MICROWAVE ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENT - AMBUJ

ARORA
0014802813
Applications of microwave engineering
Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the antenna. At higher
frequencies, more antenna gain is therefore possible for a given physical
antenna size, which has important consequences for implementing miniaturized
microwave systems.
More bandwidth can be realized at higher frequencies. Bandwidth is critically
important because available frequency bands in the electromagnetic spectrum
are being rapidly depleted.
Microwave signals travel by line of sight are not bent by the ionosphere as are
lower frequency signals and thus satellite and terrestrial communication links
with very high capacities are possible.
Effective reflection area (radar cross section) of a radar target is proportional to
the targets electrical size. Thus generally microwave frequencies are preferred
for radar systems.
Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at microwave
frequencies, creating a variety of unique applications in the areas of basic
science, remote sensing, medical diagnostics and treatment, and heating
methods.

advantages of microwave engineering

1 Essentially, microwaves are Electromagnetic waves with frequencies that
range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. They are in use in a lot
of technology from mobile phones to satellites and home appliances. A lot of
systems rely on microwaves to transmit data and it is still one of the most viable
technologies for a lot of industries.
2 Unlike other types of stations, microwave radio systems do not require a lot of
legal and real estate requirements between different stations. Other types of
stations need right-of-way acquisitions between them.
3 Each station only needs a small plot of land. This is because microwave radio
communication is powerful enough not to need massive towers that should have
vast tracks of land between them and other structures in case of an emergency
collapse.
4 heir high operating frequencies allow them to store large amounts of
information. This means that its very cost efficient to use microwave radio
communications for a lot of systems for your business or enterprise.

5 hey only need small antennae. Microwaves operate at very high frequencies
so they travel much faster and require only smaller infrastructure to transmit.
6 Physical obstacles such as water and high mountains may interfere with other
kinds of signals. Microwaves travel better through them since theyre so robust.

bands in microwave frequencies

Frequency
band

Designation

Typical service

3-30 kHz

Very low frequency

(VLF)

Navigation, sonar

30-300
kHz

Low frequency (LF)

Radio beacons, navigational aids

300-3,000
kHz

Medium frequency
(MF)

AM broadcasting, marintime radio, Coast Guard

communication, direction finding

3-30 MHz

High frequency (HF)

Telephone, telegraph, and facsimile; shortwave

international broadcasting; amature radio; citizen's
band; ship-to-coast and ship-to-aircraft
communication

30300MHz

Very high frequency

(VHF)

Television, FM broadcast, air-traffic control, police,

taxicab mobil radio, navigational aids

3003,000MHz

Ultrahigh frequency
(UHF)

Television, satellite communication, radiosonde,

surveillance radar, navigational aids

3-30 GHz

Superhigh frequency

Airborne radar, microwave links, common- carrier

30-300
GHz

(SHF)

land mobile communication, satellite

communication

Extreme high
frequency (EHF)

Radar, experimental

skin effect
Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become
distributed within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the
surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor.
The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the
outer surface and a level called the skin depth. The skin effect causes the
effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the
skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor.
The skin effect is due to opposing eddy currents induced by the
changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating current. At 60 Hz in
copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high frequencies the skin depth
becomes much smaller. Increased AC resistance due to the skin effect can be
mitigated by using specially woven litz wire. Because the interior of a large
conductor carries so little of the current, tubular conductors such as pipe can be
used to save weight and cost.

advantages of microwaves
1 Essentially, microwaves are Electromagnetic waves with frequencies that
range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. They are in use in a lot
of technology from mobile phones to satellites and home appliances. A lot of
systems rely on microwaves to transmit data and it is still one of the most viable
technologies for a lot of industries.
2 Unlike other types of stations, microwave radio systems do not require a lot of
legal and real estate requirements between different stations. Other types of
stations need right-of-way acquisitions between them.
3 Each station only needs a small plot of land. This is because microwave radio
communication is powerful enough not to need massive towers that should have
vast tracks of land between them and other structures in case of an emergency
collapse.
4 heir high operating frequencies allow them to store large amounts of
information. This means that its very cost efficient to use microwave radio
communications for a lot of systems for your business or enterprise.

5 hey only need small antennae. Microwaves operate at very high frequencies
so they travel much faster and require only smaller infrastructure to transmit.
6 Physical obstacles such as water and high mountains may interfere with other
kinds of signals. Microwaves travel better through them since theyre so robust.
Maxwell's equations in differential form
Maxwell's equations in differential , or point, form are:
(1.
1)
(1.
2)
(1.
3)
(1.
4)
where
=

electric field (in V/m) ,

magnetic field (in A/m),

electric flux density (in C/m2),

magnetic flux density (in Wb/m2),

electric charge density (in C/m3),

electric current density (in A/m2),

magnetic charge density (in WB/m3),

magnetic charge density (in V/m2),

and all eight quantities are, in general, functions of position r and time t. The
operator is the del or ``nabla'' operator,
is the curl operator.

is the divergence operator, and

Maxwell's equations in integral form

Consider a fixed volume
unit normal is

bounded by the closed surface

, whose outward

as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Geometry for Gauss

theorem.

Integration of (1.3,1.4) and (1.5,1.6) over

divergence theorem, yields:

, followed by the use of the

(1.1
4)
(1.1
5)
(1.1
6)
(1.1
7)

where Qe and Qm are the total electric charge (in C) and magnetic charge (in
Wb) inside the volume

, respectively.

Equation (1.14) means that the total electric charge contained in

equals the

outgoing flux of D through the surface

of . A similar interpretation applies to
(1.15); since Qm is zero, the total outgoing flux of B through any fixed closed
surface is zero.
Equation (1.16) means that the rate of decrease of the total electric
charge Qe inside

equals the amount of electric charge which leaves

in unit

time by traveling outward through ; thus, (1.3) is obviously a statement of

conservation of electric charge. A similar interpretation applies to (1.17);
since Qm is zero, the outgoing flux of Jm through

is also zero.

As a particular application of (1.14), consider a point charge Qe located at the

center of a sphere of radius

in free space. Because of symmetry D is radially

directed and has the same magnitude at all points on

. Hence (1.14) gives:

(1.1
8)

and, with the use of (1.7):

(1.1
9)

which is Coulomb's law of electrostatic.

Let us now consider a fixed open surface

bounded by a closed curve

, as

shown in Fig. 1.2. The unit normal

on
and the unit tangent along are
chosen according to the right-handed corkscrew rule. Integration of (1.1-1.2)
over

and use of Stokes' theorem yields:

(1.2
0)
(1.2
1)

Figure 1.2: Geometry for Stokes

theorem.

For time-invariant, or stationary, fields, eq. (1.20) becomes:

(1.2
2)

where Ie is the total electric current which flows through the closed loop .
Equation (1.22) is Ampre's law, whose generalization to time-varying fields
requires the addition of the second term in the right-hand side of (1.20); this
added term, whose existence was postulated by Maxwell in 1861, is called
the displacement current.
For the case
, equation (1.21) is Lenz's law which in turn represents a
generalization of Kirchhoff's second law of circuit theory to the case of timevarying fields by the inclusion of an induction term.

Dielectric - Dielectric boundary conditions

Consider the E field existing in a region of two different dielectric characterized
by 1 = 0r1 and 2 = 0r2.

E1 = E1t + E1n
E2 = E2t + E2n
E.dl =0
is applied for a closed path abcda assuming the path is very small with respect to
variation in E.
E1tw-E1nh/2- E2nh/2- E2tw+ E2nh/2+ E1nh/2
Et =|Et|
En =|En|.
As, h-->0
So, E1t = E2t
Thus, the tangential components of E are on the two sides of the boundary. In
other words, Et undergoes no changes and so continuous through the boundary.
and since D = E = Dt + Dn.

so
D1t/1 = D2t/2
Hence Dt remains discontinuous across the interface.

Now continuity of normal component across the interface will be checked.

From the figure we can see a cylindrical Gaussian surface cut

h-->0
Q=sS =D1nS -D2nS.
Hence,
D1n - D2n = s

s is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary.

D is directed from region 2 to region 1.
If no free charges exists at the interface then s =0.
D1n = D2n

Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface; that is D undergoes no change at the
boundary. Since D = E so
1E1n = 2E2n

Hence showing normal component of E is discontinuous at the boundary.Thus

1) E1t = E2t
2)D1n -D2n =s
3)1E1n =2E2n
are collectively called the boundary conditions.

Conductor - Dielectric boundary conditions

The conductor is assumed to be perfect. So,

E = 0, inside the conductor surface.
Similar procedures are applied, which were applied for Dielectric - Dielectric interface.

But, the difference is that

E = 0 here
For the path abcda, considering h-->0, it is found that
Et =0,
D =0.Hence,
Dn = Q/S=s
D n = s