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India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Republic of India. For other uses, see India (disambig
uation).
Republic of India
Bharat Ga?arajya
Horizontal tricolor flag bearing, from top to bottom, deep saffron, white, and g
reen horizontal bands. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel with
24 spokes.
Three lions facing left, right, and toward viewer, atop a frieze
containing a galloping horse, a 24-spoke wheel, and an elephant. Underneath is
a motto: "??????? ????".
Flag
State Emblem
Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: Jana Gana Mana
"Thou art the rulers of the minds of all people"[2][3]
MENU0:00
National song
Vande Mataram
"I Bow to Thee, Mother"[a][1][3]
Image of a globe centred on India, with India highlighted.
Area controlled by India shown in dark green;
claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light green.
Capital New Delhi
2836.8'N 7712.5'E
Largest city
Mumbai
1858'30?N 7249'33?E
Official languages
Hindi
English[4][5][nb 1]
Recognised regional languages
8th Schedule[show]
National language
None[9][10]
Religion
79.8% Hinduism
14.2% Islam
2.3% Christianity
1.7% Sikhism
0.7% Buddhism
0.4% Jainism
0.9% others[11][12]
Demonym Indian
Government
Federal parliamentary
republic[1]
President
Pranab Mukherjee
Vice-President Mohammad Hamid Ansari
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
Chief Justice T. S. Thakur[13]
Speaker of the Lower House
Sumitra Mahajan
Legislature
Parliament of India
Upper house
Rajya Sabha
Lower house
Lok Sabha
Independence from the United Kingdom
Dominion
15 August 1947
Republic
26 January 1950
Area
Total 3,287,263[14] km2[b] (7th)
1,269,346 sq mi
Water (%)
9.6
Population
2016 estimate 1,293,057,000[15] (2nd)
2011 census
1,210,854,977[16][17] (2nd)
Density 388.4/km2 (31st)
1,005.8/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
2016 estimate
Total $8.727 trillion[18] (3rd)
Per capita
$6,664[18] (122nd)
GDP (nominal) 2016 estimate
Total $2.384 trillion[18] (7th)
Per capita
$1,820[18] (141st)
Gini (2009)
33.9[19]
medium 79th
HDI (2014)
Increase 0.609[20]
medium 130th
Currency
Indian rupee (?) (INR)
Time zone
IST (UTC+05:30)
DST is not observed
Date format
dd-mm-yyyy
Drives on the left
Calling code
+91
ISO 3166 code IN
Internet TLD
.in
other TLDs[show]
India, officially the Republic of India (IAST: Bharat Ga?arajya),[21][22][c] is
a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-m
ost populous country (with over 1.2 billion people), and the most populous democ
racy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on
the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders
with Pakistan to the west;[d] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and My
anmar (Burma) and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the v
icinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar
Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade rou
tes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial
and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[23] Four religions Hinduism, Bu
ddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Chr
istianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also shaped the region
's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of
the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered dir
ectly by the United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, India became an
independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by
both armed rebellion and non-violent resistance, the latter of which was led by
Mahatma Gandhi.
Currently, the Indian economy is the world's seventh-largest by nominal GDP and
third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[18] Following market-based econo
mic reforms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing major economies; it
is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the
challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition and inadequate public healthcar
e. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest standi
ng army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. Indi
a is a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29
states and 7 union territories. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, and a mul
ti-ethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of pr
otected habitats.
Contents [hide]
1
Etymology
2
History
2.1
Ancient India
2.2
Medieval India
2.3
Early modern India
2.4
Modern India
3
Geography
4
Biodiversity
5
Politics
5.1
Government
5.2
Subdivisions
6
Foreign relations and military
7
Economy
7.1
Sectors
7.2
Poverty
8
Demographics
9
Culture
9.1
Art and architecture
9.2
Literature
9.3
Performing arts
9.4
Motion pictures, television
9.5
Society
9.6
Clothing
9.7
Sports
10
See also
11
Notes
12
References
13
Bibliography
14
External links
Etymology
Main article: Names of India
The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word
Sindhi.[24] The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the
historical local appellation for the Indus River.[25] The ancient Greeks referre
d to the Indians as Indoi (??d??), which translates as "The people of the Indus"
.[26]
The geographical term Bharat (Bharat, pronounced ['b?a?r?t?] ( listen)), which i
s recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country,[2
7] is used by many Indian languages in its variations. It is a modernisation of
the historical name Bharatavarsha, which gained increasing currency from the mid
-19th century onwards as a native name of India.[21] Scholars believe it to be n
amed after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E.[28] It is
also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata.[2
9] Ga?arajya (literally, people's State) is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for "republi
c" dating back to the ancient times.[30][31][32]
Hindustan ([??nd??'st?a?n] ( listen)) is an ancient Persian name for India datin
g to 3 century B.C.E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely use
d since then, often being thought of as the "Land of the Hindus." Its meaning va
ried, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or Indi
a in its entirety.[21][33][34]
History
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Ancient India
The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 year
s ago.[35] Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in m
any parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters i
n Madhya Pradesh.[36] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements app
eared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.[37] T

hese gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[38] the first urban
culture in South Asia;[39] it flourished during 2500 1900 BCE in Pakistan and wes
tern India.[40] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira,
and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation eng
aged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[39]
Map of the Indian subcontinent during the Vedic period
During the period 2000 500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontin
ent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[41] The Vedas, the oldes
t scriptures of Hinduism,[42] were composed during this period,[43] and historia
ns have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upp
er Gangetic Plain.[41] Most historians also consider this period to have encompa
ssed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent.[44][42] The ca
ste system arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests, warriors,
free peasants and traders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded a
s impure; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state-lev
el polities.[45][46] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this pe
riod suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[41] I
n southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large numb
er of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[47] as well as by nearby tra
ces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[47]
Damaged brown painting of a reclining man and woman.
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chief
doms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16
major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[48][49] T
he emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of whic
h became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of
its exemplar, Mahavira.[50] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha a
ttracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicli
ng the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in I
ndia.[51][52][53] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up r
enunciation as an ideal,[54] and both established long-lasting monastic traditio
ns. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or r
educed other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[55] The empire was once tho
ught to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but it
s core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.
[56][57] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and deter
mined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and f
ar-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[58][59]
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 20
0 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the
Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West a
nd South-East Asia.[60][61] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal contro
l within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[62][55] By the
4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain
a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later I
ndian kingdoms.[63][64] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion r
ather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[65] The renewal was
reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons amon
g an urban elite.[64] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian
science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[64]
Medieval India
The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE
by Raja Raja Chola I.

The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdom
s and cultural diversity.[66] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo
-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defea
ted by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[67] When his successor attempted to exp
and eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[67] When the Chalukya
s attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farthe
r south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farth
er south.[67] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consisten
tly control lands much beyond his core region.[66] During this time, pastoral pe
oples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural econo
my were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling cl
asses.[68] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[68]
In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tam
il language.[69] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgenc
e of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[6
9] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens
in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[70]
Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent ano
ther urbanisation.[70] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in So
uth-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to la
nds that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, P
hilippines, Malaysia, and Java.[71] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes ar
mies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative a
s well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and H
indu texts into their languages.[71]
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse ca
valry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overr
an South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of
the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[72] The sultanate was to control much of N
orth India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disrupti
ve for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject
population to its own laws and customs.[73][74] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol
raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visi
ted on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fl
eeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that r
egion into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture i
n the north.[75][76] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingd
oms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[77] Emb
racing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of
the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[78] and was
to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[77]
Early modern India
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590 1595
In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers
,[79] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of C
entral Asian warriors.[80] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the loc
al societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new
administrative practices[81][82] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[83] le
ading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[84] Eschewing tribal bo
nds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-f
lung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an empe
ror who had near-divine status.[83] The Mughal state's economic policies, derivi
ng most revenues from agriculture[85] and mandating that taxes be paid in the we
ll-regulated silver currency,[86] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger m
arkets.[84] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th
century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[84] resulting in greater pat

ronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[87] Newly cohere
nt social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajput
s, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, wh
ich, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military
experience.[88] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian c
ommercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[8
8] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and co
ntrol their own affairs.[89]
By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political domin
ance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, includi
ng the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[90][91] The
East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced
military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle
and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these
factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal re
gion by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[92][90][93][94] Its furt
her access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and siz
e of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[95] Indi
a was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instea
d supplying the British Empire with raw materials, and many historians consider
this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[90] By this time, with its econ
omic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively m
ade an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously ente
r non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[96]
Modern India
The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of In
dia. Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely states
under British suzerainty are in yellow.
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1
885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East I
ndia Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These includ
ed the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the pop
ulation, and the education of citizens (English Education Act 1835). Technologic
al changes among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph were introduced not long
after their introduction in Europe.[97][98][99][100] However, disaffection with
the Company also grew during this time, and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857
. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style s
ocial reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners a
nd princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and
shook the foundations of Company rule.[101][102] Although the rebellion was supp
ressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the d
irect administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary s
tate and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new ruler
s also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future
unrest.[103][104] In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all ov
er India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in
1885.[105][106][107][108]
Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a joke with Mahatma Gandhi, Mumbai, July 6, 1946
Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became India's first prime minister in 1947. Mahatma Gan
dhi (right) led the independence movement.
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second ha
lf of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks many small farmers became d
ependent on the whims of far-away markets.[109] There was an increase in the num
ber of large-scale famines,[110] and, despite the risks of infrastructure develo
pment borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for
Indians.[111] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially

in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal cons
umption.[112] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[113] notably
reduced the cost of moving goods,[113] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.
[112] After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,[114]
a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legisl
ations, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a
nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wou
ld become the leader and enduring symbol.[115] During the 1930s, slow legislativ
e reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories
in the resulting elections.[116] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian p
articipation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, an
d an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independenc
e in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pak
istan.[117]
Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, compl
eted in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.[118] In the
60 years since, India has had a mixed record of successes and failures.[119] It
has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an active Supreme Court, and a la
rgely independent press.[119] Economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 19
90s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the w
orld's fastest-growing economies,[120] and increased its geopolitical clout. Ind
ian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global cul
ture.[119] Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural
and urban;[119] by religious and caste-related violence;[121] by Maoist-inspire
d Naxalite insurgencies;[122] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Nort
heast India.[123] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China[124] and wit
h Pakistan.[124] The India Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[125] I
ndia's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations;
however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its d
isadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[126]
Geography
Main article: Geography of India
Map of India. Most of India is yellow (elevation 100 1000 m). Some areas in the so
uth and mid-east are brown (above 1000 m). Major river valleys are green (below
100 m).
A topographic map of India
India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tecto
nic plate, and part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[127] India's defining geologic
al processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, then part of the
southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloo
r spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.[127] Simultaneou
sly, the vast Tethyn oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the
Eurasian plate.[127] These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's
mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust ev
entually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.[127] Immediately s
outh of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that rapidl
y filled with river-borne sediment[128] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Pl
ain.[129] Cut off from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar Des
ert.[130]
The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologica
lly most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhy
a ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast
in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the
east.[131] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau,
is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and East
ern Ghats;[132] the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some
over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north
of the equator between 6 44' and 35 30' north latitude[e] and 68 7' and 97 25' east
longitude.[133]
A shining white snow-clad range, framed against a turquoise sky. In the middle g
round, a ridge descends from the right to form a saddle in the centre of the pho
tograph, partly in shadow. In the near foreground, a loop of a road is seen.
The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple (Indian s
tate of Uttarakhand), which is one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines.
India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distan
ce, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres
(1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[134] Accordin
g to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of th
e following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudf
lats or marshy shores.[134]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the
Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[135] Imp
ortant tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's e
xtremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes.[136] Majo
r peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding,
include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also dra
in into the Bay of Bengal;[137] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into
the Arabian Sea.[138] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of weste
rn India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is share
d with Bangladesh.[139] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atoll
s off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcan
ic chain in the Andaman Sea.[140]
The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert,
both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter mo
nsoons.[141] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowi
ng in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at
similar latitudes.[142][143] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting
the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and Octob
er, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[141] Four major climatic groupings
predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montan
e.[144]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of India
The brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) is identified with Garuda, the mythical moun
t of Vishnu. It hunts for fish and other prey near the coasts and around inland
wetlands.
India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspot
s.[145] One of 17 megadiverse countries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% o
f all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian, 12.2% of all piscine, a
nd 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[146][147] About 21.2% of the country's l
andmass is covered by forests (tree canopy density >10%), of which 12.2% compris
es moderately or very dense forests (tree canopy density >40%).[148] Endemism is
high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the shola forests.[149] Ha
bitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats,
and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these ex
tremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India; the dry deciduous te
ak forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of
the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[150] The medicinal neem, widely
used in rural Indian herbal remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal
fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought
enlightenment.
Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the In
dian plate separated more than 105 million years before present.[151] Peninsular
India's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass s
et off a mass exchange of species. Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 mil
lion years ago forced a mass extinction.[152] Mammals then entered India from As
ia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya.[150] Thus, w
hile 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only 12.6% of mammal
s and 4.5% of birds are.[147] Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome
's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened anim
al species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.[153] These include the Asiatic lion, th
e Bengal tiger, the snow leopard and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which, by
ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly became extinct.
The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades
has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response the system of national pa
rks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded.
In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[154] and Project Tiger to saf
eguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and a
mendments added in 1988.[155] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctu
aries and thirteen biosphere reserves,[156] four of which are part of the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ram
sar Convention.[157]
Politics
Main article: Politics of India
A parliamentary joint session being held in the Sansad Bhavan.
India is the world's most populous democracy.[158] A parliamentary republic with
a multi-party system,[159] it has six recognised national parties, including th
e Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 4
0 regional parties.[160] The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian politi
cal culture,[161] and the BJP right-wing.[162][163][164] For most of the period
between 1950 when India first became a republic and the late 1980s, the Congress hel
d a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared
the political stage with the BJP,[165] as well as with powerful regional parties
which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre.[1
66]
In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 196
2, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 196
4, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after hi
s own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congre
ss to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the
state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in
1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in.
Its government lasted just over three years. Voted back into power in 1980, the
Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated
; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the gene
ral elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a N
ational Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the
Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-live
d, lasting just under two years.[167] Elections were held again in 1991; no part
y won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the largest single party, was able
to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[168]
The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the official residence of the president of India.
A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Se
veral short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a governm
ent briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Fr

ont coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to
form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Ata
l Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government t
o complete a five-year term.[169] In the 2004 Indian general elections, again no
party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single
party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UP
A). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The
UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and i
t no longer required external support from India's communist parties.[170] That
year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1
957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.[171] In the 2014
general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a m
ajority and govern without the support of other parties.[172] The Prime Minister
of India is Narendra Modi, who was formerly Chief Minister of Gujarat.
Government
Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of India
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitutio
n of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a republ
ic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority
rights protected by law". Federalism in India defines the power distribution be
tween the federal government and the states. The government abides by constituti
onal checks and balances. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 2
6 January 1950,[173] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist
, secular, democratic republic.[174] India's form of government, traditionally d
escribed as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[175] has grown
increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, a
nd social changes.[176][177]
National symbols[1]
Flag
Tiranga (Tricolour)
Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
Anthem Jana Gana Mana
Song
Vande Mataram
Currency
? (Indian rupee)
Calendar
Saka
Animal Tiger (land)
River dolphin (aquatic)
Bird
Indian peafowl
Flower Lotus
Fruit Mango
Tree
Banyan
River Ganga
Game
Not declared[178]
The federal government comprises three branches:
Executive: The President of India is the head of state[179] and is elected indir
ectly by a national electoral college[180] for a five-year term.[181] The Prime
Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[
182] Appointed by the president,[183] the prime minister is by convention suppor
ted by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lowe
r house of parliament.[182] The executive branch of the Indian government consis
ts of the president, the vice-president, and the Council of Ministers the cabinet
being its executive committee headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a
portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[179] In the Indi
an parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the pr
ime minister and his council are directly responsible to the lower house of the
parliament.[184]
Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. It operates u
nder a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house call
ed the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States") and the lower called the Lok Sabha ("Ho
use of the People").[185] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 membe
rs who serve in staggered six-year terms.[186] Most are elected indirectly by th
e state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's sh
are of the national population.[183] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members
are directly elected by popular vote; they represent individual constituencies v
ia five-year terms.[187] The remaining two members are nominated by the presiden
t from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that they
are not adequately represented.[188]
Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary[189] that compris
es the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 High Courts, and
a large number of trial courts.[189] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction
over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and th
e centre; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[190] It has the po
wer both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contrav
ene the constitution,[191] as well as to invalidate any government action it dee
ms unconstitutional.[192]
Subdivisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of India
See also: Political integration of India
A clickable map of the 29 states and 7 union territories of India
States (1-29) & Union territories (A-G)
1. Andhra Pradesh
10. Jammu and Kashmir 19. Nagaland
28. Uttarakhand
2. Arunachal Pradesh
11. Jharkhand 20. Odisha
29. West Bengal
3. Assam
12. Karnataka 21. Punjab
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
4. Bihar
13. Kerala
22. Rajasthan B. Chandigarh
5. Chhattisgarh 14. Madhya Pradesh
23. Sikkim
C. Dadra and Nagar Havel
i
6. Goa 15. Maharashtra 24. Tamil Nadu D. Daman and Diu
7. Gujarat
16. Manipur
25. Telangana E. Lakshadweep
8. Haryana
17. Meghalaya 26. Tripura
F. National Capital Territory of
Delhi
9. Himachal Pradesh
18. Mizoram
27. Uttar Pradesh
G. Puducherry
India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union territories.[193] All st
ates, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Te
rritory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on t
he Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by
the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorgani
sation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[194] Since then, thei
r structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is fur
ther divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further di
vided into tehsils and ultimately into villages.
Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces
Two standing men are pictured shaking hands. The first is dressed in Indian clot
hing; the second is in a Western business suit; both standing behind a Russian f
lag.
Narendra Modi meets Vladimir Putin at the 6th BRICS summit. India and Russia sha
re extensive economic, defence, and technological ties.
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most
nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia
and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[195] In the late 1980s, the
Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countr
ies: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed
intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'tat attempt in Maldives. India has tense re
lations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times:
in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the dispute
d territory of Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's su
pport for the independence of Bangladesh.[196] After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian
War and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic t
ies with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest a
rms supplier.[197]
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defen
ce relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in
the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organi
sation. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve i
n 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the E
ast Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[198] India has close e
conomic ties with South America,[199] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East"
policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and
South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving eco
nomic investment and regional security.[200][201]
INS Vikramaditya, the Indian Navy's biggest warship.
China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in su
pport of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[2
02] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out furth
er underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India
has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non
-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[203] In
dia maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad
capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[204][205] It
is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Rus
sia, a fifth-generation fighter jet.[206] Other indigenous military projects inv
olve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihan
t-class nuclear submarines.[206]
Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and
military co-operation with the United States and the European Union.[207] In 200
8, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States.
Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nu
clear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomi
c Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on
India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixt
h de facto nuclear weapons state.[208] India subsequently signed co-operation ag
reements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[209] France,[210] the Un
ited Kingdom,[211] and Canada.[212]
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; wi
th 1.325 million active troops, they compose the world's third-largest military.
[213] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force; a
uxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilita
ry groups: the Assam Rifles, the Special Frontier Force, and the Indian Coast Gu
ard.[214] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1
.83% of GDP.[215] For the fiscal year spanning 2012 2013, US$40.44 billion was bud
geted.[216] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditur
e in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion.[217] In 2011, the annua
l defence budget increased by 11.6%,[218] although this does not include funds t
hat reach the military through other branches of government.[219] As of 2012, In
dia is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted fo
r 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.[220] Much of the military
expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chine
se influence in the Indian Ocean.[218]
Economy
Main article: Economy of India

See also: Economic History of India and Economic development in India
Indian agriculture dates from the period 7,000 6,000 BCE,[221] employs most of the
national workforce, and is second in farm output worldwide. Above, a farmer wor
ks an ox-drawn plow in Kadmati, West Bengal.
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2015 w
as nominally worth US$2.183 trillion; it is the 7th-largest economy by market ex
change rates, and is, at US$8.027 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing powe
r parity, or PPP.[18] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the p
ast two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011 12,[222] India is one of the world'
s fastest-growing economies.[223] However, the country ranks 140th in the world
in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP.[224] Until 1991, a
ll Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by so
cialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled t
he economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 19
91 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[225] since then it has slowly mo
ved towards a free-market system[226][227] by emphasising both foreign trade and
direct investment inflows.[228] India's recent economic model is largely capita
list.[227] India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995.[229]
The 486.6-million worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as o
f 2011.[214] The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.
3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances were
US$70 billion in year 2014, the largest in the world, contributed to its economy
by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries.[230] Major agricultural pro
ducts include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[
193] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceu
ticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mini
ng, petroleum, machinery, and software.[193] In 2006, the share of external trad
e in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[226] In 2008, India's share o
f world trade was 1.68%;[231] In 2011, India was the world's tenth-largest impor
ter and the nineteenth-largest exporter.[232] Major exports include petroleum pr
oducts, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and le
ather manufactures.[193] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, ferti
liser, and chemicals.[193] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemi
cal and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.[233] India was
the second largest textile exporter after China in the world in calendar year 20
13.[234]
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,[226]
India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the
21st century.[235] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India
's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[236] Thoug
h ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in financial market s
ophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and
39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies, as of 2010.[237] With 7
of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in Ind
ia, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination
after the United States, as of 2009.[238] India's consumer market, the world's e
leventh-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.[236]
Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US$
329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is est
imated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it has remained lower than thos
e of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future. Howeve
r, it is higher than Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others.[239]
According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, India's GDP at purchasing pow
er parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[240] During the next
four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, ma
king it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.[240] T
he report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age
population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and
engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by
a rapidly growing middle class.[240] The World Bank cautions that, for India to
achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector refor
m, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labo
ur regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[241
]
In 2016, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) released Top 10 cheapest cities i
n the world which 4 of it were from India: Bangalore (2nd), Mumbai (3rd), Chenna
i (6th) and New Delhi (8th) based on the cost of 160 products and services.[242]
Sectors
India's telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added 227 milli
on subscribers during the period 2010 11,[243] and after the first quarter of 2013
, India surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the wor
ld after China and the US[244]
A vegetable retailer in Tamil Nadu. More than 95% of retail industry in India is
unorganised.
Its automotive industry, the world's second fastest growing, increased domestic
sales by 26% during 2009 10,[245] and exports by 36% during 2008 09.[246] India's ca
pacity to generate electrical power is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable.
At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, g
enerated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP and contr
ibuted 26% of India's merchandise exports.[247]
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets f
or global pharma industry. The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach
$48.5 billion by 2020. India's R & D spending constitutes 60% of the biopharmac
eutical industry.[248][249] India is among the top 12 biotech destinations of th
e world.[250][251] The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012 13, increasin
g its revenues from 204.4 Billion INR (Indian Rupees) to 235.24 Billion INR (3.9
4 B US$ - exchange rate June 2013: 1 US$ approx. 60 INR).[252] Although hardly 2
% of Indians pay income taxes.[253]
Poverty
Main article: Poverty in India
Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to fac
e socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people
living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day,[254
] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005, and 25% in 20
11.[255] 30.7% of India's children under the age of five are underweight.[256] A
ccording to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of Indian po
pulation is undernourished.[257][258] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower
these rates.[259] Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has con
sistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states
in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[260] Corruption in India is perceive
d to have increased significantly,[261] with one report estimating the illegal c
apital flows since independence to be US$462 billion.[262]
India has the highest number of people living in conditions of slavery, 18 milli
on, most of whom are in bonded labour.[263] India has the largest number of chil
d labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an estimated 12.6 million chil
dren engaged in hazardous occupations.[264][265][266]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of India
See also: Languages of India and Religion in India
Map of India. High population density areas (above 1000 persons per square kilom
etre) centre on Kolkata along with other parts of the Ganges River Basin, Mumbai
, Bangalore, the south-west coast, and the Lakshadweep Islands. Low density area
s (below 100) include the western desert, eastern Kashmir, and the eastern front
ier.
A population density and Indian Railways connectivity map. The already densely s
ettled Indo-Gangetic Plain is the main driver of Indian population growth.
A Bondo woman walks to a weekly market in Chattisgarh.
With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report,[267
] India is the world's second-most populous country. Its population grew by 17.6
4% during 2001 2011,[268] compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991 200
1).[268] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1
,000 males.[267] The median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.[214] The first post
-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.[269] Medical
advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivit
y brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow
rapidly.[270] India continues to face several public health-related challenges.
[271][272]
Life expectancy in India is at 68 years with life expectancy for women being 69.
6 years and for men being 67.3.[273] There are around 50 physicians per 100,000
Indians.[274] The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% bet
ween 1991 and 2001.[275] Yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[276][277]
The level of urbanisation increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011
Census. The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to th
e sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[278] According to
the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus cities in India; among them Mumbai, D
elhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai, Ahmedabad, and Kolkata, in decreasing order
by population.[279] The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females
and 82.14% among males.[280] The rural urban literacy gap which was 21.2 percent
age points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement i
n literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas.[278] Kerala is t
he most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.[
280]
India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of
the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from
the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language families. India has no national lang
uage.[281] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language
of the government.[282][283] English is used extensively in business and adminis
tration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[6] it is importa
nt in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and unio
n territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises
in particular 22 "scheduled languages". The Constitution of India recognises 212
scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's p
opulation.[284] The 2011 census reported[285] that Hinduism (79.8% of the popula
tion) is the largest religion in India, followed by Islam (14.23%). Other religi
ons or none (5.97% of the population) include Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.7
2%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bah' Faith.[286]
India has the world's largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bah' populations
, and has the third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population
for a non-Muslim majority country.[287][288]
Culture
Main article: Culture of India
Hampi, seat of the Vijayanagara Empire

Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[289] During the Vedic perio
d (c. 1700
500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology an
d literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today,
such as dhrma, krma, yga, and mok?a, were established.[26] India is notable for its
religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and
Jainism among the nation's major religions.[290] The predominant religion, Hind
uism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those
of the Upanishads,[291] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[290] and by Buddhi
st philosophy.[292]
Art and architecture
Main article: Architecture of India
Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal arch
itecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with im
ported styles.[293] Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavou
rs. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and asc
ribed to Mamuni Mayan,[294] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellin
gs;[295] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perce
ived cosmic constructs.[296] As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is infl
uenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythol
ogical form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".
[297] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Sh
ah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage
List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired mas
terpieces of the world's heritage".[298] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, de
veloped by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architectu
re.[299]
Literature
Main article: Indian literature
The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1700 BCE and 1200 CE,
were in the Sanskrit language.[300][301] Prominent works of this Sanskrit litera
ture include epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the dramas of Kalid
asa such as the Abhijanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala), and poetry suc
h as the Mahakavya.[302][303][304] Kamasutra, the famous book about sexual inter
course also originated in India. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South I
ndia, the Sangam literature, consisting of 2,381 poems, is regarded as a predece
ssor of Tamil literature.[305][306][307][308] From the 14th to the 18th centurie
s, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because o
f the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabir, Tulsidas, and Guru Nanak. Thi
s period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expressi
on; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from
classical traditions.[309] In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new inter
est in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Ind
ian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindra
nath Tagore.[310]
Performing arts
Sarod performance at the Muse Guimet, Paris
Main articles: Music of India and Dance in India
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music
encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustan
i and southern Carnatic schools.[311] Regionalised popular forms include filmi a
nd folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the
latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the b
etter-known folk dances are the bhangra of Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau
of Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of R
ajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative
forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by In
dia's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of t
he state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of K
erala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and t
he sattriya of Assam.[312] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised o
r written dialogue.[313] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from
medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the b
havai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North In
dia, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil N
adu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[314]
Motion pictures, television
Main articles: Cinema of India and Television in India
The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.[315] Establis
hed regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hind
i, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu langu
ages.[316] South Indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue.[
317]
Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communic
ation, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.[318][319] The state mon
opoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and, since then, satellite chan
nels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society.[320] Today, tel
evision is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that
as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite
and/or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press (3
50 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[321]
Society
Main article: Culture of India
Muslims offer namaz at a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian
caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social r
estrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thou
sands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jatis, or "castes".[322]
India declared untouchability to be illegal[323] in 1947 and has since enacted o
ther anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives. At the workplace i
n urban India and in international or leading Indian companies, the caste relate
d identification has pretty much lost its importance.[324][325]
Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patr
iarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are
becoming common in urban areas.[326] An overwhelming majority of Indians, with t
heir consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elders in
the family.[327] Marriage is thought to be for life,[327] and the divorce rate i
s extremely low.[328] As of 2001, just 1.6 percent of Indian women were divorced
but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence.[32
8] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before
reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[329] Female infanticide and
female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio, as o
f 2005 it was estimated that there were 50 million more males than females in th
e nation.[330][331] However a report from 2011 has shown improvement in the gend
er ratio.[332] The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across
class lines.[333] Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are o
n the rise.[334]
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, Ga
nesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas,
and Vaisakhi.[335][336] India has three national holidays which are observed in
all states and union territories
Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayan
ti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially obse
rved in individual states.
Clothing
Main article: Clothing in India
Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE. Traditional Indian dress varies in
colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including clima
te and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari f
or women and the dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar k
ameez for women and kurta pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirt
s for men, are also popular.[337] Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real fl
owers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years
; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[338]
Sports
Main article: Sport in India
Kalarippayattu, a martial art native to Kerala
In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as k
abaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian m
artial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, orig
inated in India. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India as chatura?ga,
is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandm
asters.[339][340] Pachisi, from which parcheesi derives, was played on a giant m
arble court by Akbar.[341]
The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tenn
is players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the count
ry.[342] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has w
on several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Com
monwealth Games.[343][344] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internat
ionally include badminton[345] (Saina Nehwal is the top ranked female badminton
player in the world), boxing,[346] and wrestling.[347] Football is popular in We
st Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.[348] India is
scheduled to host the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup.[349]
Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India. The Indian national hocke
y team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have, as of 2012, taken eight gold, one
silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful te
am in the Olympics.
India has also played a major role in popularising cricket. Thus, cricket is, by
far, the most popular sport in India. The Indian national cricket team won the
1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup events, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, shared the
2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and won 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cri
cket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI
); the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, an
d the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions. The BCCI is also re
sponsible for conducting an annual Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Prem
ier League.
India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 an
d 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the
2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup;
and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events held annua
lly in India include the Chennai Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marat
hon, and the Indian Masters. The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 b
ut has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.[350]
India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games. An e
xample of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won thre
e out of four tournaments to date.[351] The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arju
na Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievemen
t; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.
See also
India portal iconAsia portal
Notes
Jump up ^ "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such
alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; an
d the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for I
ndian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equa
l status with it." (Constituent Assembly of India 1950).
Jump up ^ "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders ar
e disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,2
20 sq mi) and the total land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United
Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land
area as 2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960 sq mi)." (Library of Congress 2004).
Jump up ^ See also: Official names of India
Jump up ^ The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as
it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and
the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: "Ministry
of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (PDF). Retrieved 1 September
2008.
Jump up ^ The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Gl
acier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire
region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-B
altistan administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the
longitude 37 6' to its northernmost point.
Jump up ^ Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.
English is an additional language for government work.[6][1][7]
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Constitution Of India". National Informatics Centre (in Hindi). Retrieved 27 Dec
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to: a b c Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 152.
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to: a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 23 24.
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eared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.[37] T

by Raja Raja Chola I.

century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[84] resulting in greater pat

Indians.[111] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially

ent briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Fr

Main article: Economy of India

Hampi, seat of the Vijayanagara Empire

to: a b c Stein 1998, pp. 119 120.

^ Jump up to: a b c d Ali & Aitchison 2005.

^ Jump up to: a b Sharma 2007, p. 162.

^ Jump up to: a b c PricewaterhouseCoopers 2011.

Jump up ^ Bonner 1990, p. 81.

Jump up ^ Popular India Festivals, retrieved 23 December 2007

India Yearbook 2007, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information a

rterly, 19 (3): 411 434, doi:10.1080/01436599814325

rieved 22 July 2011

Population, Economy, Human Development, and the Environment, Oxford University

2nd ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-0-8493-2842-8

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