeoplewhomothersrejected.Heisalsoknown
foropposingattemptstolegislatepersonalmorality,buthewashardlyamoralrelativistoraperson
whoavoidedarguingandpreachingaboutvaluesandobligations.Hetaughtthatinthislifewewould
alwaysexperiencedifficultiesbutthatitwasGod'swillforustoenjoyasatisfyingexistenceand
meaningfulrelationships.

ConcludingComments
NouwenhassummarizedsomekeyelementsofthewayoflifethatJesusdescribedandsome
stepsforbeginningtoliveit.ThepurposeofJesus'wayistochangeourfocusandoursourceof
motivationfrommanythingstotheone,mostimportantthing.Rogersalsoemphasizesthevalueof
movingawayfromalifeguidedbymanythingstotheone,mostimportantthing.ForRogers,this
mostimportantthingistheself.ForNouwenitisthekingdomofGod.Bothinviteustogiveupan
existencenourishedbyscrapsgatheredfromdiversesourcesofmeaning,buttheycallustodifferent
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tables.Thecontrastbetweenthesetwoperspectivesarisesfromtheirdifferentbeliefsaboutultimate
realityandhumannature.
Ihavenotattemptedtodeveloptheimplicationsofthesetwoviewsforaphilosophyof
education.ThewaysinwhichRogersappliedhistheoriestoteachingarewellknown(forexample,
seeRobinson,1985Rogers,1974),andmuchhasbeenwrittenabouttherelationshipbetweena
Christianworldviewandeducation(e.g.DeJong,1990Holmes,1975White,1903).Idobelieve
thattheissuesidentifiedinthispaperareimportantforChristianeducators(particularlythosewho
teachpsychology,sociology,andtheology)toidentifyanddiscusswithstudents.Educatorswoulddo
welltohelptheirstudentsunderstandthechallengethathumanisticpsychologypresentstoChristian
thoughtandencouragethemtoevaluateitsphilosophicalbasiscriticallyandfairly.
Iwillsuggestafewofthepracticalquestionsthatcouldbeusedtofacilitatethisprocess.
StudentscouldbeencouragedtocompareFreud'sbeliefsthathumanisbasicallyconflictedandthatit
consistsofbothdestructiveandconstructivedrives,withRogers'beliefthathumanshaveonebasic
drive(thedrivetowardselfactualization)ofwhichallothersareapart.Theycouldbeaskedwhich
view,ifeither,ismostconsistentwiththeChristianviewofpersons?Arethereproblemswitheach?
Relatedquestionswouldbe:Dohumanshaveasinglecoreself(ortrueself)thatcanbediscovered
throughintrospectionortherapyandusedasaguideforlife?IsitpossibletoacceptRogers'viewof
humannatureandstillexplainthecontinuationofsinintheworld?WhatisthemeaningofEllen
White's(1909)statementthattheimageofGodwasnotcompletelydestroyedinpersonsbysin?
Otherquestionstoconsiderwouldbe:Isitnecessarytoloveoneselfinordertoloveone's
neighbor?Doesloveandacceptanceofoneselfautomaticallyleadtoloveandacceptanceofothers?
WhatsimilaritiesanddifferencesaretherebetweentheRogerianconceptofunconditionalpositive
regardandtheChristianidealofagapelove.
Thesearejustsomeofthequestionsthatcouldbeusedtohelpstudentsthinkmorecritically
aboutChristianityandtheculturalcurrentsthathavebeeninfluencedbyhumanisticpsychology.Each
ofthesequestions,inonewayoranother,relatestothecentralissueofhumannature,andhowhuman
feelingsandbehaviorcanbemodified,changedorredirected.
Theimportanceoftheseissuescannotbeoveremphasized.AsTjelveit(1989,citedbyJones
&Butman,1991)hasstated,
Modelsofhumanbeingsexplicitorimplicit,complexorsimple,internallyconsistent
orinconsistent,...opentochangeorstaticshapesociety,theactionsofeveryhuman
being,andeveryindividual'sworldview.

Teachersandstudentsneedtocriticallyexaminetheirconceptsofhumannatureand
understandtheimplicationsoftheseconceptsforhowtheylivetheirlives.

References
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DeJong,ArthurJ.(1990).Reclaimingamission:Newdirectionforthechurchrelatedcollege.
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Geller,L.(1982)."Thefailureofselfactualizationtheory:AcritiqueofCarlRogersandAbraham
Maslow."JournalofHumanisticPsychology(2),5673.

Greening,T.(ed.).(1984).AmericanPoliticsandHumanisticPsychology.Dallas:Saybrook
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