CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a process in which contacting metal
sheets are joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current. Workpieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets
are 0.5 to 3 mm thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper
alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to
simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through the spot
will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is
that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time
(approximately 10100 milliseconds), that permits the welding to occur without
excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet. The amount of heat (energy)
delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the electrodes and
the magnitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to
match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes.
Applying too little energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor weld.
Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and
make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature of spot welding is that the energy
delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.

1.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

The heat required for these resistance welding processes is produced by the
resistance of the work pieces to an electric current passing through the material.
Because of the short electric current path in the work and limited weld time,
relatively high welding currents are required to develop the necessary welding heat.
The amount of heat generated depends upon three factors; the amperage, resistance
of the conductor and the duration of current. These three factors affect the heat
generated as expressed in the formula
Q I2 R t ........................Eqn (1.1)

Where Q is the heat generation (J), I is the current (kA), R is the resistance of the
work piece (ohm-cm) and t is the duration of current (sec).

Fig 1.1 The occurrence of resistances in electrical resistance spot

Welding (1, 2)

The secondary circuit of a resistance welding machine and the work being
welded constitute a series of resistances. The total resistance of the current path
affects the current magnitude. There are, in effect, at least seven resistances
connected in series in a weld that account for the temperature distribution and the
sum of them is expressed as R as shown in Fig 1.1. Line diagram for resistance
spot welding setup is as shown in Fig 1.2.

Fig 1.2 Line diagram for resistance spot welding setup

R= R1+ R2+ R3+ R4+ R5+ R6+ R7
where these resistances can be divided into two groups as material resistances (R1,
R4, R6 and R7) and contact resistances between electrode and work piece (R1 and
R5) as shown in Fig 1.1. Material resistances are generated depending on the
physical properties of work pieces (i.e., R2 and R4), and electrodes (i.e., R6 and R7).
These cannot be changed, while contact resistances are variable generated
depending on the conditions of electrode toes. The required resistance for spot weld
formation is R3. The higher the value of it, the higher the weldability is obtained
easily. The magnitude of this resistance depends upon the surface condition of the
base metal and the electrode force; F in welding current, I at welding time,t.
This is a point of high heat generation, but the surface of the base metal does not
reach the fusion temperature during the current passage, due to the high thermal
conductivity of the other electrodes and the fact that they are usually water cooled.
The resistance R in the heat formula is influenced by welding pressure through its
effect on contact resistances, R1, R3 and R5, at the interface between the work
pieces. The heating in R1 and R5 contact zones must be compensated and these
electrodes temperatures must be low. This is achieved by means of good
conducting materials and electrode surfaces. In order to perform accurate heat
conduction, the surfaces must have been cleaned from dirty substances like oil, rust
or paint which act as a barrier to the heat passage. The contact resistances affect the
strength of weld joint.

Contact resistance is affected by the surface condition of the sheets. The

presence of oil, dirt, oxides, scales, paints, and any other foreign content causes a
change in the resistance. For bare steels, the surface is usually contaminated by
oil/greases, possibly rusts, etc. Their effects on contact resistance diminish quickly
after an electrode force is applied, especially after the interface is heated by electric
current application. Therefore, the contact resistance is usually not a concern when
welding bare steels.

1.2 SOLIDIFICATION IN RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

The cast structure of ingots in the sheet materials used in RSW, such as
steels or aluminium alloys, is deliberately modified by hot or cold working, such
as rolling and heat treatment operations. In the process, grains are refined through
cold working and recovery/recrystallization, and structures are homogenized
through solution annealing or quenching and tempering. However, such
operations are difficult to perform in welding, especially in RSW, as melting and
solidification occur between two sheets. Welding parameters, such as hold time
and post heating, may be altered to a certain extent, in order to treat the welded
structures. However, due to the steep temperature gradient in a weldment, the
high cooling rate, and the short time span, such a treatment is not comparable to
the controlled heat treatment processes of the parent sheets. Therefore, the
microstructures and properties of a weldment are generally not as optimized as in
the base metal. During welding, solidification of a liquid nugget is similar to that
in a metal casting. It consists of two steps: nucleation of a solid phase and
subsequent crystal growth, same as solidification in an ingot mold. The
crystallization process is controlled by the heat dissipation into the base metal and
the electrodes. The direction and rate of cooling, in addition to the alloys
composition, decisively affect the type, size, and orientation of the crystals
formed. During solidification of a liquid nugget a change of alloy composition
takes place in the crystals being precipitated, compared to the original
composition of the alloy In the case of a very rapid cooling of a spot weldment,
the diffusion rate in the precipitated crystals is not sufficient to achieve an
equilibrium composition distribution, and crystals consisting of layers of different
chemical compositions are formed. A crystal nucleus that solidifies first is rich in

some elements and lacks others, while the outermost layer of the crystal is just the
opposite. This process is called micro segregation (3).
Solidification occurs when the liquid nugget reaches the liquidus
temperature of the alloy and there is a net heat loss in the liquid i.e., the heat
dissipated from the liquid is greater than that into the liquid. Under proper welding
conditions, the water cooled electrodes act as a large heat sink during welding. The
parent sheet metal also transfers heat from the sides. Partially melted grains in the
mushy zone at the nugget, heat-affected zone (HAZ) boarders serve as nuclei for
solid grains to grow. Further cooling results in columnar grains in directions
approximately normal to the fusion line. The remaining molten metal in the central
portion of the nugget solidifies last and forms equiaxed grains due to cooling when
the liquid volume is considerably small after its surroundings are solidified.
Depending on welding schedules and other conditions, various structures can be
formed in a weld nugget.

1.3 TYPES OF RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING PROCESSES

Resistance spot welding processes are classified as several methods those
are spot, roll-spot, seam, projection, upset, flash, and percussion (4).
In roll resistance spot welding, separated resistance spot welds are made
with one or more rotating circular electrodes. The rotation of the electrodes may or
may not be stopped during the making of a weld.
In resistance seam welding, coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced
by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current through the work parts held
together under pressure by electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping
resistance spot welds made progressively along a joint by rotating the electrodes.
In projection welding, coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from
resistance to electric current through the work parts held together under pressure by
electrodes. The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by
projections, embossments, or intersections.
In upset welding, coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire
area of abutting surfaces or progressively along a joint, by the heat obtained from
resistance to electric current through the area of contact of those surfaces. Pressure
is applied before heating is started and is maintained throughout the heating period.

In flash welding, coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire

area of abutting surfaces by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current
between the two surfaces and by the application of pressure after heating is
substantially completed. Flash and upsetting are accompanied by expulsion of the
metal from the joint.
In percussion welding, coalescence is produced simultaneously over the
entire abutting surfaces by the heat obtained from an arc produced by a rapid
discharge of electrical energy with pressure percussively applied during or
immediately following the electrical discharge.
Most metals and alloys can be resistance-welded to themselves and to each
other. The weld properties are determined by the metal and by the resultant alloys
which form during the welding process. Stronger metals and alloys require higher
electrode forces, and poor electrical conductors require less current. Copper, silver,
and gold, which are excellent electrical conductors, are very difficult to weld
because they require high current densities to compensate for their low resistance.
Medium- and high-carbon steels, which are hardened and embrittled during the
normal welding process, must be tempered by multiple impulses.

1.4 PROCESSING AND EQUIPMENT

Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the
electrodes being brought to the surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of
pressure. The current from the electrodes is then applied briefly after which the
current is removed but the electrodes remain in place for the material to cool. Weld
times range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec depending on the thickness of the metal, the
electrode force and the diameter of the electrodes themselves. The spot welding
operating cycle is shown in Fig 1.3.
1.5 RSW OPERATING CYCLE
1.5.1 Squeeze time
Squeeze time is the time interval between the initial application of the
electrode force on the work force and the first application of current. Squeeze time
is the necessary to delay the weld current until the electrode force has attained the
desired level.

Fig 1.3 Resistance spot-welding operating cycle

1.5.2 Weld time

Weld time is the time during which welding current is applied to the metal
sheets. The weld time is measured and adjusted in cycles of line voltage as are all
timing functions. One cycle is 1/50 of a second in a 50 Hz power system.
1.5.3 Hold time
Hold time is the time, after the welding, when the electrodes are still
applied force to the sheet to chill the weld. Considered from a welding technical
point of view, the hold time is the most interesting welding parameter. Hold time is
necessary to allow the weld nugget to solidify before releasing the welded parts,
but it must not be too long as this may cause the heat in the weld spot to spread to
the electrode and heat it. The electrode than get more exposed to wear. Further if
the hold time is too long and the carbon content of the material is high (more than
0.1%), there is a risk the weld will become brittle.
1.5.4 Weld current
Weld current is the current in the welding about during the making of a
weld. The amount of weld current is controlled by two things, first the setting of
the transformer tap switch determines the maximum amount of weld current
available, and second the percent of current control determines the percent of the
available current to be used for making the weld. Low percent current settings are

not normally recommended at this may impair the quality of the weld. Adjust the
tap switch so that proper welding current can be obtained with the percent current
set between seventy and ninety percent. The weld current should be kept as low as
possible. When determining the current to be used, the current is gradually
increased until weld spatter occurs between the metal sheets. This indicates that the
correct weld current has been reached.

1.6 EQUIPMENT USED IN RSW

The equipment used in the spot welding process consists of tool holders and
electrodes. The tool holders function as a mechanism to hold the electrodes firmly
in place and also support optional water hoses that cool the electrodes during
welding. Tool holding methods include a paddle-type, light duty, universal, and
regular offset. The electrodes generally are made of a low resistance alloy, usually
copper, and are designed in many different shapes and sizes depending on the
application needed.
1.6.1 Tool styles
Electrodes used in spot welding can vary greatly with different applications.
Each tool style has a different purpose. Radius style electrodes are used for high
heat applications, electrodes with a truncated tip for high pressure, eccentric
electrodes for welding corners, offset eccentric tips for reaching into corners and
small spaces, and finally offset truncated for reaching into the work piece itself.
1.6.2 Effects
The spot welding process tends to harden the material, causing it to warp.
This reduces the material's fatigue strength, and may stretch the material as well
as anneal it. The physical effects of spot welding include internal cracking, surface
cracks and a bad appearance. The chemical properties affected include the metal's
internal resistance and its corrosive properties.
1.6.3 Electrical system
The basic spot welding unit consists of a power supply, an energy storage
unit (e.g., a capacitor bank), a switch, a welding transformer, and the welding
electrodes. The energy storage element allows the welder to deliver high
instantaneous power levels. If the power demands are not high, then the energy

storage element isn't needed. The switch causes the stored energy to be dumped
into the welding transformer. The welding transformer steps down the voltage and
steps up the current. An important feature of the transformer is it reduces the
current level that the switch must handle. The welding electrodes are part of the
transformer's secondary circuit. There is also a control box that manages the switch
and may monitor the welding electrode voltage or current. The resistance presented
to the welder is complicated. There is the resistance of secondary winding, the
cables, and the welding electrodes. There is also the contact resistance between the
welding electrodes and the work piece. There is the resistance of the work pieces,
and the contact resistance between the work pieces. At the beginning of the weld,
the contact resistances are usually high, so most of the initial energy will be
dissipated there. That heat and the clamping force will soften and smooth out the
material at the electrode-material interface and make better contact (that is, lower
the contact resistance). Consequently, more electrical energy will go into the work
piece and the junction resistance of the two work pieces. As electrical energy is
delivered to the weld and causes the temperature to rise, the electrodes and the
work piece are conducting that heat away. The goal is to apply enough energy so
that a portion of material within the spot melts without having the entire spot melt.
The perimeter of the spot will conduct away a lot of heat and keep the perimeter at
a lower temperature. The interior of the spot has less heat conducted away, so it
melts first. If the welding current is applied too long, the entire spot melts, the
material runs out or otherwise fails, and the "weld" becomes a hole.
1.6.4 Clamping
Welding times are often very short, which can cause problems with the
electrodes. They cannot move fast enough to keep the material clamped. Welding
controllers will use a double pulse to get around this problem. During the first
pulse, the electrode contact may not be able to make a good weld. The first pulse
will soften the metal. During the pause between the two pulses, the electrodes will
come closer and make better contact.
1.6.5 Fields
During spot welding, the large electric current induces a large magnetic
field, and the electric current and magnetic field interact with each other to produce

a large magnetic force field too, which drives the melted metal to move very fast at
a velocity up to 0.5 m/s. As such, the heat energy distribution in spot welding could
be dramatically changed by the fast motion of the melted metal. The fast motion in
spot welding can be observed with high speed photography.
1.6.6 Safety
It is common for a spray of molten metal droplets (sparks) to be ejected
from the area of the weld during the process. While spot welding does not generate
UV light as intensely as arc welding, eye protection is required. Welding goggles
with a 5.0 shade are recommended.

1.7 MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR SPOT WELDING

Steel has a higher electrical resistivity and lower thermal conductivity than
the copper electrodes making welding relatively easy. Low carbon steel is most
suitable for spot welding. Higher carbon content or alloy steel tends to form hard
welds that are brittle and could crack. Aluminium has an electrical resistivity and
thermal conductivity that is closer to that of copper. However aluminiums melting
point is much lower than that of copper, making welding possible. Higher levels of
current must be used for welding aluminium because of its low resistivity.
Galvanized steel requires a different welding approach than uncoated steel. The
zinc coating must first be melted off before the steel is joined. Zinc has a low
melting point, so a pulse of current before welding will accomplish this. During the
weld, the zinc can combine with the steel and lower its resistivity. Therefore,
higher levels of current are required to weld galvanized steel.

1.8 APPLICATIONS
Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet
metal, welded wire mesh or wire mesh. Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld
because the heat flows into the surrounding metal more easily. Spot welding can be
easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal buckets. Aluminium
alloys can be spotwelded, but their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity requires higher welding currents. This requires larger, more powerful,

10

and more expensive welding transformers. Perhaps the most common application
of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing industry, where it is used
almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Spot welders can also
be completely automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly
lines are spot welders (the other major use for robots being painting). Spot welding
is also used in the orthodontist's clinic, where small-scale spot welding equipment
is used when resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.
Another application is spot welding straps to nickelcadmium or nickel
metal hydride cells to make batteries. The cells are joined by spot welding thin
nickel straps to the battery terminals. Spot welding can keep the battery from
getting too hot, as might happen if conventional soldering were done. Good design
practice must always allow for adequate accessibility. Connecting surfaces should
be free of contaminants such as scale, oil, and dirt, to ensure quality welds. Metal
thickness is generally not a factor in determining good welds.

Fig 1.4 Automobile manufacturing plant

11

1.9 OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK

The objectives of the work can be summarized as:

To study the effect of parameters weld time, weld current, electrode force
and constant squeeze time on tensile - shear strength, nugget diameter and
heat affected zone.

To study the failure analysis of the resistance spot welded joints during the
tensile-shear strength test.

To study the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each response and develop
the mathematical model equations.

To study the optimization technique for predicting the maximum tensileshear strength, optimum nugget diameter and minimum heat affected zone.

1.10 THESIS OVERVIEW

This thesis encompasses the modelling and process analysis of resistance
spot welded joints, failure analysis and tensile-shear strength of joints and
optimization of process parameters. The thesis consists of total five chapters and
further research in this regard.
Chapter 1 explains the introduction, types of RSW process, equipment used for
process and welding cycle and applications and materials suitable spot welding and
the objectives of the work.
Chapter 2 addresses the literature review, principle of resistance spot welding
process and thermally affecting factors on the weld.
Chapter 3 describes the experimental setup details and experimental procedure and
testing procedures.
Chapter 4 presents the ANOVA results and corresponding plots with their
interactions and model validation and failure analysis of the joint.
Chapter 5 presents the optimization results and microscopic observations.
Chapter 6 explains the conclusion and scope of future works.

12

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE RIVIEW
To study the resistance spot welding process, parameters and the research
works done in this field, a detailed literature review is carried out as below.
Aslanar S et. al. [1] investigated the effect of nucleus diameter, heights of
nucleus, and nucleus size on mechanical properties i.e. tensile shear and tensile
peel strength in electrical resistance spot welding of galvanized chromided micro
alloyed steel sheets.
Aslanar S et. al. [2] investigated the Effect of welding current on
mechanical properties i.e. tensile shear and tensile peel strength of galvanized
chromided steel sheets in electrical resistance spot welding. Welding periods were
chosen as 5, 10, 12, and 15 cycles and also welding currents were increased from 4
kA up to 12 kA by rise of 1 kA. The electrode force was kept constant at 6 kN.
During these tests three types failure are occurred in sheets 1.Separation,
2.Knotting, and 3.Tearing. The results showed that the tensile- shear strength
increases with increasing weld current, the tensile- peel strength increases sharply
from 6 to 9 kA and reaches max value at 10 kA.
Luo Yi e.t al. [5] Study the mathematical regression models between
process parameters and nugget diameter, penetration ratio and tensile-shear
strength of spot welds. The method of non-linear multiple orthogonal regression
assembling design was used. Mathematical relations between experimental indexes
and process parameters can be described by the full equation of quaternionic
quadratic regression. The effects of welding process on nugget size and mechanical
properties are not varying with simple linear curve but with non-linear
characteristics. The effects of interactions must not be ignored. And the means of
contour line figures can be introduced to describe the relationship between the
interactions and the quality indexes ambiguously.
Vural, M et. al. [6] Investigated the effect of nugget diameter on the fatigue
strength of resistance spot welded joints of galvanized steel and austenitic stainless
steel (AISI 304) welded as lap joints and explained the endurance limit of the
similar steels sheet combination is higher than that different steel sheet the reason

13

for this result is heat unbalance between the steel sheets which occurs during spot
welding operations of steel sheets having different material combinations.
S.M. Hamidinejad et. al. [7] In this study, the resistance spot welding
(RSW) process of the galvanized interstitial free (IF) steel sheets and galvanized
bake hardenable (BH) steel sheets, used in the manufacturing of car bodies, has
been modeled and optimized. The quality measure of a resistance spot welding
joint is estimated from the tensileshear strength. They concluded that there is a
non-linear relationship between the welding parameters and the tensile shear
strength of the RSW joints and explained regression analysis, artificial neural
networks and genetic algorithm are used for optimization and explained failures of
the joints.
Hessamoddin Moshayedi et. al. [8] worked on numerical and experimental
study of nugget size growth in resistance spot welding of austenitic stainless steels.
In this study, two- dimensional finite element simulation of resistance spot welding
process was performed using fully coupled electricalthermal and incrementally
coupled thermalmechanical analysis on SS304L sheets to predict weld nugget
formation through temperature distributions at different welding cycles and current
intensities. Finite element modeling was used to investigate the effects of welding
time and welding current on nugget size. When the welding current exceeds a
critical value for nugget formation (6 kA for this work), it causes a rapid growth of
nugget Good agreement has been obtained between the predicted results and the
measured data, such that the maximum errors have been around 13%.
J.B. Shamsul et. al. [9] studied the influence of welding current on nugget
size and hardness distribution in the plates of Austenitic Stainless Steel (AISI 304),
which was placed as a lap joint and spot welded under varied welding current
conditions and electrode force and weld time. The results have shown that
increasing welding current increased the nugget size. The nugget size does not
influence the hardness distribution. Also increasing welding current does not
increase the hardness distribution.
Dursun Ozyurek et. al. [10] investigated the effect of the different welding
medium and welding current on the resistance spot weld quality of 304L stainless
steel and for this purpose; samples are welded in nitrogen at different currents and
then cooled in atmosphere. Samples welded in atmosphere at different currents are

14

then compared with the above samples to study the influence of different welding
medium and current.
M. Hamedi et. al. [11] worked on numerical study of nugget formation in
resistance spot welding. They concluded that as the welding process continues
(welding time increases), temperature of sheets interface rises quickly until this
area melts and nugget forms. After the formation of nugget, rate of temperature rise
is reduces. At the end of welding time, as current switches off, the weldment starts
to cool dawn. And at low electrode forces and high welding currents, the formed
fusion zone is large.
Nizamettin K. et. al. [12] has focused his study on the influence of welding
parameters on the joint strength of resistance spot-welded titanium sheets. The
results indicated that increasing current time and electrode force increased the
tensile shear strength and the joint obtained under the argon atmosphere gave better
strength. Hardness measurement results showed that welding nugget gave the
highest hardness. The argon gas used during the welding process was seen to have
no influence on the hardness values.
Emin Bayraktar et. al. [13] have contributed their research on the selection
of optimal welding conditions for getting good weld attributes and developed new
grade steels for automotive applications. The study is based on impact tensile
testing to spot welding sheets.
Bouyousfi et. al. [14] Have studied the effect of spot welding process
parameters (are intensity, welding duration and applied load) on the mechanical
properties and characteristics of the spot joints between two stainless steel sheets
(304 ASS) having the same thickness. Micro hardness and tensile test results have
shown that the weld resistance is important and highly correlated to the value of the
process parameters especially the applied load. The applied load seems to be the
control factor of the mechanical. Characteristics of weld joint compared to the
welding duration and the current intensity.
Oscar Martin et. al. [15] predicted the quality level of a resistance spot
welding (RSW) joint of 304 austenitic stainless steel (ASS). It is estimated from its
tensile shear load bearing capacity (TSLBC). The quality levels are set by
ultrasonic non-destructive testing. The weld nugget grows at the expense of heat
input that increases with increasing WT and WC. The hardness values of the weld

15

nugget do not decrease and even may be higher than that of HAZ and base metal
due to the strain hardening (revealed by the presence of slip bands in the austenite
cast microstructure of the weld nugget), caused by EF (electrode force) during
holding time.
Majid Pouranvari [16] Failure mode of AISI304 resistance spot welds is
studied under quasi static tensile-shear test. He concluded that failure location for
AISI 304 RSW in pull-out failure mode is at HAZ, adjacent to the weld nugget
Low fusion zone hardness to failure location hardness ratio increases the tendency
of spot weld failure to occur in the interfacial failure mode during the tensile-shear
test. Metallurgical characteristics of welds should be considered to predict and
analyze the spot weld failure mode more precisely.

With the objectives as summarized in (1.9), thus a study to fill the gaps seen
in literature review and for the setup newly installed in the institute, a standard to
be followed for the materials which are spot welded is to be formulated with
experimental validation.

16

CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND SETUP DETAILS

3.1 MATERIAL
The group of alloys which today make up the family of stainless steels had
their beginning in 1913 in Sheffield, England; Harry Brearley was trying a number
of alloys as possible gun barrel steels, and noticed that samples cut from one of
these trial heats did not rust and were in fact difficult to etch. When he investigated
this curious material, it contained about 13% chromium. This lead to the
development of the stainless cutlery steels for which Sheffield became famous.
Coincidentally development work was also being carried out in France at about the
same time which culminated in the production of the first austenitic stainless steels.
The worldwide consumption of stainless steel is increasing. There is
growing demand from the building and construction industry where stainless steel
is used for its attractive appearance, corrosion resistance, low maintenance and
strength. Many other industries are adopting stainless steel for similar reasons as
well as the fact that it does not need to be treated, coated or painted when put into
service, despite the fact that it is more expensive than plain carbon steels. Evidence
to support this comes from the household appliances manufacturers, where there
are an ever increasing number of items, traditionally known as white goods being
manufactured in stainless steel.
3.1.1 Stainless steel (304)
Stainless steel types 1.4301 and 1.4307 are also known as grades 304 and
304L respectively. Type 304 is the most versatile and widely used stainless steel. It
is still sometimes referred to by its old name 18/8 which is derived from the
nominal composition of type 304 being 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Type 304 Stainless steel is an austenitic grade that can be severely deep drawn. This property
has resulted in 304 being the dominant grade used in applications like sinks and
saucepans. Type 304L is the low carbon version of 304. It is used in heavy gauge
components for improved weldability. Some products such as plate and pipe may
be available as dual certified material that meets the criteria for both 304 and

17

304L. 304H, a high carbon content variant, is also available for use at high
temperatures. Austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steel. Better corrosion resistance than Type
302. High ductility, excellent drawing, forming, and spinning properties.
Essentially non-magnetic, becomes slightly magnetic when cold worked. Low
carbon content means less carbide precipitation in the heat-affected zone during
welding and a lower susceptibility to inter-granular corrosion.
3.1.2 Properties

Resistance to corrosion

Prevention of product contamination

Resistance to oxidation

Easy of fabrication

Excellent formability

Beauty of appearance

Easy of cleaning

High strength with low weight

Good strength and toughness at cryogenic temperature

Ready availability of a wide range of product forms

3.1.2.1 Resistance to corrosion

The types 302, 304, 304L and 305 austenitic stainless steels provide
useful resistance to corrosion on a wide range of moderately oxidizing to
moderately reducing environments. The alloys are used in equipment and utensils
for processing and handling of food beverages and dairy products. Heat
exchangers, piping, tanks and other process equipment in contact with fresh water
also utilize these alloys. Building facades and other architectural and structural
applications exposed to non-marine atmospheres also heavily utilize the 18-8
alloys. In addition a large variety household and industrial chemicals.
3.1.2.2 Fatigue strength
The fatigue strength or endurance limit is the maximum stress below
which is unlikely to fail in 10 million cycles in air environment. The fatigue
strength for austenitic stainless steels, as a group, is typically about 35 percent of
the tensile strength.

18

3.1.3 Welding
The austenitic stainless steels are considered to be the most weldable of
the high-alloy steels and can be welded by all fusion and resistance welding
processes. Two important considerations in producing weld joints in the austenitic
stainless steels are: 1) preservation of corrosion resistance, and 2) avoidance of
cracking.
A temperature gradient is produced in the material being welded which
ranges from above the melting temperature in the molten pool to ambient
temperature at some distance from the weld. The higher the carbon levels of the
materials being welded, the greater the likelihood that the welding thermal cycle
will result in the chromium carbide precipitation which is detrimental to corrosion
resistance. To provide materials at the best level of corrosion resistance, low
carbon material (Type 304L) should be used for material put in service in the
welded condition.
Table 3.1 Chemical composition of the test material (WT %)
C
Mn
P
S

0.08
2
0.045
0.03

Si
Cr
Ni
N

0.75
18-20
8-10.5
0.10

Table 3.2 Mechanical and physical properties

Tensile strength, ultimate
Tensile strength, yield
Modulus of elasticity
Poissons ratio
Density
Electrical resistivity
Thermal conductivity
Melting point
Hardness Rockwell B

19

505 MPa
215 MPa
190 200 GPa
0.29
8 g/cc
7.2e-.005 ohm-cm
16.2 W/m-k
1400 - 1455 0C
70

3.2 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING MACHINE

Fig 3.1 shows the timer and current controlled electrical resistance spot
welding machine of 10 kVA capacity, ELECTROWELD model SP10P. This has
pneumatically operated rocker arm with foot switch for the initiation of weld. The
electrode used is one pair Morse taper II straight copper electrodes of 6 mm
diameter. Adjustment of electrode force is by means of air pressure. For adjusting
the current, two timers are provided a squeeze timer and a weld timer timings-short
range 5-50 Cycle. Long range 1-10 seconds. The electrodes are water cooled.

Fig 3.1 Spot welding machine from Electroweld model SP10P

3.2.1 Construction
The machine is heavily fabricated with streamlined appearance, suitably
stiffened at points of stress. The transformer is mounted directly on to the body and
the bearings for the arm are provided in the same.
3.2.2 Cooling system
Electrodes and electrode holders are water cooled. Water used should be
free from residue forming impurities and at a temperature of less than 300C. If

20

water temperature is higher, increased water flow is required. Separate 10 litre

capacity water tank is kept adjacent to the machine.

3.3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF THE MACHINE

Table 3.3 Technical specification of the machine
S.NO

Model

SP10P

Rating@ 50% Duty Cycle (kVA)

10

Throat Depth (mm)

460

Nominal Throat Clearance (mm)

220

Welding Range S.S/M.S. Sheet

2 *mm
Max. available Short Circuit Currents
(kA)

6
6-position off. Load Tap

Current Control

Cooling for Arms & Electrode

3-0.2

Switch

Nominal Electrode Force

(approx. kgf)

Water
100-75

Electrode Stroke Max. (mm)

40

10

Main supply Voltage (V)

420

3.4 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

The dual column materials testing machines have frame capacities of 10kN,
25kN and 50kN and include two model types, the S series and the T series. These
machines are designed to test a wide range of materials, including, but not limited
to: rigid plastics, films, paper, packaging materials, filter material, thin sheet metal,
adhesives, foils, food, toys, medical devices and components, in compression,
flexure, shear, and peel. The one used is of s series.
3.4.1 S Series
Using a combination of quality engineering and advanced technology,
Tinius Olsen has produced a series of machines that are accurate and simple to use.

21

All S Series machines have an easy-to-read backlit liquid crystal display that can be
switched between a numerical and graphical display. All data shown on this display
is obtained in real time, with the auto ranging graphical display showing the test
curve of the specimen under test. The control unit features dedicated keys for
moving the crosshead up, down, stop, performing the test, as well as keys for load
and extension tare and crosshead return. The control panel also features an
alphanumeric keypad to allow input of test conditions, test data and the formatting
of the test report. The control unit can retain up to five separate test routines for
easy and rapid recall. While powerful as stand-alone units, these machines can be
enhanced by direct connection of a printer through which comprehensive test
reports and high resolution graphs can be quickly obtained. The S Series of testers
are also designed for users all over the world. An optional language module can be
plugged into the control panel and all data on the backlit LCD will be shown in the
selected language.

Fig 3.2 Universal testing machine model H10KS

22

3.4.2 Common features

The S and T series use rapid change Z beam load cells that allow for simple
and quick sizing of the machine to an appropriate capacity for the test. These
load cells have an accuracy of +/- 0.5% of the applied load value, from 2% to
100% of the load cell capacity. The S and T series have a huge assortment of
different grips and fixtures available allowing the selection of an ideal
configuration for your application.
Table 3.4 Technical specifications of UTM H10KS
Capacity
Clearance between columns

Load cells

Maximum cross head travel

Testing speed range
Capacity at maximum speed
Maximum speed at capacity
Jog speed
Return speed
Dimensions H W D
Weight

10000N
405 mm
Rapid change, low profile Z type load cells
with digital encoding for automatic
recognition
and scaling available 10kN, 5kN, 2.5kN,
1kN, 500N, 250N, 100N, 50N, 10N, 5N
Measurement direct from ball screw fully
auto scaling of single measurement range
1100 mm
0.001 to 1000 mm/min
5 kN
500 mm/min
0.001 to 1000 mm/min
0.001 to 750 mm/min
1600 x 650 x 450
115 kg

3.4.3 Specifications

Load measurement accuracy: +/- 0.5% of indicated load from 2% to 100%

capacity; extended range down to 1% capacity with accuracy of 1% of
indicated load.

Position measurement accuracy: +/- 0.01% of reading or 0.001 mm,

whichever is greater Speed accuracy: +/- 0.005% of set speed.

Operating temperature range: 0 0C to 38 0C

Storage Temperature range: -10 0C to 45 0C

Humidity range: 10% to 90% non-condensing, wet bulb method.

Power: standard optional voltages 220/240VAC, 50-60 Hz, 2000W; power

must be free of spikes and surges exceeding 10% of the nominal voltage.

23

3.5 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement compressors. This
means they are taking in successive volumes of air which is confined within a
closed space and elevating this air to a higher pressure. The reciprocating air
compressor accomplishes this by using a piston within a cylinder as the
compressing and displacing element. The reciprocating air compressor is
considered single acting when the compressing is accomplished using only one side
of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double
acting. The reciprocating air compressor uses a number of automatic spring loaded
valves in each cylinder that open only when the proper differential pressure exists
across the valve. Inlet valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is slightly
below the intake pressure. Discharge valves open when the pressure in the cylinder
is slightly above the discharge pressure.

3.6 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

For supplying the coolant, three-phase induction motor which are most
frequently encountered in industrial use. They are simple, rugged, low-priced, and
easy to maintain. The speed is frequency-dependent and consequentially, these
motors are not easily adapted to speed control. However, variable frequency
electronic drives are being used more and more to control the speed of commercial
induction motors.

3.7 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

The Olympus BX51 is a basic fluorescence and bright field microscope that
is suited for general applications. The base is equipped with 5x, 10x, 20x, 40x, 60x,
and 100x objectives, as well as a set of 3 manual sliding fluorescence filters shown
in fig 3.3.
The base also features two built-in neutral density filters (ND6, ND25) and
a daylight balancing filter (LBD) to adjust the intensity and colour temperature of
transmitted light. A preset intensity switch can be programmed and toggled, which
permits reproducible lighting for photomicrography. Episcopic illumination is

24

provided by an X-Cite 120Q metal halide lamp, a quiet and stable source of
fluorescence excitation.

Fig 3.3 Optical microscope BX-51

Overall, the upright microscope is easy and intuitive to use. Imaging is

performed with an Olympus DP71 CCD camera - a 12.5 megapixel, 12-bit colour
camera capable of recording at 15 frames per second. The corresponding
acquisition software (DP Controller, DP Manager) and its various light-balancing
tools can be mastered within minutes.

25

Table 3.5 Technical specifications of BX-51

Optical system
Focus

UIS2 optical system

Vertical stage movement: 25mm
Interchangeable reversed quintuple/sextuple/septuple
nosepiece

Revolving

Motorized sextuple revolving nosepiece with slider

slot for DIC
Septuple revolving nosepiece for DIC/simple POL
Control of septuple revolving nosepiece, 6-position

Hand switch

mirror turret illumination unit and 8-position

condenser

Control box

Serial interface RS232C, built-in transmitted/reflected

halogen power supply

Motorized

8-position with motorized AS, turret and top lens

universal

swing out mechanism (N.A. 1.4-0.9), for 1.25X*1*2-

condenser

100X

3.8 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.8.1 Experimentation
Experiments were conducted on the resistance spot welding machine model
SP10P from ELCTROWELD, based on the run order obtained from the DesignExpert 7 software the general full factorial design with 3 levels and 3 factors. Lap
joints were prepared as per the ASTM (A 240) standards. 80*25*1mm thick sheets
were used and the lapping area is 20mm. During the experimentation water is
circulated through the electrodes for cooling the work piece and electrodes. For
supplying the water separate 3-phase induction motor is used and for supplying the
pressure rotary compressor is used.
3.8.2 Ishikawa diagram
Based on the literature review and correlation with the resistance spot
welding, the process parameters that may affect the performance measures namely

26

Nugget Diameter, Heat affected zone and Tensile-shear strength in spot welding
can be summarized as shown in the ishikawa diagram. The underlined parameters
in the Fig 3.4 represent the process parameters which are taken as the most
influencing parameters on the resistance spot welding.

Figure 3.4 Ishikawa diagram for resistance spot welding process

3.8.3 Process parameters and their levels

From the previous works it is noted that linear model is insignificant and a
third order model is to be developed for analysing the effect of the process
variables on the performance measures. Hence it is required to go for three level
experimental designs for the three variables namely
1. Weld Current
2. Electrode Force
3. Weld Time
These parameters are chosen based on the literature review and also by
conducting some sample experiments to verify the noticeable influence of the
particular parameters on the performance measures. The process parameters and
levels are shown in table 3.6.

27

Table 3.6 Process Parameters and levels

Variable

Unit

Levels
1

Weld current

kA

X1

Electrode force

kg/cm2

X2

2.5

Weld time

Cycle

X3

10

15

20

3.8.4 Sheet preparation

The dimensions: 80*25are marked on 1 mm thick sheet and cut.

During cutting of sheets observed some burr formation on the edges of the
sheet.

By filing, the burrs on the sheets are removed.

The overlapping area 20mm on the each sheet is marked.

3.8.5 Experimental procedure

First supply the coolant for electrodes and switch on the compressor for
supplying the air pressure for electrode force. The compressor capacity is
100-200 kgf.

Clean the sheets and electrodes by use of fine emery cloth for removing
dirt, oils, paint, scale and oxide etc.

Switch on the machine and set the input parameters as per the design table.

During the welding at different current conditions, at high welding

currents more sparks were observed, and at medium weld currents
observed less sparks.

By pressing the foot switch the thyrister contactor is activated.

28

Thyristor contactor

Sparks
Weld signal

Fig 3.5 During the welding condition

3.8.6 Measurement of nugget diameter

The size of a weld nugget is the most commonly used index for quality, as
it is closely related to the strength of a joint when there is no expulsion. Due to the
multivariate nature of the RSW process, a welds size is determined by many
factors, and much of this dependence is not fully understood.
Among these weld attributes, weld size, in terms of nugget width or weld
button diameter, is the most frequently measured one and most meaningful in
determining a welds strength. When two sheets are joined by a weld at the nugget,
its size determines the area of adhesion and its load-bearing capability. However,
the nugget/weld size alone is often insufficient in describing a welds quality, as it
does not necessarily imply the structural integrity of the weld. Other features of a

29

weld, such as penetration, also complement the nugget size and provide useful
information on the degree of adhesion. In fact, a weld is meant to contain all parts
of a weldment, such as the heat-affected zone (HAZ), inaddition to the nugget.
Another confusion is the use of button diameter and nugget diameter. As a nugget
and its size are usually revealed by metallographic cross sectioning, a nugget is
exposed for measuring its width as shown in fig 3.6.

Fig 3.6 Weld attributes

For same thickness sheets joined, the largest weld size required can be more
than sheet thickness. In general, they are enveloped between 3t and 6t (t being
the thickness of the sheets). Most of the sizes are located between 3t and 5t and
many nominal weld sizes are set in this range when determining the optimum sizes.
By DOE, the number of specimens to be prepared is determined. By
universal measuring microscope, the weld nugget size and heat affected zone are
measured for all the 27 spot welded joints.
3.8.7 Tensile-shear test
Among static tests, tension-shear testing is most commonly used in
determining weld strength because of its simplicity in specimen fabrication and
testing. This test consists of pulling the specimen in tension to destruction, on the
standard testing machine (Fig 3.2), the clamping being as Fig 3.7.

30

Fig 3.7 Fixture position for tensile-shear test

The test specimen is obtained by lapping two sheets of metal and joining
them by a single weld. The ultimate strength of the test specimen and the nature of
fracture, whether by shear of the weld material or by tear of the parent material,
and whether a ductile or brittle fracture is obtained, should be recorded. When a
weld is under a tensile-shear loading, the weldment tends to rotate to align with the
gripped end, as in Fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8 The force of the welded joint during tensile-shear test (a) initial position
(b) nugget rotation.
In the tensile shear test, the welded joints first experience the shear stress,
which is parallel to the force direction, as shown in Fig 3.8a. In order to align with
the applied force direction, the nugget rotates first. Thus, the bending moment leads
to the tensile stress, which is perpendicular to the nugget, as shown in Fig 3.8b

31

3.9 FAILURE MODES

The tensile shear tests were carried out with a Tinius Olsen pneumatically
operated compression and tension testing universal testing machine of capacity of
10kN. During the tests, four types of failures were observed: (1) separation; (2)
knotting; (3) tearing, (4) pull-out button Samples of these are as shown in Fig 3.9

Fig 3.9 Test samples after failure

In sample 12 knotting and pull out button failure occurred and in sample 20
and 3 tearing took place. Heat generation in between the two pieces was calculated
based on the Eqn (1.1) and setting the corresponding heat input to each run. The
heat generated for the three samples are 100%, 50%, and 75% of total heat input
respectively. The cases 7, 10 and 14 shown in fig 3.10 revealed the following:

Fig 3.10 Separation, knotting, button failures

In sample 7 & 10 separation took place and in 14 failure were similar to
knotting and pull-out button.

32

CHAPTER 4
EXPRIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the analysis of variance (ANOVA) results for each
response of the process parameters in resistance spot welding and corresponding
plots. Model validation results and plots are also explained.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to investigate
and model the relationship between a response variable and one or more
independent variables. Each explanatory variable (factor) consists of two or more
categories (levels).ANOVA tests the null hypothesis that the population means of
each level are equal, versus the alternative hypothesis that at least one of the level
means are not all equal. In both methods the experimenter collects sample data and
calculates averages. If the means of the three levels are significantly far apart, the
experimenter will accept the alternative hypothesis. While their calculations differ,
ANOVA and two sample t-tests always give identical results in hypothesis tests for
means with one factor and two levels. Unfortunately, modelling real world
phenomena often requires more than just one factor. In order to understand the
sources of variability in a phenomenon of interest, ANOVA can simultaneously
test several factors; each with several levels.
4.2.1 Key steps in designing an experiment include

Identify factors of interest and a response variable.

Determine appropriate levels for each explanatory variable.

Determine a design structure.

Randomize the order in which each set of conditions is run and collect the
data.

Organize the results in order to draw appropriate conclusions.

33

4.2.2 Mathematical calculations

Effect plots help visualize the impact of each factor combination and
identify which factors are most influential. However, a statistical hypotheses test is
needed in order to determine if any of these effects are significant. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) consists of simultaneous hypothesis tests to determine if any of
the effects are significant. Factor effects are zero implies that the means for all
levels of a factor are equal. Thus, for each factor combination ANOVA tests the
null hypothesis that the population means of each level are equal, versus them not
all being equal.
The main factors are:

Sum of squares (SS) = sum of all the squared effects for each factor

Degrees of freedom (Dof) = number of free units of information

Mean square (MS) = SS/Dof for each factor

Mean square Error (MSE) = pooled variance of samples within each level

FF--statistic = MS for each factor/MSE

4.2.2.1 Mean squares (MS)

MS is a measure of variability for each factor. MSA is a measure of the spread of
the Factor A level means.

MSA =

Eqn (4.1)

The overall variance equation is

Overall variance =

..Eqn (4.2)

Where N = overall number of samples

4.2.2.2 Mean square error (MSE)
MSE is also a measure of variability; however MSE measures the pooled
variability with in each level. Sum of Squares Error (SSE) and degrees of freedom
Error (DofE), are calculated by subtracting all other SS from the Total SS = (N-1)
(Overall variance).

34

4.2.2.3 F-Statistic
The F-statistic is a ratio of the between variability over the within
variability. If the F-statistic is large, it seems unlikely that the population means of
each level of factor A are truly equal.
The p-value is looked up in an F table and gives the likely hood of
observing an F statistic at least this extreme (at least this large) assuming that the
true population factor has equal level means. Thus, when the p-value is small (i.e.
less than 0.05 or 0.1) the effect size of that factor is statistically significant.

4.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The plots obtained during the tension-shear test, as explained in section 3.9,
with their corresponding failures are as shown in figures 4.1 to 4.3.

Fig 4.1 Typical force vs. displacement curve with their separation failure mode in
tensile-shear testing

35

Fig 4.2 Typical force vs. displacement curve with their pull out button failure
mode in tensile-shear testing

Fig 4.3 Typical force vs. displacement curve with their tearing failure mode in
tensile-shear testing
Analysis and discussion made on nugget diameter, heat affected zone and
tensile-shear strength are presented in this section. The resulting three level
factorial designs in three variables consist of the following 27 points. Experiments

36

were carried out in the run order obtained from the design-expert 7 software and
the measured response variables are as shown in the table 4.1. The response
variables are measured as mentioned in sections 3.8 and 3.9.
Table 4.1 Design matrix and measured values
S.No

X1

X2

X3

D (mm)

H (mm)

Ft (MPa)

2.5

10

2.82

0.72

174.4

2.5

10

2.38

0.41

103.8

15

3.71

1.08

348.4

20

3.09

2.20

382.8

15

3.36

1.80

356.8

2.5

20

4.33

1.12

323.6

10

2.72

0.43

124.5

10

3.88

0.94

291

2.5

20

4.95

1.41

375.2

10

15

3.24

0.59

170

11

10

2.88

0.84

206.1

12

10

4.18

0.88

285

13

15

3.19

0.73

170

14

20

3.99

0.77

252.9

15

20

4.79

1.22

334.8

16

2.5

10

5.20

0.75

288.6

17

2.2

20

3.79

0.87

244.8

18

2.5

15

3.23

0.59

166.8

19

10

2.72

0.58

121.6

20

20

3.65

1.14

383.2

21

10

3.72

0.76

223.2

22

2.5

15

5.02

1.12

356

23

20

3.94

0.86

242.7

24

2.5

15

4.17

0.97

276.9

25

20

5.00

1.29

346.4

26

15

4.42

0.80

298.5

27

15

4.19

0.90

268.5

37

4.4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) FOR NUGGET DIAMETER

ANOVA results for nugget diameter of the spot welded joints are as shown
in table 4.2 where SS is sum of squares, Dof degree of freedom, p p-value
probability and F is the F value.
Table 4.2 ANOVA results for nugget diameter
Source
Model
A
B
C
AB
AC
A2
B2
A2C
AB2
Residual
Cor total
Std.dev
Mean
C.V %
PRESS

SS
14.14
5.55
0.26
3.68
0.10
2.49
0.76
0.48
1.39
2.49
2.11
16.25

Dof
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
17
26

F
12.64
44.63
2.10
29.61
0.83
20.06
6.10
3.89
11.17
20.04

0.35
3.80
9.28
5.01

P> F
0.0001
0.0001
0.1651
0.0001
0.3762
0.0003
0.0244
0.0651
0.0039
0.0003

R squared
Adj R- squared
Pred R squared
Adj precission

Significance
Significant
Significant
Not significant
Significant
Not significant
Significant
Significant
Not significant
Significant
Significant

0.8700
0.8011
0.6920
13.212

The model F-value of 12.64 implies that the model is significant. There is
only a 0.01% chance that a model with F-Value of 12.64 could occur due to noise.
The values of Prob> F and less than 0.0500 indicate that model terms are
significant. In this case A, C, AC, A2, A2C, AB2 are significant model terms values
greater than 0.1000 indicate that the model terms are not significant. If there are
many insignificant model terms, without considering them, may improve the
model.
The Pred R-Squared of 0.6920 is in reasonable agreement with the Adj RSquared of 0.8011. Adeq-Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio
greater than 4 is desirable. In this model the ratio of 13.212 indicates an adequate
signal. So this model can be used to the design.

38

4.4.1 Normal plot of residuals for nugget diameter

Fig 4.4 Normal plot of residuals for nugget diameter

Constructing a normal probability plot of the residuals as shown in Fig 4.4
makes a typical check for normality assumption. ANOVA can be performed as the
data follows a normal distribution. Each residual is plotted against its expected
value under normality. If the residual distribution is normal, this plot will be a
straight line. In visualizing the plot, the central values of the plot should be more
emphasized than on the extremes. The points on this plot line reasonably close to
straight line, indicating that the residuals are normally distributed.
4.4.2 Model equation in terms of actual factors
Nugget Diameter = + 88.21593 - 29.15806 * WC - 57.95444 * EF - 1.36400 *
WT + 15.96833 * WC * EF + 0.85150 * WC * WT + 1.41194 * WC2 +
11.49111 * EF2 - 0.11783 * WC2 * WT - 3.15667 * WC * EF2....Eqn (4.3)

4.5 MODEL REDUCTION METHODS

Model reduction methods are used to reduce the model equation and it
includes only significant terms. So it was recommended to eliminate the least
significant terms from the model equation and modify the model for a better
accuracy. Following are the three types of model reduction methods.
1. Backward regression
2. Forward regression

39

3. Step-wise regression
4.5.1 Backward regression method
Backward regression is considered as the robust method of model reduction
because this method starts with the full model and then the term which is not
satisfying the exit criterion is eliminated from the model. But in forward
regression technique, the terms which are satisfying the entry criteria will be added
to a base model which contains only highest significant factors. So the chance of
missing some significant interactions is more in this case compared to the
backward regression methodology step-wise and backward regression are same.
Alpha out value is a limiting value of probability that decides the exit criteria. In
this case the alpha out value is taken as 0.0500. The term P value mentioned above
is the common statistical parameter which corresponds to the F value of the term
and the degree of freedom. The software evaluates the P value of all the terms
involved in a proposed model. The details of the step-wise regression are:
Alpha out : 0.0500
P value > alpha out means insignificant terms.
Model reduction can be done by two ways, by eliminating the terms with
the p value greater than alpha out manually and also by software directly. To
reduce the model by software directly, go back and click on the model button. One
could manually deselect the insignificant terms observed from the ANOVA, but it
will be quicker with Design-Expert. Change the selection mode to step-wise. This
enables automatic model reduction by step-wise algorithm and it will give
significant terms in the model equation.
The criteria for elimination will be a probability value of 0.05 as specified in the
alpha out field. With a click on the ANOVA button, .as shown in figure 4.5, the
software gives the report on eliminated terms.

40

Fig 4.5 Model reduction selection in design-expert

4.6 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) FOR HEAT AFFECTED ZONE

The ANOVA results for heat affected zone of the spot welds are as shown
in table 4.3. The model with F-value of 28.45 implies the model is significant.
There is only a 0.01% chance that a Model with F-value this large could occur due
to noise. The values of Prob > F having less than 0.0500 indicate that the model
terms are significant. In this case A, C, AB, AC, BC, B2, ABC, A2B are significant
model terms If there are many insignificant model terms, not counting those may
improve the model. To improve the model, model reduction is needed by
eliminating the insignificant terms from the model.

Table 4.3 ANOVA results for heat affected zone (HAZ)

Source
Model
A
B
C
AB
AC
BC
A2
B2
ABC
A2B
AB2
Residual
Cor total

SS
3.95
0.33
0.010
1.16
0.20
0.10
0.072
7.407E-006
0.071
0.14
0.089
0.049
0.19
4.14

Dof
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
15
26

F
28.45
26.22
0.82
91.83
15.44
7.98
5.70
5.863E-004
5.63
11.12
7.04
3.89

41

P> F
0.0001
0.0001
0.3782
0.0001
0.0013
0.0128
0.0305
0.9810
0.0314
0.0045
0.0180
0.0673

Significance
Significant
Significant
Not significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not significant

Std.dev
Mean
C.V %
PRESS

0.11
0.96
11.75
0.68

R squared
Adj R- squared
Pred R- squared
Adjprecission

0.9543
0.9207
0.8356
24.635

The Pred R-Squared of 0.8356 is in reasonable agreement with the Adj RSquared of 0.9207. Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio
greater than 4 is desirable. The ratio of 24.635 indicates an adequate signal.
4.6.1 Normal plot of residuals for heat affected zone
Constructing a normal probability plot of the residuals as shown in Fig 4.6
could make a typical check for normality assumption. ANOVA can be performed if
the data follows a normal distribution. Each residual is plotted against its expected
value under normality. If the residual distribution is normal, this plot will be a
straight line. In visualizing the plot, all the points are on the straight line. The
points on this plot line reasonably close to straight line, indicating that the residuals
are normally distributed.

Fig 4.6 Normal probability plot of residuals for heat affected zone

42

4.6.2 Model equation in terms of actual factors

Heat Affected Zone = + 8.04247 - 4.48308 * WC + 0.27033 * EF - 0.47589 * WT
+ 0.66675 * WC * EF + 0.15108 * WC * WT + 0.18100 * EF * WT + 0.73679 *
WC2 - 1.35500 * EF2 - 0.053000 * WC * EF * WT - 0.29608 * WC2 * EF +
0.44783 * WC * EF2 Eqn (4.4)

Fig 4.7 Box-Cox plot for HAZ

The Box-Cox plot for power transformation is as shown in fig 4.7. The best
lambda value suggested from the analysis of experimental data is -0.21 as shown
by the green line. The transformation log having lambda value 0 is suggested as it
falls within the lower and higher confidence interval values of -0.9 and 0.54
respectively which are represented by the red lines. Either natural log or base 10
log transformation is possible. Natural log transformation is selected for the ease of
transformation.

43

Table 4.4 shows the ANOVA results for cubic order model for heat affected
zone after log transformation. The model is developed for 95% confidence level.
The F-value of 33.93 implies that the model is significant. There is only 0.1%
chance that the F-value could occurred due to noise on the model developed. By
checking F-value and P-value it is seen that factors A, C, B2, ABC, A2B are model
significant terms. Values of pro > F less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are
significant. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not significant.
To improve the model, model reduction is needed by eliminating the insignificant
terms from the model.

Table 4.4 ANOVA result for heat affected zone after natural log transformation
Source
Model
A
B
C
AB
AC
BC
A2
B2
ABC
A2B
Residual
Cor total

SS
3.69
1.87
0.012
1.29
0.035
1.12E-005
0.011
0.040
0.056
0.076
0.050
0.17
3.86

Std.dev
Mean
C.V %
PRESS

0.10
-0.12
88.81
0.45

Dof
10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
16
26

F
33.93
172.19
1.15
118.45
3.24
1.036E-003
0.99
3.64
5.13
7.00
4.64

P> F
0.0001
0.0001
0.2998
0.0001
0.0909
0.9747
0.3356
0.0746
0.0377
0.0176
0.0468

R squared
Adj R- squared
Pred R- squared
Adjprecission

Significance
Significant

Significant
Not significant
Significant
Not Significant
Not Significant
Not Significant
Not significant
Significant
Significant
Significant

0.9550
0.9268
0.8830
25.408

R-squared values are shown in the above table. The predicted R2 of 0.8830
is in reasonable agreement with adjusted R2 of 0.9268. Adequate precision greater
than 4 is desirable. The ratio 25.407 indicates that an adequate measure of the
signal to noise ratio.
4.6.2 Model equation after natural log transformation is

44

Ln (HAZ) =+ 12.43736 - 4.71583 * WC - 7.34166

* EF - 0.30751 * WT +

2.27386 * WC * EF + 0.097715 * WC * WT + 0.14409 *EF *WT+0.48040 * WC 2

+ 0.38565 * EF2 - 0.039009 * WC * EF * WT - 0.22463 * WC2 * EFEqn (4.5)

4.7 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) FOR TENSILE-SHEAR

STRENGTH
ANOVA results for tensileshear strength of the spot welds are as shown in
table 4.5. The model with F-value of 226.07 implies that the model is significant.
There is only a 0.01% chance that a model F-Value this large could occur due to
noise. The Values of Prob> F less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant.
In this case A, C, AC, A2, B2, A2C, AC2 are significant model terms. In this there
are many insignificant model terms.

Table 4.5 ANOVA results for tensile-shear strength

Source
Model
A
B
C
AC
A2
B2
C2
A2C
AC2
Residual
Cor total

SS
1.873E+05
51226.56
66.51
26027.87
1081.05
1181.10
562.99
237.64
422.03
1037.91
1565.09
1.889E+005

Std.dev
Mean
C.V %
PRESS

9.59
263.79
3.64
3730.8

Dof
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
17
26

F
226.07
556.42
0.72
282.72
11.74
12.83
6.12
2.58
4.58
11.27

P> F
0.0001
0.0001
0.4072
0.0001
0.0032
0.0023
0.0243
0.1266
0.0471
0.0037

R squared
Adj R- squared
Pred R- squared
Adjprecission

Significance
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant

0.9917
0.9873
0.9802
47.149

Pred R-Squared of 0.9802 is in reasonable agreement with the Adj RSquared of 0.9873. Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. In this model
the ratio is 47.149, which is greater than 4, indicating adequate signal. So this
model can be used to navigate the design space.

45

4.7.1 Normal plot of residuals for tensile-shear strength

Constructing a normal probability plot of the residuals as shown in Fig 4.8
could make a typical check for normality assumption. ANOVA can be performed if
the data follows a normal distribution. Each residual is plotted against its expected
value under normality. If the residual distribution is normal, this plot will be a
straight line. In visualizing the plot, all the points are on the straight line. The
points on this plot line reasonably close to straight line, indicating that the residuals
are normally distributed.

Fig 4.8 Normal probability plot of residuals for tensile-shear strength

4.7.2 Model equation in terms of actual factors
Tensile Strength = + 614.17000 - 158.38000 * WC - 189.88889 * EF - 81.87133 *
WT + 33.86633 * WC * WT + 16.78500 * WC2 + 38.7466 * EF2 + 2.32560 * WT2
- 2.05433 * WC2 * WT - 0.64433 * WC * WT2 .Eqn (4.6)

4.8 MODEL VALIDATION

The model is evaluated by comparing the predicted response variables with
the actual values for some randomly selected experimental runs from the design
expert software.

46

Table 4.6 Actual vs Predicted responses

Nugget diameter

Heat affected zone

Tensile-shear strength

Actual

Predicted

% error

Actual

Predicted

% error

Actual

Predicted

% error

2.38

2.26

5.04

0.28

0.29

-3.57

121.60

113.53

6.63

3.72

3.28

11.82

0.12

0.15

-25

103.80

105.76

-1.88

4.18

4.23

-1.19

0.53

0.48

9.43

288.60

277.33

3.90

3.19

3.38

-5.95

0.48

0.46

4.16

356.80

357.02

-0.06

4.17

4.22

-1.19

0.29

0.28

3.44

356.00

349.25

1.89

3.71

3.97

-8.20

0.72

0.54

25

244.80

242.78

-0.82

3.09

3.28

-6.14

0.20

0.16

20

323.60

323.61

-0.003

3.79

3.56

6.06

0.13

0.14

-7.69

252.90

254.39

-.058

This is as shown in table 4.6. The calculated percentage error is as shown below.
A comparative graph is also drawn which shows very less deviation for the
predicted values with that of measured values. Hence this model can be used for
predicting the performance measures of nugget diameter, heat affected zone and
tensile-shear strength in resistance spot welding process.

4.5

Nugget diameter (mm)

4
3.5
3
2.5

Actual

Predicted

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

10

Fig 4.9 Comparison plot for actual and predicted values of nugget diameter

47

0.8

Heat affected zone (mm)

0.7
0.6
0.5
Actual

0.4

Predicted
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

10

Tensile-shear strength (MPa)

Fig 4.10 Comparison plot for actual and predicted values of HAZ

400
350
300
250

Actual

200

Predicted

150
100
50
0
0

10

Fig 4.11 Comparison plot for actual and predicted values of Tensile-shear strength

48

Nugget diameter (mm)

4.9 MODEL GRAPHS

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

EF 2

EF 2.5

EF 3

Fig 4.12 Effect of weld current on nugget diameter at different levels of

electrode force

As shown in Fig 4.12 when the weld current increases, the nugget
diameter increases for low electrode forces. But with increase of electrode force

Nugget diameter (mm)

variation of nugget diameter with increase in weld current is downwards.

5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

WT 10

WT 15

WT 20

Fig 4.13 Effect of weld current on nugget diameter at different levels of weld time

From Fig 4.13 when the weld current increases, the nugget diameter
decreases first in 10 and 15 weld cycle times up to 4kA weld current and
afterwards increases. But for higher weld times, the reverse trend is seen.

49

Tensile shear strength

(MPa)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

EF 2

EF 2.5

EF 3

Fig 4.14 Effect of weld current on tensile shear strength of spot weld at different
levels of electrode force
As shown in Fig 4.14 as weld current increases increase in tensile shear
strength of the joints occur. With increase of electrode force the tensile shear

Tensile - shear strength

(MPa)

strength also increases.

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

WT 10

WT 15

WT 20

Fig 4.15 Effect of weld current on tensile shear strength of spot weld at different
levels of weld time
Fig 4.15 is the plot of

tensile shear strength of the joint against weld

current. Tensile shear strength increases with increase of weld time in 10 and 20
weld cycle. But, with increase in weld current, the tensile strength decreases up to
4kA and after that it starts increasing.

50

Heat affected zone (mm)

1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

EF 2

EF 2.5

EF 3

Fig 4.16 Effect of weld current on HAZ at different levels of electrode force
As in Fig 4.16 when weld current and electrode force increase, heat affected

Heat affected zone (mm)

zone also increases.

2.2
1.7
1.2
0.7
0.2
2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Weld current (kA)

WT 10

WT 15

WT 20

Fig 4.17 Effect of weld current on HAZ at different levels of weld time
As shown in Fig 4.17 in the 10 cycle weld time, the HAZ first decreases
and after that it starts increasing, where as in 15 cycle, with the current increases
HAZ increases till 4kA and then reduces. So by reducing the HAZ for getting good
nugget diameter and tensile shear strength of the joint, moderate weld current and
low weld time has to be set.

51

CHAPTER 5
OPTIMIZATION RESULTS AND MICROSCOPIC
OBSERVATIONS
5.1 MULTI OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION
5.1.1 Optimum operating parameters
To determine the optimum operating parameters for the development of
weld zone, heat affected zone and tensile-shear strength of the joint. The
optimization feature available in Design-Expert 7 software was used. The software
searched for a combination of parameters that simultaneously satisfy the ultimate
goals and limits placed on the response and each of the parameters. The optimum
values of the parameters obtained were then assessed by composite desirability,
which carries a value from 0 to 1, to determine the degree of satisfaction of the
optimum values for the ultimate goal of response shown in table 5.1
Table 5.1 Optimization conditions
Name

Goal

Lower

Upper

limit

limit

Importance

WC

In range

EF

In range

WT

In range

10

20

Nugget diameter

In range

Tensile-shear

Maximize

103.8

383.2

Minimize

0.41

2.2

strength
HAZ

WC

EF

WT

Nugget diameter

Tensile-shear strength

HAZ

15.29

3.96

363.69

1.00635

The obtained optimum conditions for nugget diameter, tensile-shear

strength and HAZ are as shown in the table 5.1

52

5.2 MICROSCOPIC IMAGES OF WELD NUGGET AND FRACTURE

SURFACE

Fig5.1 Surface fracture observed during tension test

Using optical microscope Olympus BX-51 with magnification 5X, the

fracture surface of the weld nugget after tensile shear strength is observed and
views as shown in Fig 5.1 are seen. The surface fracture starts at HAZ and fracture
occurs around the weld nugget as shown in photographs 5.1 (a,b). The surface
fracture starts at weld nugget and extends to HAZ and base metal as shown in Fig
5.1 (b.) These occurred due to high weld current, high electrode force and weld
time.

Fig 5.2 Weld cross section with different zones

As in Fig 5.2 three different layers of (i). Base metal (ii). Heat affected zone
and (iii). Fusion zone also could be observed.

53

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
The main aim of the work was to find out the failures of tensile-shear strength
joints and develop model equations for each response, based on the analysis of
variance result (ANOVA) and optimize the process parameters for getting good
nugget diameter, tensile-shear strength and HAZ.

Increasing weld current from 3 kA to 5 kA the failures of the spot weld

change from separation to tearing and pull out button failure modes. The
tensile shear strength of the spot weld increases with increase of weld
time but at large weld current and large electrode force, sparks occur
because the temperature at joint reaches its melting point temperature. In
this case, on cooling, the strength of the joint is good but the surface of the
work piece is with indentation.

An increase in weld current, weld time and electrode force resulted in

increase in weld nugget diameter and the heat affected zone. To get
optimum nugget diameter and maximum tensile shear strength, the weld
current and electrode force can be suitably selected.

In a good joint, surface fracture occurred during the tensile shear strength
test around the weld nugget very near to the heat affected zone.

6.2 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORKS

Conduct the experiment at different levels of parameters with varying

thickness of sheets.

Conduct mechanical and tribological testing on spot welded joints like

corrosion testing, hardness test and peel test.

Develop artificial neural networks for predicting the optimum conditions

for nugget diameter, tensile-shear strength and HAZ.

54

PUBLICATIONS

Sreenu S., Kishore N., Ramachandran N., and Allesu K., 2014, Regression
Modeling and Process Analysis of Resistance Spot Welded Joints,
Abstract accepted and paper submitted for 5thInternational Conference and
26th All India Manufacturing Technology Design and Research (AIMTDR
2014) to be held on 12-14 Dec.14 at IIT Guwahati.

Kishore N., Sreenu S., Ramachandran N., and Allesu K., 2014, Parametric
Studies and Finite Element Analysis of Welded Steel in Resistance Spot
Welding

Process,

Abstract

accepted

and

paper

submitted

for

5thInternational Conference and 26th All India Manufacturing Technology

Design and Research (AIMTDR 2014) to be held on 12-14 Dec.14 at IIT
Guwahati.

Kishore N., Sreenu S., Ramachandran N., and Allesu K., 2014, Parametric
studies finite element analysis and regression analysis of welded steel in
resistance spot welding process, communicated to International J. of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology.

55

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57