Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DOI 10.1007/s10853-016-9741-x
REVIEW
Received: 12 October 2015 / Accepted: 11 January 2016 / Published online: 21 January 2016
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Introduction
The growing environmental awareness about the removal
of pollutant gases from bulk gas streams is accelerating the
investigation of adsorptive nonwoven filters. Adsorbents
are bed(s) or layer(s) of highly porous solid materials or
fine particles [13]. They generally exhibit large specific
surface areas (SSA) that result from high micropore volume [2, 4]. Adsorbents high SSA provides numerous sites
for capture of toxic/unwanted molecules through adsorption process. Adsorption type determines the bonding
energy between the molecules and surface, lower energy
for physical adsorption, and higher energy for chemical
adsorption [57].
The most common types of porous adsorbent materials
are activated carbons (AC), carbon nanotubes, carbon
molecular sieves, activated alumina, pillared clays, silica
gels, synthetic polymers, zeolites, aluminosilicate zeolites,
zirconia, and metalorganic frameworks (MOFs) [1, 2, 4,
814]. Rigidity and anionic nature of aluminosilicate
frameworks, high production costs, absence of homochirality, and functionalization difficulties are some of the
limitations of traditional adsorbents. ACs are the most
common adsorbents because of their reasonable price and
commercial availability. MOFs are interesting to study
because of their extraordinary high SSAs, versatile synthesis approaches, and functional tunability [10, 12, 13,
1520].
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Applications of ACs and MOFs in gas purificationfiltration include odor and irritant/toxic vapor control in
enclosed areas (vehicles, buildings, etc.), control of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) emissions in industrial
locations, and personal protective gears (clothing, face
masks, and respirators) [13, 14, 21].
In practice, adsorbents are immobilized or entrapped
within hybrid nonwoven structures [22] in two major
forms: non-flexible packed beds [23], or flexible fibrous/
polymeric substrates [21]. Packed beds offer high loadings
of adsorbents but suffer from high pressure drops and nonflexibility. Fibrous nonwoven substrates, however, are
flexible backbones for supporting or entrapping adsorbent
materials. They offer unique properties such as engineered
porosity and pressure drop, versatility of the chemistry of
base materials and production processes, and engineered
chemical/physical functionalities [2428].
Generally, adsorbents are immobilized within the nonwoven structure in three fashions: (1) there are physical
bonds between adsorbent(s) and fibers, (2) adsorbents are
mechanically entrapped within the structure, or (3) combination of both. The physical bond is achieved using some
binder materials and/or thermal fusion of either of the
components (adsorbents and fibers), causing a loss of SSA.
In the case of mechanical entrapment, porosity of adsorbents remains unmasked; however, they are susceptible to
shed out from the hybrid web [28].
Structures, properties, and applications of composite
nonwovens are discussed in the literature [21, 29]. However, to the best our knowledge, there is no comprehensive
critical review of how to incorporate adsorbents into nonwoven structures and how these methods compare to each
other. Since each of these techniques will result in nonwovens with different properties, in the present review, we
discussed and characterized them separately. The primary
focus of this review is on hybridization techniques that
incorporate ACs and/or MOFs in nonwoven structures,
used in gas filtration.
Hybridization objectives
Generally, using nanomaterials-polymer composite structures is a common practice to fix the nanomaterials and
incorporate their properties into flexible polymeric structures. These properties include mechanical, thermal, optical, catalytic, wastewater filtration, gas transport and
separation, etc. [3045]. Polymer chains are often functionalized to efficiently embrace and immobilize target
nanoparticles.
Because of the way they pack, adsorbents cannot be
used as freestanding media without large pressure drops;
hence, they need a support to contain them [26, 46].
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Fig. 2 a Porous polyurethane foam containing AC (scale bar 200 lm); b electrospun nylon 6,6 nanofiber coating sprayed onto surface of the
foam (scale bar 2 lm). Reprinted from [81] with permission from Elsevier
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[99102]. High concentrations of added material in viscoelastic polymers can have the following negative effects:
(1) low and non-processable melt flow index (high melt
viscosity), (2) reduced melt elasticity and resulting die
swell phenomenon, (3) likelihood of particle agglomeration, (4) diminished moldability, and (5) induced polymer
degradation (based on polymer-particle chemical compatibility and interfacial surface chemistry). There is no
specific range for this concentration since each polymerparticle system would behave differently [9395, 103,
104]. Adding compatible surfactants [9092], using endfunctionalized polymers [105], and using ultrasonic particle dispersion can help reduce the particle agglomeration
[93].
The other limitation/consideration is the dimensions of
target adsorbent particles relative to fiber diameter. This is
important as the functionality of adsorbent (accessible
surface area and pore) depends on how it is attached to the
fiber; i.e., contained in the fiber structure or point-attached
on the fiber surface. It is reported that the radial placement
of particles relative to fiber axis depends on particle size.
Larger particles tend to cluster on fiber surface and smaller
particles agglomerate in the center of fiber [106108].
Since particles are partially bonded to the fibers/web, the
filter media do not suffer from dusting as much as wetlaid
(in Incorporation of adsorbent materials in the wetlay
process section) or coform (in CoForming section)
hybrid structures [60, 91]. For the same reason, the filter
media will have a uniform 3-D distribution of the adsorbent
component. This method is environmentally benign since
no solvent system is involved in the production [51, 92,
109]. However, this hybridization method will potentially
block the adsorbent materials pores and adversely influence the mechanical properties of fibers and nonwoven
fabrics.
Thermal bonding of adsorbent to substrate
Implementation and technology
In general, this method refers to all techniques by which
either the nonwoven substrate or the adsorbent material is
heated to make bonds at points of contact between the two.
The nonwoven fabric is produced by different methods,
such as dry-laying, wet-laying, spunbonding, or meltblowing [110].
Approaches to introduce heated adsorbent component to
nonwoven fabric include (1) spraying an air stream containing the heated solid particles onto the substrate; (2)
dropping or sprinkling the heated solid particles onto the
substrate; (3) passing the substrate through a shaking
reservoir/chamber containing heated particles; (4)
immersing and passing the fibrous sheet through the heated
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(c)
Centrone et al. synthesized MIL-47 directly on electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) substrates via microwave
irradiation. PAN solution was electrospun, collected on an
aluminum foil, and folded and heat-pressed for enhanced
mechanical strength. The substrate was then placed in a
vial that contained the precursor solution of MIL-47 to be
irradiated in a microwave for 5 s to 30 min. Finally, the
MOF-coated PAN substrate was removed from the solution, rinsed and dried for characterization. The produced
substrate was found to be a proper medium for filtration
applications [164].
Pinto et al. reported the attachment of HKUST-1 to PAN
electrospun nanofibers (see Electrospinning section).
The electrospun PAN substrate was firstly reacted with
copper acetate for 2 h and then the BTC solution was
added drop-wise to the reaction solution for the in situ
growth [165].
Fan et al. prepared a macroporous SiO2 wafer with a
thickness of 2 mm as the supporting scaffold for ZIF-8/PVP
(Polyvinylpyrrolidone) composite nonwoven web. Next,
they post-synthesized a secondary seeded growth of ZIF-8
on the prepared SiO2/ZIF-8/PVP support [166]. The produced nonwoven composite webs and the secondary-synthesized membrane are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
In situ growth of ZIF-8 materials on flexible nylon
membranes was also done using contra-diffusion method in
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Fig. 4 SEM images of the ZIF-8/PVP composite fibers electrospun from methanol solutions of 12 wt% PVP and different seed concentrations:
a 6 wt%, b 8 wt%, c 10 wt% and d 12 wt%. Reprinted from [166] with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry
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Fig. 5 Cross section view of the ZIF-8 membrane. Reprinted from [166] with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry
the pores of the nylon support; c SEM image of the cross section of
the ZIF-8 film prepared at room temperature for 72 h at the zincnitrate solution side. Reprinted from [167] with permission from
Royal Society of Chemistry
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perforated forming surface (drum or belt). Negative pressure is provided under the forming surface, and the solidified composite web is collected in the form of rolls [90,
198, 199].
Different devices are used to create, convey and introduce the stream of functional materials to filaments. These
include picker roll and gas stream (common for AC particles) [199], carding system and airflow (common for
ACF) [82], fluidized bed sprays [79, 95, 200], and particle
shakers and compressed air [200].
Several configurations of coform process have been
reported, most of which concern with the location and
temperature at which adsorbent materials and meltblown
stream(s) meet each other. Adsorbent particles are introduced from a feeding hopper to maintain a continuous
incorporation [60]. In practice, particles are introduced to
meltblown web stream at distances either far or close from
the die nozzle [95, 198]. In addition, particles can have
different temperatures adjusted according to the thermal
properties of web material and particles thermal properties
[60, 95, 194]. Based on the configuration, particles are
mechanically entrapped within the meltblown web and/or
thermally bonded to the filaments [198]. Coformed webs
have minimal dusting. Laminating the hybrid web (in
Lamination section) with two or more spunbond nonwoven webs can further minimize dusting and enhance the
mechanical properties [21, 79, 194, 198, 201203].
Figure 7 demonstrates a configuration of a coform line
where ACF is introduced to a single meltblown stream
using a carding system coupled with airflow. ACF diameter
was between 10 and 20 microns and their length was about
one inch [82].
Characteristics and considerations
Coform technology can be viewed from two standpoints,
web formation process and particle introduction/incorporation step. The processing parameters and techniques for
the web formation are well described in the literature and
are not the focus of this review [2527, 204212]. The
following section focuses on the particle introduction/incorporation stage of coform process.
The most important parameter is the distance and
location of the functional-component dispensing device
relative to the meltblown die(s). This is important since not
only can it change the velocity of particles at convergence
point [82, 198], but also the filaments could be either tacky
or non-tacky when particles hit them, depending on the
polymer thermal properties [60].
Tackiness of filaments has profound effects on the
mechanism by which particles are attached to filaments.
Particles would thermally bond to tacky fibers and the
resulted meltblown web would mechanically entrap the
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Fig. 7 Equipment for forming the meltblown/ACF composite. Reprinted from [82] with permission from the society for the Advancement of
Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE)
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stabilization time, number of cross-junction points, substrate flexibility, SSA, pore volume, and pore accessibility.
Higher SSA, pore volume, and pore accessibility are the
keys to higher capacitance, catalytic performance,
adsorption, and selective ion adsorption [236, 237, 241,
242, 268, 273, 281283].
With regard to electrospun AC nanofibers, there are three
pore development mechanisms, namely breaking, exfoliation, and expansion; the latter yields the desired fibrous
porous structure [239]. Furthermore, pore size and uniformity of AC nanofibers are significantly affected by the size
and dispersion of activating agent [237, 258, 291, 294].
In the case of hybrid AC nanofibers, the ultimate
objective of hybridization is enhancing the pore formation
and improving the conductivity of final structure [240, 242,
267, 271, 272, 291]. Pore formation takes place during the
activation process based on different shrinkageexpansion
coefficients of the nanofiber components [228, 234, 251,
287294]. Moreover, the superior performance of electrospun AC nanofibers over its non-fibrous counterparts, i.e.,
PAC and GAC, is attributed to their high SSA, porous, and
fibrous morphology [241, 256, 282, 296].
AC nanofibers are inherently porous and high-surfacearea, so the added component in hybrid AC nanofibers is
not deemed to function as the adsorption sites. The functionality of the added component is to enhance the pore
formation process. Therefore, high loading percentage
of the functional component is not the sought-after processing parameter. Loading percentage of the functional
component ranges between 0 and 4 wt% [287] to 10 wt%
of the composite substrate [289]. Ju et al. found optimal
loading percentage at 3 wt% to reach uniform distribution,
without agglomeration [291]. Haji et al. reported that the
surface of hybrid SWCNT-AC nanofibers turned rough by
adding more than 5 wt% SWCNT [228].
Mechanical-physical properties of electrospun nonwoven web structure, such as flexibility and strength, depend
on the nature of the precursor materials and processing
conditions. Electrospun carbon fibers are too brittle and do
not have sufficient flexibility which is required for a textile
substrate, used per se in filtration application [250, 253,
337]. CNTs have high available interaction surface area
and they have been reported to reduce the brittleness of AC
nanofibers [237, 261, 281, 282, 291].
Loading percentage and loss of surface area for MOFnanofiber hybrid nonwovens are based on different objectives. In this case, high-SSA MOFs are the prime adsorptive sites; hence, higher loadings and minimal loss of the
SSA are sought-after. Hybrid MOF-nanofiber structures
can be electrospun with initial loadings of 3 wt% [296] to
5 wt% [191]; subsequently, secondary seed coating can be
done to increase the loading percentage.
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Other
MOF paper sheets
Tailoring and engineering the structure of cellulosic paper
sheets offer a suitable pliable structure. Their structure can
adopt different geometries based on the desired production
design. In addition, by choosing different pulp qualities or
use of additives one can render the structure thick, permeable, hydrophilic, and/or rigid. These highly flexible
design parameters afford paper-like bed structures for
MOFs. MOF particles can be introduced into the paper
sheet by adding fillers and/or pigments in paper forming
technology [13]. For example, HKUST-1 powder was
added to pulp slurry and introduced into paper sheets by the
Rapid Kothen sheet mold process. Figure 9 shows an
SEM image of the MOF-containing paper sheets.
It was observed that the slurry mixing approach yields
reasonably entrapped MOF composites. However,
HKUST-1 crystals were inhomogeneously distributed on
the MOF-containing paper sheets. The average content of
MOF particles ranged between 6.5 and 14.6 wt%, which is
fairly broad. Thereby, particle distribution homogeneity
needs improvement to make better MOF-containing paper
sheets [13, 163].
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Charged media
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Fig. 10 SEM images of the surface (a, d, and g), cross section at low magnification (b, e, and h), and cross section at high magnification (c, f,
and i) of 10, 20, and 30 % MOF-5/Matrimid MMMs, respectively. Reprinted from [341] with permission from Elsevier
component can either be applied in-line with the production or be formed separately beforehand and added later
[59, 138]. A variety of bonding techniques can be applied,
including: heat bonding or using hot melt adhesives, needle
punching, hydroentangling, and ultrasonic bonding [21, 26,
350352].
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not the only reason that tight control on the particle loss is
important. For instance, in case of conductive ACs and
abrasive zirconia, the uncontrolled waste could potentially
cause damages to the machinery. In addition, emission of
solvent vapors in processes such as electrospinning should
be controlled to reduce environmental hazard [216, 336].
Some of the mentioned techniques require pre-/post-processes that add up to final unit cost. For instance, to directly
grow the MOFs crystals on the substrate, some pretreatments are required that lengthen the production time and
add up to the final cost. In some cases, to provide the
hybrid nonwoven with optimal abrasion resistance and
mechanical strength, the web would undergo the lamination process [112, 194, 201, 202, 248]. Therefore, the extra
processes and their associated cost(s) should be considered
carefully before choosing a method.
Conclusions
We have reviewed the techniques to incorporate adsorbents
(activated carbons and metal-organic frameworks) in nonwoven gas filtration media. Electrospinning and direct
growth offer the highest adsorbent loading ranges and the
least surface area coverage; however, they have a very low
throughput. Wetlay process is not compatible with all
adsorbents and compounded nonwovens cannot contain
high loadings of adsorbents. Coating, thermal bonding,
lamination, and coform are high-throughput hybridization
processes. The major limitation of these techniques is the
potential coverage of adsorbent surface area. The amount
of the binding agent and the agent-particle surface interactions determine the coverage of adsorbents surface area.
The amount of molten polymer that fuses into the particles
pores determines the surface coverage in thermal bonding
and lamination processes. This amount depends on the
polymer thermal properties, adsorbent loading %, temperature, and duration of thermal processes. Coform process
offers an effective particle incorporation since the adsorbents are mechanically entrapped and partially bonded to
the fibers.
Funding This study was funded by The Nonwovens Institute (NWI)
at North Carolina State University (there was no specific grant
number).
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of Interest
of interest.
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