Taylor series

For other notions of series expansion, see Series (mathematics).

10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0

8 10

As the degree of the Taylor polynomial rises, it approaches the

correct function. This image shows sin(x) and its Taylor approximations, polynomials of degree 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13.

The exponential function ex (in blue), and the sum of the rst
n+1 terms of its Taylor series at 0 (in red).

In mathematics, a Taylor series is a representation of a

function as an innite sum of terms that are calculated that interval.
from the values of the functions derivatives at a single
point.
The concept of a Taylor series was discovered by the 1 Denition
Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in
The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function
1715. If the Taylor series is centered at zero, then that
(x) that is innitely dierentiable at a real or complex
series is also called a Maclaurin series, named after the
number a is the power series
Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series in the 18th
century.
f (a)
f (a)
f (a)
f (a)+
(xa)+
(xa)2 +
(xa)3 + .
It is common practice to approximate a function by us1!
2!
3!
ing a nite number of terms of its Taylor series. Taylors
theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error in this which can be written in the more compact sigma notation
approximation. Any nite number of initial terms of the as
Taylor series of a function is called a Taylor polynomial.
The Taylor series of a function is the limit of that func-
f (n) (a)
tions Taylor polynomials, provided that the limit exists.
(x a)n
A function may not be equal to its Taylor series, even if n=0 n!
its Taylor series converges at every point. A function that
is equal to its Taylor series in an open interval (or a disc where n! denotes the factorial of n and (n) (a) denotes the
in the complex plane) is known as an analytic function in nth derivative of evaluated at the point a. The derivative
1

4 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

of order zero of is dened to be itself and (x a)0 and of the paradox, but the mathematical content was appar0! are both dened to be 1. When a = 0, the series is also ently unresolved until taken up by Democritus and then
called a Maclaurin series.
Archimedes. It was through Archimedess method of exhaustion that an innite number of progressive subdivisions could be performed to achieve a nite result.[1] Liu
Hui independently employed a similar method a few cen2 Examples
turies later.[2]
The Maclaurin series for any polynomial is the polyno- In the 14th century, the earliest examples of the use of
Taylor series and closely related methods were given by
mial itself.
Madhava of Sangamagrama.[3][4] Though no record of his
The Maclaurin series for (1 x)1 is the geometric series
work survives, writings of later Indian mathematicians
suggest that he found a number of special cases of the
Taylor series, including those for the trigonometric func1 + x + x2 + x3 +
tions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. The Kerala
school of astronomy and mathematics further expanded
1
so the Taylor series for x at a = 1 is
his works with various series expansions and rational approximations until the 16th century.
In the 17th century, James Gregory also worked in this
area and published several Maclaurin series. It was not
By integrating the above Maclaurin series, we nd the until 1715 however that a general method for constructMaclaurin series for log(1 x), where log denotes the ing these series for all functions for which they exist was
natural logarithm:
nally provided by Brook Taylor,[5] after whom the series
are now named.
1 (x 1) + (x 1)2 (x 1)3 + .

1
1
1
x x2 x3 x4
2
3
4
and the corresponding Taylor series for log(x) at a = 1 is
1
1
1
(x 1) (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 (x 1)4 + ,
2
3
4

The Maclaurin series was named after Colin Maclaurin,

a professor in Edinburgh, who published the special case
of the Taylor result in the 18th century.

4 Analytic functions

and more generally, the corresponding Taylor series for

log(x) at some a = x0 is:
1 (x x0 )2
1
+ .
log(x0 ) + (x x0 ) 2
x0
x0
2
The Taylor series for the exponential function ex at a = 0
is

1+

-1/x

1
0

-1
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
x2 x3 x4 x5
xn
+ + + + + = 1+x+ + + +
+ =
.
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2
6 24 120
n!
n=0

The above expansion holds because the derivative of ex

with respect to x is also ex and e0 equals 1. This leaves the
terms (x 0)n in the numerator and n! in the denominator
for each term in the innite sum.

History

The Greek philosopher Zeno considered the problem of

summing an innite series to achieve a nite result, but
rejected it as an impossibility: the result was Zenos paradox. Later, Aristotle proposed a philosophical resolution

-2

-2

-1

The function e1/x is not analytic at x = 0: the Taylor series is

identically 0, although the function is not.

If f(x) is given by a convergent power series in an open

disc (or interval in the real line) centered at b in the complex plane, it is said to be analytic in this disc. Thus for x
in this disc, f is given by a convergent power series

5 Approximation and convergence

f (x) =

an (x b)n .
sin(x)
f(x)

n=0

Dierentiating by x the above formula n times, then setting x=b gives:

f (n) (b)
= an
n!
and so the power series expansion agrees with the Taylor
series. Thus a function is analytic in an open disc centered
at b if and only if its Taylor series converges to the value
of the function at each point of the disc.

-2

If f(x) is equal to its Taylor series for all x in the complex

plane, it is called entire. The polynomials, exponential
function ex , and the trigonometric functions sine and co- The sine function (blue) is closely approximated by its Taylor
sine, are examples of entire functions. Examples of polynomial of degree 7 (pink) for a full period centered at the
functions that are not entire include the square root, the origin.
logarithm, the trigonometric function tangent, and its inverse, arctan. For these functions the Taylor series do
2
not converge if x is far from b. That is, the Taylor series
T4
1.5
diverges at x if the distance between x and b is larger than
T7
1
the radius of convergence. The Taylor series can be used
T 11
T 16
to calculate the value of an entire function at every point,
0.5
log(1+x)
if the value of the function, and of all of its derivatives,
0
are known at a single point.
Uses of the Taylor series for analytic functions include:

-0.5
-1

1. The partial sums (the Taylor polynomials) of the

series can be used as approximations of the entire
function. These approximations are good if suciently many terms are included.

-1.5

2. Dierentiation and integration of power series can

be performed term by term and is hence particularly
easy.

-3.5

-2
-2.5
-3
-4
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

3. An analytic function is uniquely extended to a

holomorphic function on an open disk in the The Taylor polynomials for log(1 + x) only provide accurate apcomplex plane. This makes the machinery of proximations in the range 1 < x 1. Note that, for x > 1, the
Taylor polynomials of higher degree are worse approximations.
complex analysis available.
4. The (truncated) series can be used to compute func- Pictured on the right is an accurate approximation of
tion values numerically, (often by recasting the poly- sin(x) around the point x = 0. The pink curve is a polynomial into the Chebyshev form and evaluating it nomial of degree seven:
with the Clenshaw algorithm).
5. Algebraic operations can be done readily on the
x5
x7
x3
power series representation; for instance, Eulers sin (x) x
+
.
3!
5!
7!
formula follows from Taylor series expansions for
trigonometric and exponential functions. This re- The error in this approximation is no more than |x|9 /9!. In
sult is of fundamental importance in such elds as particular, for 1 < x < 1, the error is less than 0.000003.
harmonic analysis.
In contrast, also shown is a picture of the natural loga6. Approximations using the rst few terms of a Taylor rithm function log(1 + x) and some of its Taylor polyseries can make otherwise unsolvable problems pos- nomials around a = 0. These approximations converge
sible for a restricted domain; this approach is often to the function only in the region 1 < x 1; outside
used in physics.
of this region the higher-degree Taylor polynomials are

5 APPROXIMATION AND CONVERGENCE

convergence of a Taylor series can be zero. There are
even innitely dierentiable functions dened on the real
line whose Taylor series have a radius of convergence 0
everywhere.[6]
Some functions cannot be written as Taylor series because they have a singularity; in these cases, one can often
still achieve a series expansion if one allows also negative
powers of the variable x; see Laurent series. For example,
2
f(x) = ex can be written as a Laurent series.

5.1 Generalization
The Taylor approximations for log(1+x) (black). For x > 1, the
approximations diverge.

worse approximations for the function. This is similar to

Runges phenomenon.
The error incurred in approximating a function by its
nth-degree Taylor polynomial is called the remainder or
residual and is denoted by the function Rn(x). Taylors
theorem can be used to obtain a bound on the size of the
remainder.
In general, Taylor series need not be convergent at all.
And in fact the set of functions with a convergent Taylor series is a meager set in the Frchet space of smooth
functions. And even if the Taylor series of a function f
does converge, its limit need not in general be equal to
the value of the function f(x). For example, the function
{
2
e1/x
f (x) =
0

ifx = 0
ifx = 0

is innitely dierentiable at x = 0, and has all derivatives

zero there. Consequently, the Taylor series of f(x) about
x = 0 is identically zero. However, f(x) is not the zero
function, so does not equal its Taylor series around the
origin.
In real analysis, this example shows that there are
innitely dierentiable functions f(x) whose Taylor series are not equal to f(x) even if they converge. By
contrast, the holomorphic functions studied in complex
analysis always possess a convergent Taylor series, and
even the Taylor series of meromorphic functions, which
might have singularities, never converge to a value dier2
ent from the function itself. The complex function ez ,
however, does not approach 0 when z approaches 0 along
the imaginary axis, so it is not continuous in the complex
plane and its Taylor series is undened at 0.

There is, however, a generalization[7][8] of the Taylor series that does converge to the value of the function itself
for any bounded continuous function on (0,), using the
calculus of nite dierences. Specically, one has the
following theorem, due to Einar Hille, that for any t > 0,

lim+

h0

t nh f (a)
= f (a + t).
n! hn
n=0

Here n
h is the n-th nite dierence operator with step size h.
The series is precisely the Taylor series, except that divided dierences appear in place of dierentiation: the
series is formally similar to the Newton series. When the
function f is analytic at a, the terms in the series converge to the terms of the Taylor series, and in this sense
generalizes the usual Taylor series.
In general, for any innite sequence ai, the following
power series identity holds:

un n
uj
ai = eu
ai+j .
n!
j!
n=0
j=0

So in particular,

f (a + t) = lim+ et/h
h0

j=0

f (a + jh)

(t/h)j
.
j!

The series on the right is the expectation value of f(a +

X), where X is a Poisson distributed random variable that
takes the value jh with probability et/h (t/h)j /j!. Hence,

More generally, every sequence of real or complex numf (a + x)dPt/h,h (x).

bers can appear as coecients in the Taylor series of f (a + t) = lim+
h0
an innitely dierentiable function dened on the real

line, a consequence of Borels lemma (see also Nonanalytic smooth function). As a result, the radius of The law of large numbers implies that the identity holds.

List of Maclaurin series of some

common functions
See also List of mathematical series

30
20
10
z

0
-10
-20
-30
-40

15

3
2

10

30
20

10

-6

1
-4

0
-2
x

-5

-10

-1
2

-2
6 -3

-10

-20

-15

-30
-40
3

The two above curves put together

2
-6

1
-4

0
-2

-1
2

-2

log(1 + x) =

6 -3

(1)n+1

n=1

1
=
xn
1 x n=0
30
20
10

20

10
z

-10

-20

-10
-20

-30

-30

-40

-40
3
2
-6

1
-4

0
-2

-1
2

for |x| < 1

Geometric series and its derivatives (see article for variants):

The real part of the cosine function in the complex plane

30

xn
n

-2
6 -3

An 8th-degree approximation of the cosine function in the

complex plane

for |x| < 1

1
=
nxn1
(1 x)2
n=1

x
=
nxn
(1 x)2
n=0

for |x| < 1

for |x| < 1

2
=
(n 1)nxn2
(1 x)3
n=2

2x2
=
(n 1)nxn
(1 x)3
n=0

for |x| < 1

for |x| < 1

Binomial series (includes the square root for = 1/2 and

the innite geometric series for = 1):
( )

n
x
n
n=0

Several important Maclaurin series expansions follow.[9]

All these expansions are valid for complex arguments x.

(1+x) =

Exponential function:

with generalized binomial coecients

ex =

x2
x3
xn
=1+x+
+
+
n!
2!
3!
n=0

Natural logarithm:

log(1 x) =

xn
n
n=1

all for x

all for |x| < 1 complex all and

( )
n
( 1) ( n + 1)

k+1
=
.
=
k
n!
n
k=1

For instance, with the rst several terms written out explicitly for the common square root cases, is:
for |x| < 1

1 3
5
7
x 128
x4 + 256
x5
(1+x)0.5 = 1+ 21 x 81 x2 + 16

7 CALCULATION OF TAYLOR SERIES

5 3
35 4
63 5
(1+x)0.5 = 1 12 x+ 38 x2 16
x + 128
x 256
x +

Trigonometric functions:

x3 x5
(1)n 2n+1
sin x =
x
= x +
(2n + 1)!
3! 5!
n=0

construct the Taylor series of a function, by virtue of Taylor series being power series. In some cases, one can also
derive the Taylor series by repeatedly applying integration
by parts. Particularly convenient is the use of computer
algebra systems to calculate Taylor series.
all for x

(1)n 2n
x2 x4
cos x =
x = 1 +
(2n)!
2! 4!
n=0

7.1 First example

all for x In order to compute the 7th degree Maclaurin polynomial

for the function

3
5
n
n

x 2x

B2n (4) (1 4 ) 2n1

tan x =
x
= x+ +
+ for |x| <
(2n)!
3
15
2
n=1
f (x) = log cos x, x (/2, /2)

(1)n E2n 2n

sec x =
x
for |x| <
one may rst rewrite the function as
(2n)!
2
n=0
arcsin x =

arccos x =

arctan x =

(2n)!
x2n+1
n (n!)2 (2n + 1)
4
n=0

for |x| 1

The Taylor series for the natural logarithm is (using the

(2n)!
arcsin x =
x2n+1big O
fornotation)
|x| 1
n
2
2
2 n=0 4 (n!) (2n + 1)

(1)n 2n+1
x
2n + 1
n=0

for |x| 1, x = i

Hyperbolic functions:

x2n+1
x3 x5
= x+ + +
(2n + 1)!
3! 5!
n=0

cosh x =

x2
x4
x2n
=1+
+
+
(2n)!
2!
4!
n=0

tanh x =

B2n 4n (4n 1) 2n1

x
(2n)!
n=1

log(1 + x) = x

x2
x3
+
+ O(x4 )
2
3

and for the cosine function

sinh x =

2
4
6
all for x cos x 1 = x + x x + O(x8 )
2
24 720

The latter series expansion has a zero constant term,

which enables us to substitute the second series into the
rst one and to easily omit terms of higher order than the
7th degree by using the big O notation:
1
2
17 7

= x x3 + x5
x + for |x| <
3
15
315
2

arsinh(x) =

(1)n (2n)!
x2n+1
n (n!)2 (2n + 1)
4
n=0

artanh(x) =

x2n+1
2n + 1
n=0

all for x

for |x| 1

for |x| 1, x = 1

The numbers Bk appearing in the summation expansions

of tan(x) and tanh(x) are the Bernoulli numbers. The Ek
in the expansion of sec(x) are Euler numbers.

f (x) = log(1 + (cos x 1))

Calculation of Taylor series

f (x) = log(1 + (cos x 1))

(
) 1(
)2 1 (
)3
(
= cos x 1
cos x 1 +
cos x 1 + O (cos x 1
2
3
(
)
(
)2
x4
x6
1
x2
x4
x2
8
6
+

+ O(x )

+
+ O(x )
=
2
24 720
2
2
24
x2
x4
x6
x4
x6
x6
= +

+ O(x8 )
2
24 720
8
48 24
x2
x4
x6
=

+ O(x8 ).
2
12 45
Since the cosine is an even function, the coecients for
all the odd powers x, x3 , x5 , x7 , ... have to be zero.

Several methods exist for the calculation of Taylor series

7.2 Second example
of a large number of functions. One can attempt to use
the denition of the Taylor series, though this often reSuppose we want the Taylor series at 0 of the function
quires generalizing the form of the coecients according
to a readily apparent pattern. Alternatively, one can use
manipulations such as substitution, multiplication or diviex
sion, addition or subtraction of standard Taylor series to g(x) = cos x .

7
We have for the exponential function

ex =

x2
x3
x4
xn
=1+x+
+
+
+
n!
2!
3!
4!
n=0

and, as in the rst example,

xn xn+1
xn xn+
+
=1+
+
n! n=0 n!
n! n=0 n!
n=0
n=1
(
)

xn xn
1
1
=1+
+
=1+
+
x
n! n=1 (n 1)!
n! (n 1)!
n=1
n=1

(1 + x)ex = ex + xex =

=1+
cos x = 1

x2
x4
+

2!
4!

Assume the power series is

ex
= c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +
cos x

n+1 n
x
n!
n=1

n+1 n
x .
n!
n=0

8 Taylor series as denitions

Classically, algebraic functions are dened by an algeThen multiplication with the denominator and substitubraic equation, and transcendental functions (including
tion of the series of the cosine yields
those discussed above) are dened by some property that
holds for them, such as a dierential equation. For example, the exponential function is the function which is equal
x
2
3
e = (c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + ) cos x
to its own derivative
everywhere, and assumes the value
(
)
(
)
x2 1 at
x4the origin. However, one may equally well dene an
2
3
4
= c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + c4 x +
1
+

2! analytic
4! function by its Taylor series.
c0
c0
c1
c1
c2 4 c2 6
c3
c3
3
= c0 x2 + x4 + c1 x x3 + x5 + c2 x2 Taylor
x series
+ x
c3 xto

+ x7 and
+ "operators"

are+
used
denex5functions
2
4!
2
4!
2
4!
2
4!
in diverse areas of mathematics. In particular, this is true
in areas where the classical denitions of functions break
Collecting the terms up to fourth order yields
down. For example, using Taylor series, one may dene
analytical
functions of matrices and operators, such as the
)
(
c1 ) 3 (
c2
cmatrix
c0 ) 2 (
0
4 exponential or matrix logarithm.
x + c3
x + c4
+
x +
= c0 +c1 x+ c2
2
2
2
4!
In other areas, such as formal analysis, it is more conveComparing coecients with the above series of the ex- nient to work directly with the power series themselves.
ponential function yields the desired Taylor series
Thus one may dene a solution of a dierential equation
as a power series which, one hopes to prove, is the Taylor
series of the desired solution.
ex
2x3
x4
2
=1+x+x +
+
+ .
cos x
3
2

7.3

Third example

9 Taylor series in several variables

The Taylor series may also be generalized to functions of

Here we employ a method called Indirect Expansion to more than one variable with
expand the given function. This method uses the known
Taylor expansion of the exponential function. In order to
expand
T (x1 , . . . , xd )
( n1 ++nd )

(x1 a1 )n1 (xd ad )nd

=

(a
nd
n1
x
n
!

n
!
x

x
1
d
(1 + x)e
1
d
n1 =0 n2 =0
nd =0
as a Taylor series in x, we use the known Taylor series of
function ex :

= f (a1 , . . . , ad ) +

j=1

Thus,

x2
x3
x4
xn
=1+x+
+
+
+ .
n!
2!
3!
4!
n=0

xj

(xj aj )

1 2 f (a1 , . . . , ad )
+
(xj aj )(xk ak )
2! j=1
xj xk
d

ex =

f (a1 , . . . , ad )

k=1

d
d
d
1 3 f (a1 , . . . , ad )
+
(xj aj )(xk ak )(xl al ) + . . .
3! j=1
xj xk xl
k=1 l=1

10 COMPARISON WITH FOURIER SERIES

For example, for a function that depends on two variables,


x and y, the Taylor series to second order about the point

(a, b) is
fx (a, b) = ex log(1 + y)

= 0,

(x,y)=(0,0)


ex 
f (a, b) + (x a) fx (a, b) + (y b) fy (a, b)
fy (a, b) =
= 1,
1 + y (x,y)=(0,0)
]
1 [
2
2
+
(x a) fxx (a, b) + 2(x a)(y b) fxy (a, b) + (y b) fyy (a, b) 
2!

fxx (a, b) = ex log(1 + y)
= 0,
where the subscripts denote the respective partial deriva(x,y)=(0,0)

tives.
ex 
= 1 ,
A second-order Taylor series expansion of a scalar-valued fyy (a, b) = (1 + y)2 
(x,y)=(0,0)
function of more than one variable can be written com
pactly as
ex 
fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b) =
= 1.
1 + y (x,y)=(0,0)
T (x) = f (a)+(xa)T Df (a)+

The Taylor series is

1
(xa)T {D2 f (a)} (xa)+ ,
2!

where Df (a)is the gradient of f evaluated at x = a and

D2 f (a) is the Hessian matrix. Applying the multi-index
notation the Taylor series for several variables becomes

T (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x a) fx (a, b) + (y b) fy (a, b)

1 [
+
(x a)2 fxx (a, b) + 2(x a)(y b) fxy (a, b) +
2!
which in this case becomes

(x a)
T (x) =
( f )(a) ,
!
||0

which is to be understood as a still more abbreviated

multi-index version of the rst equation of this paragraph,
again in full analogy to the single variable case.

T (x, y) = 0 + 0(x 0) + 1(y 0) +

= y + xy

1[
0(x 0)2 + 2(x 0)(y 0) +
2

y2
+ .
2

Since log(1 + y) is analytic in |y| < 1, we have

9.1

Example
ex log(1 + y) = y + xy

y2
+
2

for |y| < 1.

10
8

10 Comparison with Fourier series

6
z

4
2
0

Main article: Fourier series

-2

-4
-6

1.5
-1

1
-0.5

0.5

0.5
x

0
1.5

2-0.5

Second-order Taylor series approximation (in orange) of a function f (x, y) = ex log (1 + y) around origin.

Compute a second-order Taylor series expansion around

point (a, b) = (0, 0) of a function

f (x, y) = ex log(1 + y).

Firstly, we compute all partial derivatives we need

The trigonometric Fourier series enables one to express

a periodic function (or a function dened on a closed interval [a,b]) as an innite sum of trigonometric functions
(sines and cosines). In this sense, the Fourier series is
analogous to Taylor series, since the latter allows to express a function as an innite sum of powers. Nevertheless both types of series dier in several relevant issues:
Obviously the nite truncations of the Taylor series
of f(x) about the point x = a are all exactly equal to
f at a. In contrast, the Fourier series is computed by
integrating over an entire interval, so there is generally no such point where all the nite truncations of
the series are exact.

9
Indeed, the computation of Taylor series requires
the knowledge of the function on an arbitrary small
neighbourhood of a point, whereas the computation
of the Fourier series requires knowing the function
on its whole domain interval. In a certain sense one
could say that the Taylor series is local and the
Fourier series is global.
The Taylor series is dened for a function which has
innitely many derivatives at a single point, whereas
the Fourier series is dened for any integrable function. In particular, the function could be nowhere
dierentiable. (For example, f(x) could be a
Weierstrass function.)
The convergence of both series has very dierent
properties. Even if the Taylor series has positive
convergence radius, the resulting series may not coincide with the function; but if the function is analytic then the series converges pointwise to the function, and uniformly on every compact subset of the
convergence interval. Concerning the Fourier series, if the function is square-integrable then the series converges in quadratic mean, but additional requirements are needed to ensure the pointwise or
uniform convergence (for instance, if the function
is periodic and of class C1 then the convergence is
uniform).
Finally, in practice one wants to approximate the
function with a nite number of terms, lets say with
a Taylor polynomial or a partial sum of the trigonometric series, respectively. In the case of the Taylor
series the error is very small in a neighbourhood of
the point where it is computed, while it may be very
large at a distant point. In the case of the Fourier series the error is distributed along the domain of the
function.

11

See also

Laurent series
Madhava series

[3] Neither Newton nor Leibniz The Pre-History of Calculus and Celestial Mechanics in Medieval Kerala. MAT
314. Canisius College. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
[4] S. G. Dani (2012).
Ancient Indian Mathematics
A Conspectus.
Resonance 17 (3): 236246.
doi:10.1007/s12045-012-0022-y.
[5] Taylor, Brook, Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa [Direct and Reverse Methods of Incrementation]
(London, 1715), pages 2123 (Proposition VII, Theorem
3, Corollary 2). Translated into English in D. J. Struik,
A Source Book in Mathematics 12001800 (Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969), pages
329332.
[6] Rudin, Walter (1980), Real and Complex Analysis, New
Dehli: McGraw-Hill, p. 418, Exercise 13, ISBN 0-07099557-5
[7] Feller, William (1971), An introduction to probability theory and its applications, Volume 2 (3rd ed.), Wiley, pp.
230232.
[8] Hille, Einar; Phillips, Ralph S. (1957), Functional analysis and semi-groups, AMS Colloquium Publications 31,
American Mathematical Society, p. 300327.
[9] Most of these can be found in (Abramowitz & Stegun
1970).

13 References
Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A. (1970),
Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, New York:
Dover Publications, Ninth printing
Thomas, George B. Jr.; Finney, Ross L. (1996),
Calculus and Analytic Geometry (9th ed.), Addison
Wesley, ISBN 0-201-53174-7
Greenberg, Michael (1998), Advanced Engineering
Mathematics (2nd ed.), Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13321431-1

14 External links

Newtons divided dierence interpolation

Puiseux series

12

Notes

[1] Kline, M. (1990). Mathematical Thought from Ancient to

Modern Times. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
3537. ISBN 0-19-506135-7.
[2] Boyer, C.; Merzbach, U. (1991). A History of Mathematics (Second revised ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 202
203. ISBN 0-471-09763-2.

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Taylor series,

Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 9781-55608-010-4
Weisstein, Eric W., Taylor Series, MathWorld.
Taylor polynomial - practical introduction
Madhava of Sangamagramma
Taylor Series Representation Module by John H.
Mathews
"Discussion of the Parker-Sochacki Method"

10
Another Taylor visualisation where you can
choose the point of the approximation and the number of derivatives
Taylor series revisited for numerical methods at
Numerical Methods for the STEM Undergraduate
Cinderella 2: Taylor expansion
Taylor series
Inverse trigonometric functions Taylor series

14

EXTERNAL LINKS

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