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HOUSTON JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

[Vol. 6:23

sound work on the science of Muslim jurisprudence, A1-Shafi'i answers

the question, "What is al-q yas? Is it al-atihad or is it different?", by
saying, "They are two expressions of one meaning." Asked, "What is
it?," he answers:
For every issue concerning a Muslim, either there is a binding
text (of the Shariah) that rules it, or there is a guidance that
may indicate the way to truth. If there is a text, then the Muslim has to follow it. In case there is no text directly applicable, then he has to seek a guidance to truth by al-itihad. Alaftihad is al-qiyas. And when people exercise al-qiyas, can
they be sure that the opinion they have formed is the truth in
the eyes of God? And can they differ in their qz>as? And do
they have one way of reasoning or different ways? And is
there a differentiation between the authoritativeness of one's
qiyas upon himself and upon others?
In a sound answer to all that, he states:
Knowledge applies to two categories of truth; one which is a
factual truth in appearance and in fact, and one which has a
seeming probability of truthfulness. The first category applies
only to the texts of Quran and Sunnah successively authenticated generation after generation. These texts alone may allow or forbid, and this, in our opinion, is the basic fact that no
Muslim may either ignore or doubt. . . . Knowledge attached through the medium of al-Itihad by al-qiyas, belongs
to the second category; thus what it attains is binding only on
the one who exercised al-qiyas and not on other men of
knowledge.
Thereupon Al-Shafi'i proceeds to illustrate the difference between
the two categories by means of an example. He asks, "When we find
ourselves in the sacred mosque and see the Ka'aba before us, are we
obliged to face it with exactitude?" When his interlocutor answers,
"yes," Al-Shafi'i proceeds: "Are we obliged, wherever we may be, to
turn in our prayers towards the Ka'aba?" The answer is naturally,
"yes." Thereupon Al-Shafi'i asks, "Are we in such a case absolutely
certain that we are facing the Ka'aba with exactitude?" The answer is,
"If you mean that you are facing it with the same exactitude as when
you had it before your eyes, then the answer is no. But even so, you
have done your duty." Then Al-Shafi'i states:
It follows, therefore, that our obligation with regard to something that is not visible to your eyes is different from our obligation with regard to something that is directly seen. Similar
is the case with regard to that on which there is no binding
injunction in the text of Quran or Sunnah; for in this case we

1983]

ISLMIC LAW

are striving only by means of al-iftihad and we are obliged

only to the extent of what we consider to be truth.' 9
Al-Shafi'i in his famous book A1-Umm, states that in cases of differences between those who exercise individual reasoning in the absence
of binding texts, each of them is bound only by what he himself decides, and none of them may abandon what he personally considers to
be right in order to follow blindly the opinion of another person.
This attitude of probity is not, however, unique to Al-Shafi'i, but
his work is generally admitted to be the first thesis on Muslim jurisprudence. Here are some statements explicitly made by the great jurists in
whose names the four Sunni schools of law were gradually built up.
Said Abu Hanifa (d.150 A.H.): "It is not right on the part of anyone to
adopt our opinion unless he knows from where we derived it." He also
said: "Slanderous is their saying that we give our q yas any priority
over the Shariah. Do we need opinion when there is a sacred text?"2 0
Said Malik (d.179 A.H.): "I am but a human being. I may be wrong
and I may be right. So first examine what I say. If it complies with the
Book and Sunnah, then you may accept it. But if it does not comply
with them, then you should reject it." Said Al-Shafi'i (d.204 A.H.): "If
ever my opinion is in deviation from a tradition, then you should follow the tradition and never imitate me; and if a report is later authenticated as being a tradition, then my. opinion contrary to it is no longer
valid, and you should only follow the tradition." Said Ibn Hamble
(d.214 A.H.): "Do not imitate me, or Malik, or Al-Shafi'i, or AlThawri, and derive directly from where they themselves had
derived."'"
Ibn al-Qayyim records specific statements testifying to the fact that
all of these jurists gave priority even to traditions which were not fully
authenticated over their own individual conclusions. An incident illustrative of the probity of the early Muslim jurists is the famous attitude
of Malik to the caliph's proposal to enforceAJ-Muwatta (Malik's book)
as a uniform legal code throughout the Islamic state. Harun al-Rashid,
the caliph, insisted on this proposal and even went so far as to suggest
that the book be hung in the Ka'aba to symbolize the general reverence
for the book and to bring about legal uniformity in the Muslim nation.
But Malik, with clarity of mind and heart, rejected the enticing proposal of the caliph and said, "Oh, leader of the believers!. . . Difference
among Muslim scholars is but a divine mercy for this nation. Each of
them is following what he considers to be right, and each of them has
19. AI-Shafi'!, A1-Risalah, (Arabic), 476-86.
20. AI-Sharani, Al-Mizan, (Arabic), at 51.
21. A1-Shawkani Al-Qawl al-Mufid fil
Ijtihad, 15-27.

32

HOUSTON JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

[Vol. 6:23

his own argument, and all of them are sincerely striving in the way of
22
God."
D. Schools of Law
"Schools of Law" is the usual translation of al-madhahib, which
literally means "the ways of going." In most works on Islam the term
al-madhahib has become identical with Islamic Law. This identification, in itself a basic misconception, seems in addition to overlook two
main facts about these schools:
1. The four famous schools-the Hanafite, the Malikite, the Shafiite and the Hanbalite-are by no means the only schools in the history
of Muslim jurisprudence, nor are they even fully representative of Sunnite jurisprudence.
From about the middle of the first century up to the beginning of the -fourth, not less than nineteen schools of Law and
legal opinion appeared in Islam. This fact alone is sufficient
to show how incessantly our early doctors of law worked in
order to meet the necessities of a growing civilization.2 3
Most of these schools, t is true, were overwhelmed by the stronger influence of the famous four, but their disappearance as influential
schools does not imply their ineffectiveness, whether in the real establishment of Muslim jurisprudence or in setting its trends.
There is also the Shiite School of Law. Shiah is an Arabic expression which means "partnership." It was first used by a section of Muslims who attached themselves to Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet
Muhammed. This attachment not only asserted itself after the death of
the Prophet, but it also took no concrete shape or legal bearing until
after the death of All, the fourth caliph. Says Professor Asaf Fyzee,
himself a Shiite:
When the caliphate came into the hands of the Umayyads after the death of the first four caliphs and religion itself was
made the plaything of political ambition, the murder of
Husain, the Prophet's grandson, set the seal on official Shiism.
This faith preserved the passionate remembrance of this tragedy at Karbala, created an 'imam' who would be the focal
point for the love normally showered on the founder of Islam,
and systematically formulated a theology (Kalam) and a law
(Fiqh) in opposition to the Sunni creed.
With the exception of the Shiite concept of the infallibility of the imam
22. Abu-Zahrah, Malik, (Arabic), 213-14.
23. IQBAL, THE RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT IN ISLAM, 165.

24.

FYZEE, SHn LEGAL THEORIES,

113.

1983]

ISLAMIC LAW

or the caliph, which the Sunnites basically reject, and the difference in
authentication due to some subjective political elements, there is no
great difference between the two schools of law. Says Professor Fyzee:
Apart from the doctrine of Imamat, the difference between
the Sunnite and Shiite schools is not very great. . . . As has
been pointed out by Goldziher, there are really no 'sects' in
Islam but only 'schools' or madhahib (singular, madhab), of
Muslim law. Strictly speaking, belief in the one and only God
and the apostleship of the Prophet Mohammed are the only
two beliefs necessary in Islam. In the theory of the law all
Muslims are brothers and equals, and differences in opinion
on questions of law do not constitute them, speaking legally
of course, into separate sects of the kind, for example, which
we find in Hindu law."
There are still several schools of thought within the Shiites, the most
important of which are the Ithna-Asharis and the Ismailis. "The
Zaydis, who are concentrated in the Yaman, combine Shii and Sunni
doctrines," says Professor Fyzee. The number of Shiites, as approximately calculated by him is twenty million.
2. The second fact which is often overlooked about al-madhahib,
or the schools of law, is that none of them was actually established
during the lifetime of the jurist with whose name it later became identified. This reveals yet another fact, namely, that early Muslim jurists
did not mean to establish schools, they only meant to exert all their
means of knowledge, whether in historical authentication, linguistic
implications, or in the comprehension of new occurrences. Their common purpose was to contribute to a healthy relation between the Muslims and their Shariah. None of them ever thought of erecting himself
as a barrier between the Muslims and the Shariah. Significantly, in all
books about Abu Hanifah, in whose name the first school was gradually established, one can easily discover that the methods and opinions
which later became characteristic of this school were neither introduced
nor recorded by him in writing. Even in regard to the basic conceptions of al-i/ma' and al-qiyas (the latter being usually, but inaccurately,
ascribed to Abu Hanifah, as being peculiar to hisfiqh), it is recorded
that the Hanifite scholars after his death deduced those juristic rules
from what they had collected of his opinions on different issues. Malik,
in whose name the second school came into being, rejected the caliph's
proposal to enforce his Al-Muwatta as a general legal code. No different from the attitudes of Abu Hanifah and Malik, was that of AlShafi'i, who changed his opinion on many issues after moving from
25.

FYZEE, OUTLINE OF MOHAMMEDAN LAW,

36.

34

HOUSTON JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

[Vol. 6:23

Iraq to Egypt. However, the third school came into existence under his
name. Ibn Hanbal did not write any books on jurisprudence. He left
only a compilation of authenticated traditions. He explicitly stated, "I
am not a man of dogmatic theology, rather, I am against it. Only what
or what has been authentically conveyed,
is in the Book and Sunnah,
26
may be considered."
The fact that none of these jurists, including those whose names
are associated with the four Sunnite schools, ever intended to establish
a definite school gives rise to the natural question: why and how, then,
were these schools of law gradually established? The answer to this
question is well indicated in the very conception of afma (consensus of
opinion) which these schools presented as a third source of Islamic
Law. The usual arguments for the validity of al-6fma can be summarized as follows:
1. The Quranic injunction: "And whoever acts hostilely to the
Messenger after guidance has become manifest, and follows other than
the way of the believers, we turn him to that to which he (himself)
turns ....

"27

2. The Prophetic Tradition: "My nation shall never be unanimously in error."

There are, however, many other texts to the same effect. The crucial question is: Can such texts provide a real sanction for a new source
of legislation? A study of juristic works on al-iama reveals a basic disagreement not only as to its validity, but even as to its very existence.
Abu Hanifah, for instance, was never reported to have introduced by
himself a definite conception of aima' with a definite legal bearing.
Malik considered the unanimity of the Madinites as a probable reflection of some early Prophetic practice. Al-Shafi'i, in his Al-Risalah, almost denies the existence of al-afma, except on fundamentals of religion
which have been handed down from generation to generation and the
validity of which rests on some authentic text. Ibn Hanbal is known to
have said that any claim of unanimity is a mere lie, and that the most
one could claim is that he does not know of any disagreement on the
particular issue. The Shiites totally deny the conception of aima. Ibn
Hazm considers only the consensus of opinion among the companions
of the Prophet Muhammed as being a sign of an early Prophetic sanction or approval.
While the development of the concept of al-iama was a concrete
expression of a commonly felt need for a collective authority, as against
26. Ibn A1-Qayyim, A1-Manaqib, 156.
27. Quran IV:115.









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