Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fundamentals
Workbook
Raj Aggarwal
BEng PhD CEng FIEE SMIEE
Brian Bolton
BSc MSc PhD CEng MIEE
Richard Daniels
BSc MSc CEng MIEE
Phil Moore
BEng ACGI PhD CEng MIEE
Acknowledgements
Electrical Power Systems by Distance Learning (EPS) has been
developed and produced at the University of Bath. This EPS
text forms part of a University of Bath programme of study
and is published by the Distance Learning Unit within the
Faculty of Engineering and Design. EPS programmes of study
are supervised by the Department of Electronic and Electrical
Engineering.
Programme Team
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering
Head of Department
Adrian Evans
Production
Educational Technologist Tracey Madden
Graphic Design
Nicola Robinson
Unit Components
The System Fundamentals unit is an integrated learning package
comprising the following elements:
Workbook
You will find guidelines for the use of all these materials in the
student handbook, available through Moodle.
Self-assessment questions (SAQs) are used throughout the workbook
to make sure that you understand all the concepts. Worked
solutions are provided in a further booklet but do not turn to them
too early. Test yourself!
In addition there are numerous exercises in each section which
help the flow of the argument and for which answers usually
appear in the text that follows. Occasionally an exercise might ask
you to consider an aspect from your own experience or working
environment. In these cases the answer you give will be specific
and personalised and for this reason a solution as such cannot be
provided. Like the SAQs it is a good idea to do the exercises as you
work through the workbook. Use the answer space in the exercise
box for your workings or notes, or use your own paper as necessary.
Try not to skip any. Some of them may seem elementary and it can
be tempting to hurry on to the next paragraph, but they all have a
purpose.
It is a good idea to make your own notes as you go along; these will
be useful when you are revising for the examination. To help you
identify important concepts you will find that each section starts
with a list of learning objectives. Make sure you understand all of
them before moving on to the next section.
Good luck with your studies!
Section 1
Introduction
1.0 Introduction ............................................. page 1-1
Section 2
Basic considerations
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Section 3
Section 4
Generation
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
Section 6
Unbalanced systems
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Section 7
Fault calculations
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
Section 8
Section 9
Principles of protection
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1
Module 1
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2.0 Objectives
When you have completed this section you should be able to:
Establish single-line equivalent circuits to represent threephase circuits with all parameters expressed in per unit
values
2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this section is to revise some of the fundamentals
of power system analysis. Most of it will be familiar to you, but it
may be some time since you have used the theory and a quick
revision now will help you to avoid making mistakes in later
chapters.
The whole point of power system analysis is to model a complex
system so that we can analyse its performance and make
predictions about its future behaviour. We need to be certain
therefore that the basic building blocks are firmly in place.
If you are feeling very confident, then you can jump to the selfassessment questions (SAQs) at the end of this section. If you can
complete all of them correctly and with ease then by all means
jump ahead to Section 3.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-1
Module 1
2.2 Phasors
2.2.1 Introduction
There is a section on this topic in the second chapter of the
reference text Power System Analysis and Design, so you can get two
slightly different views of the same material.
With an ac power system in steady-state operation we are usually
dealing with voltages and currents which are varying sinusoidally
with time. We can represent the voltage of such a system as:
v V max cosot
where v is the instantaneous value of the voltage, V max is the
maximum value of the voltage, o 2pf is the angular frequency
of the supply voltage and f is the frequency in Hertz (or cycles per
second).
It is usual in power systems work to use root-mean-square (r.m.s)
values of voltage and current and the symbols that we will use for
these respectively are:
V and I
For a sinusoidal waveform:
V max
I max
V p and I p
2
2
All values for voltage and current given in this text will be r.m.s.
values and the supply frequency will be 50 Hz unless otherwise
stated.
Now let us apply a voltage V 220 V across an inductance of
value L 0:732 H.
We have:
vL
di
dt
so that
V max cosot L
2-2
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
di
dt
Section 2
or
di V max
cosot
L
dt
so that
V max
cosot dt
L
giving
V max
sinot
oL
I max
V max
oL
I V=oL
Exercise
Sketch the curves for v and for i
on the axes given in Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1
V max
p
26220 311 V
2-3
Module 1
I max
V max V max
1:35 A
oL
2pfL
1:35
I p 0:96 A
2
The current wave also repeats in 20 ms, but it is a sine wave. It
will appear as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2
The current wave reaches its maximum value 5 ms later than the
voltage wave. It is said to lag the voltage by 5 ms. This time is
equivalent to p=2 radians or 90 electrical degrees.
So we have:
v V max cosot
and
i I max sinot
We can rewrite the equation for current as:
2-4
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section Two
and if we solve for the current we obtain for the steady-state part
of the solution:
Figure 2.3
The angle is known as the power factor angle and it will always
be negative when the current is lagging the voltage.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-5
Module 1
In this case
1
v
C
i dt
so that, if
v V max cosot
then
d
d
Cv CV max cosot
dt
dt
2-6
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
we have:
V max
Xc
where
Xc
1
oC
i I max cosot f
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-7
Module 1
Figure 2.4
What is particularly useful to us is that a second sinusoidal
quantity which is delayed by an angle f, for example the phasor
Isinot f, can be represented by a phasor I at an angle
ot 1 f as shown in Figure 2.4(c).
We make this the basis of our polar representation, by choosing
one phasor as our reference and referring all others to it.
Let us select V as our reference and represent it as V0 . We
imply that it is sinusoidally varying at an angular frequency o, but
the zero tells us that we have chosen it as our reference phasor.
2-8
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Figure 2.5
Exercise
Add together the two vectors
5030 and 50 60 .
a jb c jd a c jb d
and
a jb c jd a c jb d
When we need to multiply and divide however, the polar form is
best because:
aa 6b b a6b a b
and
2-9
Module 1
The angles are simply added for multiplication and subtracted for
division.
You can of course convert a and b to rectangular form and
multiply through as follows:
aa a1 ja2
bb b1 jb2
q
ja6bj a1 b1 a2 b2 2 a2 b1 a1 b2 2
and the angle is:
1
a b tan
a2 b1 a1 b2
a1 b1 a2 b2
2.3.1 Introduction
The power in an ac circuit is the product of the instantaneous
voltage across the circuit and the instantaneous current in the
circuit. The unit of power is the Watt.
We need to consider for a moment the problem of sign
convention. It is easy to talk about power from a generator or
power absorbed by a load and in simple circuits we will have no
problems with signs because it is obvious where the power is
coming from and where it is going to. Thus in Section 2.2 of the
reference textbook it is assumed that the power absorbed by a load
is positive.
2-10
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Figure 2.6
The power in the generator is defined as Vg i and is assumed
positive because the current flows through the unit in the
direction of the increasing potential difference.
The power in the load is defined as VL i and is assumed negative
because the current flows through the unit against the direction of
increasing potential difference.
In a power system, this is important because we often move power
across ac links in different directions depending on where we have
a power requirement and where we have a generating capacity. So
a more likely reference diagram for us might be that of Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7
You might assume that the power flow is from left to right, but we
cannot be sure until we know the relative magnitudes and phase
of the voltages at either end of the link. We shall return to this
later
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-11
Module 1
V max
cosot I max cosot
R
2
VI 1 cos2ot
So we have a power of average value VI with a double frequency
component VIcos2ot . This double frequency component
averages out to zero and the instantaneous value of power never
goes negative.
i I max cosot f
This is a general case, with f taken as positive. The circuit is
therefore capacitive, but that does not matter.
The instantaneous power is:
V max I max
cosf cos2ot f
2
2-12
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
VIsinfsin2ot
This is a double-frequency component and has an average value of
zero. The component clearly alternates between positive and
negative values and so represents energy which is pulsating into
and out of the load. This is the energy required to establish the
magnetic field of the current and the electric field of the voltage.
As these two quantities vary sinusoidally the energy into and out
of the field oscillates at double frequency, but no power is
consumed. Because the average power of this component is zero it
would be nice if we could ignore it altogether, but we cannot
because it has a component of current Isinf associated with it.
This current does cause losses in the system. Imagine for example
that the load is wholly reactive so that no power is consumed by
the load. The current flow would still cause heating in the
generators and transformers that provided the supply. It is quite
possible to have a situation where there is no average power being
delivered to the load, but the generator and transformer are on
overload because the heating effect has raised their operating
temperatures above the normal working level. This component of
current is therefore vitally important to us as power engineers
because it limits the capacity of the system to deliver real power.
Consider again the equation for this double-frequency component
of power:
VIsinfsin2ot
The amplitude of the oscillation is:
VIsinf
We define this as the reactive power Q , so that
Q VIsinf
It has the same units as real power, but to make it clear that this
component has no real value we use the unit var, or Volt-Ampere
reactive, for it.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-13
Module 1
Exercise
Calculate
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.8
Let us take the supply voltage in Figure 2.8 as our reference
phasor, then the current in the 50 O resistor is given by:
I1
2400
4:80 A
50
I2
2400
2400
4:8 53
30 j40 5053
2-14
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
S 115253
We define S as the complex power. Its units are VA (voltamperes).
We then use the rectangular co-ordinates and the j operator to
define, in general:
Sa Scosa jSsina
P jQ
Now we have to be careful!
The complex power S is clearly the product of a voltage and a
current, but look what happens when we simply multiply the
voltage across the second branch of the circuit in Figure 2.8 by the
current through it:
V 2400
I 2 4:8 53
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-15
Module 1
S VI *
where I * is the conjugate of I , i.e. if I If then I * I f
Now we can obtain the complex power in the second branch of
the circuit as follows:
V 2400
I 2 4:8 53
I * 4:8 53
2
S VI *2 115253
S 693:3 j920
. . .which is correct.
This explains another odd feature of power calculations in power
systems which often confuses the newcomer. Current into an
inductive circuit (e.g. the second branch in Figure 2.8) lags the
voltage and is given in general by
I f Icosf jIsinf
but the complex power in an inductive circuit is given by:
S VI * VI f
S VIcosf jVIsinf
Notice the difference in sign between the two reactive terms.
2-16
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
V V0
I I f
I * I f
S VI f
I Icosf jIsinf
S VIcosf jVIsinf
Exercise
Calculate the power consumed
in each of the branches of the
circuit illustrated in Figure 2.9
and the total power taken from
the supply.
Figure 2.9
In the first branch we have a reactive impedance 30 j40 O i.e.
the branch is capacitive.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-17
Module 1
2400
2400
I1
4:853 A
30 j40 50 53
The conjugate of this current is 4:8 53 A
The complex power is:
I2
2400
2400
4:8 37 A
40 j30 5037
2-18
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
V a1 a2 V0
V b1 b2 V 120
V c1 c2 V 240
The windings are represented diagrammatically in Figure 2.10a
with an angular separation of 120 . In Figure 2.10b the windings
are connected together and the common connection is called the
neutral point, n. This connection is known as the Star or Wye
connection.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-19
Module 1
Figure 2.10
We can redefine the voltages as:
V a1 a2 V an
V b1 b2 V bn
V c1 c2 V cn
The voltage phasors are represented in Figure 2.11 with a common
reference point at n. The reference phasor is V0 .
Figure 2.11
The voltages between each generator terminal and the neutral
point all have the same magnitude V , but they have different
phase relationships. The magnitude of the voltages V an ; V bn and
V cn are known as Phase voltages because they represent the
voltage across the phase. The voltages between the terminals,
V ac ; V cb and V ba are known as the Line voltages because they
are the voltages between the power lines that leave the generator.
We can determine the relationship between the line voltages and
the phase voltages for a star-connected system as follows:
2-20
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
V ac V an V cn
hence,
V ac V0 V 240
V ac Vcos0 jVsin0 Vcos240 jVsin240
V ac V j0 0:5 V j0:866 V
V ac 1:5 V j0:866 V
p
1 0:866
2
2
V
V ac 1:5 0:866 tan
1:5
V ac 1:732 30 V
p
V ac 3 30 V
We see that we have a simple magnitude relationship between
phase and line voltages. The line voltages are always H3 times the
phase voltages in balanced three-phase systems.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-21
Module 1
Figure 2.12
The current in the a phase of the generator can be determined
simply as:
ia
V an V
0
Z
Z
similarly
V
120
Z
V
ic 240
Z
ib
Exercise
Carry out the summation of
ia ; ib and ic .
2-22
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
V
[cos0 + jsin0 + cos( 120) + jsin( 120) + cos( 240) + jsin( 240)]
Z
V
= [1 + j0 0.5 j0.866 0.5 + j0.866]
Z
=0
ia + ib + ic =
S = 3VI*
for Va
= V0
ia =
V
V
=
= I
Z
3VLI*
S = 3VPI*P
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-23
Module 1
or
S H3V L I *L
where: V P is the phase voltage,
p
30006106
3
6
IP
4330 A
4006103
3
The power factor is 0.8 lagging (i.e. 36:9 ), so:
I P 3464 j2600 A
Exercise
A 381 V, three-phase, starconnected, a.c. supply delivers
250 kW at a power factor of
0:707 lagging to a three-phase,
star-connected load. Determine
the current in each phase of the
load.
2-24
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
P
2506103
35445 kVA
0:707
cosf
p
but S 3V L I L*
S
3546103
;I L* p
45 53645 A
36381
;I P I L 536 45 A
Exercise
We wish to raise the power
factor of the supply to 0:85
while maintaining the real
power delivered constant. To do
this we connect three equal
capacitors in a star connection
in parallel with the load.
Calculate the reactance of each
capacitor.
XC
V 2P
48400
1:526 O:
VAP 31700
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-25
Module 1
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Van = V 0
Vbn = V 120
Vcn = V 240
From Section 2.4.1 we know that the line voltage
Vac = 3 V 30
so that the voltage
2-26
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
V a0 c0 V ac H3 V 30
The current in the ac branch of the load is then:
I a0 c0
V a0 c0 p V
3 30 f
Zf
Z
V ba V bn V an V 120 V0
p
3 V 150
I b0 a0
V b0 a0 p V
3 150 f
Zf
Z
I a I a0 c0 I b0 a0
p
p
3 V30 f
3 V150 f
Ia
Z
Z
p
3 V p
Ia
6 3 f
Z
which is H3 times the phase current I a0 c0 but 308 in advance of it.
So in general, the line current to a delta connection has a
magnitude of H3 times the current in each phase of the delta, or
I L H3 I P
Exercise
A 381 V, three-phase, starconnected, ac supply delivers
250 kW at a power factor of
0:707 lagging to a three-phase,
delta-connected load. Determine
the current in each phase of the
load and in each line.
2-27
Module 1
S = 3 VL I L*
354 103
45D = 53645D A
3 381
I L = 536 45D A
536
( 45 30)D
IP =
3
I L* =
Figure 2.15
2-28
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
ZAB 6ZCA
ZAB ZBC ZCA
ZBC 6ZAB
ZB
ZAB ZBC ZCA
ZCA 6ZBC
ZC
ZAB ZBC ZCA
ZA
Figure 2.16
The reverse transform, from star to delta, gives the following
relationships:
ZA ZB ZB ZC ZC ZA
ZC
ZA ZB ZB ZC ZC ZA
ZBC
ZA
ZA ZB ZB ZC ZC ZA
ZCA
ZB
ZAB
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-29
Module 1
Exercise
A balanced three-phase load
consists of three impedances
each of value 4 j3 O
connected in a delta
arrangement. The load is
supplied from a 381 V, threephase, balanced supply. The
lines connecting the load to the
supply each have an impedance
of 1 j4 O.
Calculate:
(a)
(b)
(c)
537 6537
1:6737 O
34 j3
ZA 1:33 j1:01 O
ZA
IA
VA
220
39:8 65 A
ZS 5:5365
IL
IP p 23 A
3
The phase angle of the line current, with respect to the reference
2-30
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section Two
S = VI*
S = 2200 39.865
S = 875665 VA
S = 3700 W + j7936 var
The total complex power provided by the supply is therefore
11.1 kW + j23.8 kVAr
v
p.u.
1000
A voltage of 500 V is 0.5 p.u. to a 1000 V base and a voltage of
1500 V is 1.5 p.u. to a 1000 V base.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-31
Module 1
base voltage; V b
6:4 kV
and
base volt-amps;VAb
100 MVA
VAb 1006106
15:6 kA
Vb
6:46103
Vb
V 2b
6:42 6106
0:41 O
base impedance; Zb
Ib
VAb 1006106
base current; Ib
S 6030 MVA
or
60
30 0:630 p:u:;
100
or
S
51:96
30
j
100
100
0:52 j0:3 p:u:;
or
2-32
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Exercise
A 500 MVA, 11 kV, threephase synchronous generator has
a synchronous reactance of
0.43 per phase and supplies
300 MVA at a lagging power
factor of 0.8. Use the singlephase nominal values of VA and
voltage to convert the impedance
and the load value into per-unit
notation. Also determine the perunit value of the load current.
Hence
and the load current in per-unit notation is the ratio of IL to Ib, or,
IL = 0.6 p.u.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-33
Module 1
V b 240 V;
VAb 50 kVA;
Zb 1:152 O
The primary equivalent leakage impedance is then given by:
Zprimary
0:2
80 0:17480 p:u:
1:152
V b 120 V;
VAb 50 kVA;
Zb 0:288 O
To obtain the secondary equivalent leakage impedance we have to
refer the primary value to the secondary winding. This is done by
multiplying by the square of the turns ratio. Thus the secondary
referred value of the leakage impedance is given by:
2-34
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Z2 Z1
N2
N1
2
0:280
120
240
2
0:0580 O
Zsecondary
0:05
80 0:17480 p:u:
0:288
2.7.1 An Example
We have already seen that we can remove some complexity from a
circuit by replacing delta connections with star equivalents and
then working with a single-line equivalent circuit. The following
analysis is an example of how circuit reduction is used to calculate
currents in a complex circuit.
Figure 2.17
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-35
Module 1
336103
p 19:16103 V 1:0 p:u:
3
1206106
406106 VA 1:0 p:u:
VAb
3
19:12 6106
Zb
9:12 1:0 p:u:
406106
Vb
10
1:1 p:u:
9:12
The generator reactances remain at 0:1 p.u.
We then rearrange the network diagram as shown in Figure 2.18.
Reactances are shown in p.u.
2-36
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Figure 2.18
The mesh ACD forms a delta network and this can be converted to
a star arrangement as shown in Figures 2.19a and 2.19b.
Figure 2.19
2:261:1
0:55 p:u:
4:4
2:261:1
ZC
0:55 p:u:
4:4
1:161:1
0:275 p:u:
ZD
4:4
ZA
Replacing the mesh ACD by the star ACD gives Figure 2.20a.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-37
Module 1
Figure 2.20
We now note that the terminal emfs of the generators are both
held at 1:0 p.u. volts throughout and since the terminals are
equipotentials they can be joined together to give the circuit of
Figure 2.20b.
The two parallel branches can now be combined to give a
reactance:
0:6560:65
0:325 p:u:
0:65 0:65
2-38
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Figure 2.21
The current flow in this circuit is 1:0=0:6 1:67 p:u:
The base value of current is:
Ib
VAb
406106
2:16103 A
Vb
19:16103
V6I F 1:06
1:0
1:67 p:u:
0:6
or
2.8.1 Introduction
If you have used matrix algebra to solve problems in electric
circuits before and if you feel confident using it, then try the
exercises in this section and move on quickly.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-39
Module 1
Y1 a1 X1 a2 X2
Y2 b1 X1 b2 X2
In matrix form these are written as:
Y1
Y2
a1
b1
a2
b2
X1
X2
Exercise
Write the given equations in
matrix form.
I1 3V1 4V2
I2 5V1 6V2
I1
I2
2-40
I1
I2
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
3 4
5 6
V1
V2
Section 2
Exercise
3 2
Y1
I1
4 I2 5 4
I3
32
Y5
3
V1
54 V2 5
Y9
V3
I1 Y1 V1 Y2 V2 Y3 V3
I2 Y4 V1 Y5 V2 Y6 V3
I3 Y7 V1 Y8 V2 Y9 V3
3 2
Y1
I1
4 I2 5 4 Y4
I3
Y7
Y2
Y5
Y8
32 3
Y3
V1
Y 6 54 V2 5
Y9
V3
I VY
All three terms may be complex, but to begin with let us restrict
ourselves to resistive circuits and direct currents.
Figure 2.22
We begin then with the circuit in Figure 2.22 in which all
parameters are given as admittances. This satisfies the first rule of
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-41
Module 1
Figure 2.23
but, we define
Ia as VaYa so,
Y = Ya
(the internal impedance of a current source is in.nite)
As far as the external circuit is concerned, the terminals marked 1
in Figures 2.23a and 2.23b are identical because they present the
same open circuit voltage Va and offer the same internal
admittance Ya.
2-42
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Exercise
Calculate the values of I a and
Y a to make the following
circuits equivalent.
Figure 2.24
We convert the resistance r in the first circuit to an admittance Y
where:
1
0:1 S
10
Ia is defined as V a Y a
so that I a 10060:1 10 A
and Y a Y 0:1 S
Let us now return to Figure 2.22 and carry out two conversions:
1. Convert Va and the admittance Y01 into a current source I1 in
parallel with with an admittance Y 1 .
2. Convert V b and the admittance Y32 into a current source I2 in
parallel with an admittance Y2 .
These are shown in the new equivalent circuit of Figure 2.25
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-43
Module 1
Figure 2.25
There are four nodes marked on the circuit and numbered 0, 1, 2
and 3. The zero node is taken as reference.
Voltage values of node 1, 2 and 3 with respect to the reference are
written as:
V1
V2
V3
The voltage of node 2 with respect to node 1 is written as:
V21
and
V21 V2 V1
Exercise
Write down the voltages of node
2 with respect to node 3, and of
node 3 with respect to node 1.
V23 V2 V3
V31 V3 V1
2-44
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Exercise
Write down the equation to
describe the current flow from
node 2 to node 1.
I30 V3 Y03
We must now proceed with the full nodal analysis of the circuit in
Figure 2.25. To do so we apply Kirchoffs current law at each node,
except the reference, to obtain three equations.
Exercise
At node 1.
(a)
(b)
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-45
Module 1
Thus:
I1 V1 Y1 V12 Y12
or
or
I1 V1 Y1 V1 V2 Y12
I1 V1 Y1 Y12 V2 Y12
Equation 2.1
Equation 2.2
Exercise
Obtain the similar equations for
the currents at node 2.
I2 V1 0 V2 Y2 V3 Y03 Y2
Equation 2.3
I1 V1 Y1 Y12 V2 Y12 V3 0
I2 7V1 Y12 V2 Y2 Y12 V3 Y2
I2 7V1 0 V2 Y2 V3 Y03 Y2
2-46
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Equation 2.4
Equation 2.5
Equation 2.6
Section 2
Exercise
Write the equations in matrix
format.
3 2
Y1 Y12
I1
4 I2 5 4 Y12
I2
0
Y12
Y2 Y12
Y2
32 3
0
V1
5
4
Y2
V2 5Equation 2:7
Y03 Y2
V3
3 2
Y11
I1
4 I2 5 4 Y12
I3
Y13
Y12
Y22
Y23
32 3
Y13
V1
5
4
Y23
V2 5
Y33
V3
Equation 2:8
Note that the symbols now have a different meaning from those
defined in Figure 2.25 and that the negative signs are now
contained in the terms Y12, Y13 and Y23.
Thus the new term Y12, when referred to Equation 2.1, is given by
Y12new Y12
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-47
Module 1
and
Y11new Y1 Y12
Y13new 0
Y22new Y2 Y12
Y23new Y2
Y33new Y03 Y2
The admittance term in Equation 2.8 is known as the Admittance
matrix.
Y1 Y12
It is obviously linked with V1 and I1 both of which occur at node
1 in Figure 2.24, so look at node 1 in Figure 2.24 and you will see
that Y1 and Y12 are the admittances connected to node 1.
It would seem therefore that this could be a useful rule:
Put into position 1; 1 in the admittance matrix the sum of
all the admittances connected to node 1. This is the new
term Y11 of Equation 2.8.
Look now at position 2; 2 in the admittance matrix and see there
the sum of all the admittances connected to node 2. So we have
another rule:
Put into position 2; 2 in the admittance matrix the sum of
all the admittances connected to node 2. This becomes the
new term Y22 .
The rule works for node 3 and position 3; 3 as well, so we can
now use this general rule to write in the diagonal values in any
admittance matrix.
We move on to consider the term at the intersection of row 1,
column 2, and we see there the admittance connected between
node 1 and node 2, but with a minus sign before it. This value,
including the minus sign becomes Y12 .
2-48
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Number each node using zero for the chosen reference node.
V1 ; V2 ; . . . Vn1
7
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-49
Module 1
Exercise
Write down the matrix equation
for the circuit of Figure 2.26.
Figure 2.26
3 2
2
8
4 5 5 4 5
5
2
5
9
4
32 3
2
V1
4 54 V2 5
V3
9
a b
e
c d
g
f
ae
h
cg
bf
dh
and
2-50
k
m
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
l
p
n
r
q
kp
s
mr
lq
ns
Section 2
Multiplication
The order in which matrices are multiplied together is very
important. e.g.
A6B
is NOT the same as
B6A
We must accept another rule which says that:
two matrices can only be multiplied together when
the number of columns of the left-hand matrix equals
the number of rows of the right-hand matrix.
i.e. we can multiply the following:
a
4b
c
3
d
k
e 56
p
f
l
q
m
r
k
p
a
l
4
6 b
q
c
3
d
e5
f
a
d
b
e
2
k
c
4
6 l
f
m
3
p
ak bl cm ap bq cr
5
q
dk el fm dp eq fr
r
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-51
Module 1
Exercise
Carry out the following
multiplications.
2 4
6
a 4 3
5
6
b
9
7 6
2 1 564 4 2
5 4
3 3
6 4
4
6
9 6
6
7
15
2
a
2
2 16 25
6
4 3 8 5
6 8 20
9 4 4
3
8 4 10
7
12 2 2 5
5 12 15 15 6 12 20 3 6
2
3
11 34 14
6
7
4 6
1 12 5
2 3 17
2-52
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
b
666 469 664 466
0 0
0
966 669 964 666
0 0
R6I V
becomes
R1 6R6I R1 6V
or
I R1 6V
1
where R
is the inverse of R
a
c
b
d
a
c
b
d
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-53
Module 1
Exercise
Find the value of the
determinant of the following
matrices.
a
5 4
3 2
5 4
3 2
7 6
b
c
4
562 463 2
(b)
10 12 2
(c)
35 24 59
a b
c d
a
b
c
d
d
c
b
a
2-54
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
d b
c
a
a
c
b
d
1
1
d b
a
ad bc c
You will appreciate from this that inverting large matrices does
become an involved process so that we again resort to computer
solutions.
Further details of matrix algebra can be found in standard
textbooks on engineering mathematics (see Chapter 5 of Modern
Engineering Mathematics by Glyn James).
Exercise
Show that
5
7
6
8
1
4:0
3:5
5
7
6
8
1
1
8
2 7
4:0
6
3:5
5
3:0
2:5
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-55
3:0
2:5
Module 1
Exercise
List the matrix operations that
we have to do to solve for the
nodal voltages.
I YV
and we want to end up with
Y1 I V
The matrix operations that we have to do are:
2-56
multiply Y
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
1
Section 2
Exercise
The matrix equation for a circuit
is written as
j1:4
0
j8
j3
j3
j2
V1
V2
j8
j3
j3
j2
1
j1:4
V1
V2
0
j8
j3
j3
j8j2 j3j3 16 9 7
j2
j8
j3
j3
j2
j2
j3
j3
j8
j2
j3
j3
j8
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-57
Module 1
j8
j3
j3
j2
1
1 j2
7 j3
j3
j8
We now have:
1 j2
7 j3
j3
j8
j1:4
V1
V2
0
or,
V1
1 j26j1:4
7 j36j1:4
V2
j26j0:2
V1
j36j0:2
V2
0:4
V1
0:6
V2
or,
V1 0:4 v
V2 0:6 v
You might like to take this exercise further and convert the
original admittance matrix back to a network using the ideas of
subsection 2.8.3 and then solve, using standard methods, for the
voltages at the nodes.
The circuit should come out as follows:
Figure 2.27
2-58
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
(b)
(c)
(d)
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-59
Module 1
2-60
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 2
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
2-61
Module 1
2-62
SYSTEMS FUNDAMENTALS
Section 3
TRANSFORMERS AND SWITCHGEAR
3.0 Objectives
At the end of this Section you should be able to:
3.1.1 Introduction
At first sight the transformer appears to be such a straightforward
piece of equipment that it hardly deserves detailed study. It is, for
example, such a very efficient device that it is tempting to assume
that it is lossless, but on a large transformer the power loss can
amount to 5 MW which presents the designer with a problem of
how to dissipate the associated energy which occurs in the heart
of a thermally insulated mass. The transfer characteristics are also
inherently non-linear because at the centre of the transformer is a
steel core which shows magnetic hysteresis and saturation. Under
TRANSFORMERS AND SWITCHGEAR
3-1
Module 1
v1
e1
v2
e2
i0
F
V1
V1M
V2
V2M
E
Figure 3.1
3-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
v1 e1 N1
dF
dt
and
e2 N2
dF
dt
v1 N1
v2 N2
Expressed differently, this tells us that the voltage per turn is the
same for each winding i.e.
v1
v2
dF
N1 N2
dt
The electrical stress between adjacent turns is therefore similar on
the high and low-voltage windings.
F FM sinot
then
3-3
Module 1
v1 e1 N1
dF
N1 oFM cosot
dt
and
v2 e2 N2 oFM cosot
We see that v1 and v2 are in time-phase and lead the flux phasor
by p/2 rad as shown in Figure 3.2.
From the two previous equations we can write:
1
V1 p N1 2pf FM 4:44f FM N1
2
and
V2 4:44f FM N2
We note in particular that the voltage is directly proportional to
the frequency and to the maximum value of the mutual flux. For a
given transformer, in which N1 and N2 are fixed, the level of flux
in the core is determined by the applied voltage and by the
frequency. It is not determined by current flow.
Figure 3.2
3-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Exercise
A 275 kV:132 kV transformer
has a tap change mechanism at
the top end of the high-voltage
(primary) winding which can
increase or decrease the number of
turns by 10% from the nominal
value. The tap is set at its lowest
value and the transformer is
connected on the high-voltage side
to a supply of 275 kV. The tap is
then set to its highest value, but
the supply is maintained at
275 kV.
a) For each tap setting +10% and
10%, calculate the low-voltage
output.
a) Case 1 (nominal)
V1 N1
(see page 3-3)
=
V2 N2
275 N1
=
= 2.083
132 N2
Case 2 (10% tap)
275 0.9N1
=
V2
N2
275
i.e.
= 0.9 2.083
V2
V2 = 146.7 kv
Case 3 (+10% tap)
275 1.1N1
=
V2
N2
275
i.e.
= 1.1 2.083
V2
V2 = 120.0 kv
b) The change at the low-voltage terminal is from 146.7 kV to
120 kV.
3-5
Module 1
or
26:7
6100 18:2%
146:7
The core flux will also decrease by 18:2% provided that all
relationships remain linear, i.e. no magnetic saturation or
hysteresis.
i1 N1 i2 N2
The mutual flux remains at the original value determined by the
voltage and frequency.
The total primary current consists of i1 and i0 , where i0 is the
magnetising current.
The current i1 is determined by the above equation and i2 is
determined by the secondary voltage v2 and the secondary load
impedance Z2 i.e.
i2
v2
Z2
Since
i1 N1 i2 N2
it follows that
v1 i1 v2 i2
or, the volt-ampere input equals the volt-ampere output.
3-6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.3
This relationship can be extended to a multi-winding transformer
to give:
v 1 i1 v2 i2 v 3 i3 . . . v n in :
Exercise
A third winding is wound on the
transformer core shown in Figure
3.3 to produce a voltage v3 .
Calculate the power supplied by
the source at v1 for the
following conditions:
Winding 2 supplies a load of
600 MW at 230 kV and power
factor 0:9 lagging;
Winding 3 supplies a load of
150 MW at 13 kV and power
factor 0:8 lagging.
Neglect the magnetising current.
The secondary load is 600 j290 MVA
The tertiary load is 150 j112 MVA
The total VA required from the source is therefore:
3-7
Module 1
i2
v2
v2
or
Z2 :
Z2
i2
2
v1
N2
v1
N2
6N 2 6
6
Z2
N1
i1 N 1 i1
N1
or
where
v1
Z2 6N 2
i1
N1
N
N2
Figure 3.4
The two dots shown above the windings in Figure 3.4 are there for
a purpose. It is conventionally assumed that when a current enters
3-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
d
d
i1 i0 M i2
dt
dt
di0
di1
di2
L1
M
L1
dt
dt
dt
v1 L1
Exercise
Using the definitions of
inductance,
l1
and
i1
l2
M
i1
L1
di1
di2
M
0
L1
dt
dt
N1 F di1 N2 F di2
i1 dt
i1 dt
However:
N1 i1 N2 i2
so that:
N1
di1
di2
N2
dt
dt
TRANSFORMERS AND SWITCHGEAR
3-9
Module 1
giving:
N2 F di2 N2 F di2
0
i1 dt
i1 dt
We can therefore accept that:
v1 L1
di0
dt
Figure 3.5
3-10
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Lm1
N22
Lm1
N12
N1
L12
N2
X1 X11 Xm
N1
Xm
2pfM or
N2
N1
2pfL12
N2
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
3-11
Module 1
Exercise
Two windings on a simple
toroidal core are shown to have
self inductances of 80 H and
20 H with a mutual inductance
of 35 H. Draw an equivalent
circuit and attach values for
components assuming that the
80 H coil is the primary,
N1 1 000 turns and
N2 500 turns.
Figure 3.8
The magnetising inductance
Lm1 2635 70 H
The primary leakage inductance
LL1 80 70 10 H
The secondary leakage inductance
LL2 20
70
2:5 H
4
3-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Exercise
A single-phase two-winding
transformer has a primary
impedance of 0:017 j0:07
p.u. and a secondary impedance
of 0:02 j0:08 p.u. The
magnetising impedance is
sufficiently large to be ignored.
Draw the equivalent circuit.
Figure 3.9
Open- and short-circuit tests
The impedance values to be inserted into the equivalent circuit
can be obtained from tests.
If we open circuit the secondary winding of the transformer
represented in Figure 3.7 and apply a voltage V 1 to the primary
then the only current that can flow will be the magnetising
current I m . The values of Rm and Xm can be obtained from test
measurements.
For example, a single-phase transformer has its rated voltage,
V2
4 kW:
Rm
So,
Rm
6:3252 6106
10:0 kO
46103
The total current into the parallel branch is 10 A and this flows
into the parallel combination of Xm and Rm .
3-13
Module 1
Thus:
I O = 10 =
IR + Im
V2 V2
+
Rm2 Xm2
From which
I o2
1
1
=
2
2
Xm
V
Rm
Substitution then gives
1
= 1.58 10 3 s
Xm
Xm = 0.633 103
If we now short circuit the secondary winding and raise the
voltage on the primary winding until full load current flows in
the secondary, then we can calculate the series equivalent
impedances. In this case the voltage applied will be very low
because of the short-circuit condition so that the current flowing
into the parallel circuit will also be very small and so much less
than the full-load current that it can be safely ignored. All input
power to the circuit will therefore be consumed in the series
impedances.
For example, the single-phase transformer with a rated primary
voltage of 6:325 kV provides the following test results on short
circuit:
3-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
q
V 1 I 1 6 R21 X21
s s
2
2
V1
0:66103
2
X1
R1
0:172 2:0 O
I1
300
The full equivalent circuit for the transformer is shown in Figure
3.10. All impedance values are shown as effective primary values.
Figure 3.10
Hysteresis
Saturation
Magnetostriction.
3-15
Module 1
Figure 3.11
The magnetising force H is proportional to the magnetising
current.
The flux density B determines the flux level and since, in a
transformer, the e.m.f.s produced are proportional to the rate of
change of flux we see that B is closely related to the applied
voltage.
It is usual to represent the BH loop by the curve OC shown in
Figure 3.11 and known as the magnetisation characteristic. The
area of the BH loop is proportional to the energy loss per cycle of
magnetisation and it makes sense to use transformer steels which
have small BH loops and so restrict magnetisation losses.
Effects on current and voltage waveforms
The magnetisation characteristic is non-linear and a typical curve
for a grain-oriented transformer steel is shown in Figure 3.12.
3-16
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.12
The effect of this on the current waveform can be easily
demonstrated with a simple graphical construction.
We assume a sinusoidal voltage source
v1 V1M sinot
applied to the primary winding of a transformer made of steel of
the type represented by Figure 3.12.
The flux density in the transformer must be given by:
F
1
B
A N1 A
v1 dt
V1M
cosot
AoN1
or
B B1M cosot
Let us assume that conditions give us a maximum value of
B1M 1:6 T
Figure 3.13 shows how we can map across from the B1M curve to
the i0 curve using the magnetisation curve as the function relating
B and i.
The distortion of the magnetisation current is very apparent and it
is also clear that the distortion is significantly increased by
allowing the flux density to run into magnetic saturation levels.
The magnetisation current can be analysed using Fourier analysis
and will be shown to contain a large 3rd harmonic component.
3-17
Module 1
Figure 3.13
A voltage source of single frequency cannot support a current of
any other frequency. Take for example the simple circuit of Figure
3.14 and write down the equation for current.
Figure 3.14
v
sinot
R
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
ot p=2
then in Figure 3.15a
F FM cosot
and in Figure 3.15b
F FM cosot 1
Differentiating either expression with respect to time yields the
same answer for v1 =N1 .
3-19
Module 1
3-20
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.16
It is quite possible for the peak value of the inrush current to
exceed the peak value of the normal load current although it will
usually decay to its normal value of about 2% of the normal load
current within 10 cycles of a.c. The problem with it is not so
much the magnitude as the fact that it occurs only on the primary
side of the transformer or more precisely on the excited side so
that protection equipment will record an unbalance condition and
interpret it as an internal fault.
3-21
Module 1
Figure 3.17
The secondary e.m.f. e2 provides the magnetising current im , with
an in-phase component to provide core losses and a quadrature
component to produce the core flux.
The current
i02 i2 im
so that the current into the burden, i02 , may be limited and
distorted if the core goes into saturation and im increases. The
equivalent phasor diagram is built up as in Figure 3.18, starting
with E2 as the reference phasor.
3-22
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.18
The effect on the secondary current of im can be seen clearly. It
changes the magnitude from an apparent i2 to an actual i02 and
changes the phase of the current by y .
CTs used for power system protection purposes should have small
errors, low magnetising current and should not saturate over the
intended range of load and fault current.
There are two possible sources of errors which can be seen from
Figure 3.18. One is the change in effective turns ratio from i1 =i2
to i1 =i02 and the other is a phase shift in the secondary current
from a2 y to a2 .
Figure 3.19
Referring to Figure 3.19, provided y is small, the magnitude of the
difference between i02 and i2 is im cosam a2 so that the
current ratio error can be defined as:
Current error
N Ni2 =i02
Ni2 =i02
i02 i2
i2
im cosam a2
i2
TRANSFORMERS AND SWITCHGEAR
3-23
Module 1
y siny
im sinam a2
rad
i2
Exercise
A current transformer operates
with 1 000 A in the primary
and a nominal turns ratio of
1 : 200. The magnetising
current required on the
secondary side is 0:20:45 A
and the impedance of the burden
and the secondary winding
together is 0:7 j0:4 O.
Estimate the ratio error and the
phase angle error.
Solution:
im 0:245 A
i2 5a2 y A
a2 is defined by the total secondary impedance
0:7 j0:4 0:8129:7 O
Ratio error
0:2
cos45 29:7 6100% 3:86%
5
Phase error
0:2
sin45 29:7 0:010 6 rad
5
or
0:6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.20a
In Figure 3.20a the secondary windings are not connected and the
voltage Va1a2 in the secondary a winding illustrates the direction
of the voltage rise in the winding at a particular instant.
We can connect the three windings in star format as shown in
Figure 3.20c with the winding ends a2 ; b2 and c2 connected to
ground. The terminal a1 in Figure 3.20c is the secondary output
terminal for the a phase.
3-25
Module 1
Figure 3.20b
Figure 3.20b illustrates an identical three-phase transformer with
its secondary windings unconnected and the secondary voltage
V a1a2 is again shown for a particular instant.
Figure 3.20c
In Figure 3.20d the secondary winding is connected in a star
arrangement, but this time we connect terminals a1 ; b1 and c1 to
common ground and the terminal a2 becomes the secondary
output terminal for the a phase.
3-26
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.20d
To the uninitiated these two transformers are identical because
each is wound in a star/star formation, but from the work that we
did in Section 2.4 we know that if the primary windings are
connected in parallel to the same supply then at the instant that
terminal a1 in Figure 3.20c is at Va1a2 above neutral, terminal
a2 in Figure 3.20d is at Va1a2 below neutral. In other words the
two terminals have a voltage of 26V between them. If we
connect these two terminals together we create a short circuit
across the windings with only the winding impedance to limit the
current. Figure 3.21 illustrates the problem.
Figure 3.21
It is vitally important therefore that when we connect
transformers in parallel we check not only the voltage levels at the
terminals, but also the phase displacement between the voltages.
The two star/star transformers in Figure 3.22 can be safely
connected in parallel by joining a1 to a1 ; b1 to b1 and c1 to c1 .
The transformers in Figure 3.23 must not be connected in parallel.
3-27
Module 1
Figure 3.22
3-28
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.23
We avoid confusion by using a designation, which shows the
phase shift that a particular winding configuration generates. A
star/star/0, or Yy0, transformer is connected in star on primary and
secondary sides and produces no phase shift from primary phase
to secondary equivalent. This would apply to both transformers of
Figure 3.22.
A star/star/6, or Yy6, transformer is connected in star on the
primary and secondary sides and produces a phase shift of 1808
from primary phase to secondary equivalent. We imagine the
secondary phasor in the a phase at 6 Oclock (1808) when the
primary equivalent phasor is at 0.
We will get phase shifts in star/delta and delta/star transformer
connections and these will be +30 depending on the
connection. The common arrangements are illustrated in Figure
3.24.
3-29
Module 1
Figure 3.24
Exercise
The phase windings of a threephase transformer are
represented diagrammatically in
Figure 3.25. Make the necessary
connections between terminals to
produce a Dy1 arrangement.
Figure 3.25
We need to create the phasor diagram of Figure 3.26. To do this
we make the connections of Figure 3.27.
3-30
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
3-31
Module 1
Then
ZA 0:01 j0:05
ZB 0:017 j0:09
MVA 1:025:8
If we use a single line equivalent circuit then the transformers
appear as two parallel impedances in series with the supply. Figure
3.28 illustrates the case.
Figure 3.28
The voltage across the parallel combination is:
I L6
ZA ZB
ZA ZB
IA IL6
ZB
ZA ZB
I B I L6
ZA
ZA ZB
and
I A MVAA ZB
I B MVAB ZA
So the load is not shared equally!
3-32
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
ZB
ZA ZB
0:091 6
25:8 79:3 79:08
1:06
0:142 6
0:64226:02 p:u:
MVAA 1:025:8 6
ZA
ZA ZB
0:051
1:06
25:8 78:7 79:08
0:142 6
0:35825:42 p:u:
MVAB 1:025:8 6
So,
3-33
Module 1
Figure 3.29
For convenience, all values are given in per-unit. The base values
for voltages are the nominal rated values for each winding and a
common base volt-ampere rating is selected.
The impedances Z1 , Z2 and Z3 are not the resistance and leakage
reactance of each winding. They are theoretical values computed
from the separate values of each transformer and are determined
as follows.
Standard open-and short-circuit tests on each two-winding
combination will give values for the impedances Z12 , Z23 and
Z13 . These are the values that would go into any equivalent circuit
for a two-winding transformer made up of the windings 1 and 2,
2 and 3, and 1 and 3 respectively.
However, when the three windings are connected as a threewinding transformer we use the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.29
and it can be seen that the effective impedance between terminals
1 and 2 with 3 open circuit is Z1 Z2 .
Thus Z12 Z1 Z2 and similarly
Z23 Z2 Z3
Z13 Z1 Z3
Rearranging these equations gives:
1
Z12 Z13 Z23
2
1
Z2 Z12 Z23 Z13
2
1
Z3 Z13 Z23 Z12
2
Z1
3-34
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Exercise
A three-phase, three-winding
transformer is rated as follows:
Primary: 300 MVA, 11 kV
Secondary: 300 MVA, 132 kV
Tertiary: 50 MVA, 11 kV.
Short circuit tests provide the
following data:
X12 0:1 p:u:
on a 300 MVA base
X13 0:16 p:u:
on a 50 MVA base
X23 0:14 p:u:
on a 50 MVA base
Determine the values of Z1 , Z2
and Z3 for insertion in an
equivalent circuit using a base
MVA of 300.
Note from the above that the equivalent circuit can have negative
impedances in it.
3-35
Module 1
Figure 3.30
The autotransformer is represented by the equivalent circuit of
Figure 3.30. It is significantly different from the two-winding
transformer in that a direct electrical connection is maintained
between primary and secondary circuits so that part of the energy
transfer is by current flowing from primary to secondary through
the upper part of the winding. This arrangement reduces the
leakage impedance of the transformer compared to that of the
two-winding equivalent which results in a reduced series voltage
drop, but causes an increase in the short circuit current.
Using the symbols defined in Figure 3.30 we can write:
VL V2
VH V2 V1
and, since V1 and V2 are linked by the core flux:
V1 V2
N1 N2
Thus
VH V2
N1 N2
N1 N2
VL
N2
N2
VH N1 N2
VL
N2
3-36
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
iL N1 N2
iH
N2
Exercise
A two-winding transformer rated
at 100 kVA, 10 kV:5 kV is
connected as an autotransformer
to provide 10 kV from a 15 kV
supply. Calculate the new rated
kVA output.
On rated load:
100
20 A
5
100
10 A
i2
10
iH i1
iL i1 i2 30 A
kVA output 30610 300 kVA
This demonstrates the gains that can be made using
autotransformers, although in practice we would have to uprate
the insulation on the 5 kV winding in order to make the above
connection. Generally an autotransformer is smaller, cheaper,
more efficient and has a lower regulation than the equivalent twowinding transformer.
3-37
Module 1
3.2 Switchgear
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Exercise
Give reasons why the above
explanation would not describe
fully the switching of a direct
current.
3-39
Module 1
The air-blast circuit breaker uses gas under high pressure to cool
and stretch the arc, but the arc is created in air, which is the main
insulant, and the gas used to blow across the arc is air maintained
under pressure and released as the contacts separate. Sulphur
hexafluoride SF6 is now used extensively in gas circuit breakers
in place of air. It is an electronegative gas, which means that it has
an affinity for electrons. It is therefore less easy to ionise than air
and offers much better insulating characteristics. The gas is not
released to atmosphere, but contained within the switching
equipment where it is cooled and repressurised for continual use.
Vacuum circuit breakers offer an ideal solution to the problem of
current interruption because in the perfect vacuum there is no gas
to ionise and an arc cannot be maintained. The reality is different
because establishing and maintaining a sufficiently high vacuum is
difficult and costly.
To begin with, all materials within the vacuum chamber have to
be degassed to remove any gas molecules that might have been
absorbed by the materials. Then we have to accept that as two
current-carrying contacts separate in a vacuum an arc is produced
and maintained in ionised metal vapour that is boiled off the
surface of the contacts. There is however an important difference
between this vapour and the ionised gas of an arc in gas or oil. It
is that at normal current zero the vapour rapidly condenses
leaving no significant ionisation between the contacts. As the
voltage across the contacts rises there is no conducting path to
allow a restrike.
3-40
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 3
Figure 3.31
This is a worst-case condition in which all resistance is ignored
and the supply voltage is a sinusoid:
Under fault conditions, with the fault close to the switch, the
fault current if is given by:
if =
1
2V
sin t
v. dt =
L
L
= 2 I f sin t
where the subscript (s) tells us that the variables are written as
Laplace transforms, and
to
3-41
Module 1
p
2If ot
over this short time.
The Laplace form of
p
2If ot
is
p o
2If 2
s
so that:
Vbs
p
2If oL
1
s1 s2 LC
or:
Vbs
p
1
sLC
2If oL
s 1 s2 LC
The inverse Laplace form of this can be read from standard tables
and gives:
Vbt
p
t
2If oL 1 cos p
LC
1
fT
2p
r
1
LC
p
2 2If oL
and occurs after a time
1
2fT
so that a good approximation for the RRRV is:
3-42
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 3
Figure 3.32
if =
1
v. dt
( L1 + L2 )
2V
sin t
( L1 + L2 )
= 2 I f sin t
We again assume that the current goes through zero at t = 0, at
which time the arc is extinguished, and we determine the effect
of this by imagining a current if being injected across the switch
terminals. Provided t is small, we can write
as
3-43
Module 1
Zs
sL1
sL2
2
1 s L1 C1 1 s2 L2 C2
Vbs
p o
sL1
sL2
2If 2
s 1 s2 L1 C1 1 s2 L2 C2
Vbt
p
t
t
2If o L1 1 cos p L2 1 cos p
L1 C 1
L2 C2
s
1
1
f1
2p L1 C1
and
1
f2
2p
s
1
L2 C 2
3-44
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
Figure 3.33
The analysis proceeds as in Sections 3.2.3 and 3.2.4, but the
impedance seen by the injected current is now:
s
Zs
s
1
2
C s RC LC
;Vbs
p
2If o
1
h
i
C s s a2 b2
where
1
2RC
b2
1
1
2 2
LC 4R C
so that
Vbs
p
2I f o
"
1
s 2a
Ca2 b2 s s a2 b2
Vbt
p
at
at a
sinbt
2If oL 1 e cosbt e
b
r
1 L
R
2 C
i:e: if b 0;
then:
Vbt
p
2If oL1 eat
3-45
Module 1
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
the arc out. This can create problems because a sudden collapse of
current in an inductive circuit will induce a large voltage. If this
voltage is sufficiently large then it will restrike the arc. This cycle
of extinction and re-ignition could happen several times before
the arc is finally extinguished.
Referring back to the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.31 we see that
the fault current is defined by
if
p
26I f sinot
and we solved for the voltage across the contacts by assuming that
the time of interest was small compared to that of the period of
the main supply, so that
p
if % 26I f 6ot
Let us assume that the arc is blown out at some time to after the
start of the fault where to does not correspond to a natural current
zero. The current at this instant, io , can be calculated from the
equation for if .
If we repeat the analysis of Section 3.2.3, allowing for the sudden
extinction of io , then we can consider injecting io into the
circuit, in addition to the fault current if . In this case io appears
as a step function so that the Laplace form of io is io =s. It
divides into two components as illustrated in Figure 3.36.
Figure 3.36
We then have:
io vcs
vcs sC
s
sL
So that:
3-47
Module 1
io
vcs
1
s sL sC
io
vcs
1
C LC s2
Converting this back into a time equation, using standard Laplace
tables, we have:
vct
r
L
6io 6sinon t
C
where:
1
on p
LC
This transient voltage adds to the transient created by the initial
opening of the circuit breaker contacts.
3-48
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 3
Y connection:
11 kV, 12 MVA
y connection:
66 kV, 12 MVA
d connection:
3-49
Module 1
(b)
the RRRV
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Three
(b)
vc
io
6eat 6sinbt
Cb
where:
1
2RC
s
1
1
b
LC 4R2 C2
a
3-51
Module 1
3-52
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 4
GENERATION
4.0 Objectives
On successful completion of this section you should be able to:
4.1 Introduction
This section deals with the characteristics of the major power
generating elements within a power system and describes their
performance in some of the different modes of operation of the
system.
What are these different modes?
The most obvious is the steady-state mode, except that in a real
system a true steady-state mode is rarely encountered. The power
and the voltage magnitude will be controlled by feedback
mechanisms in a generator. One controller is the governor, the
other is the voltage regulator and each of these will be exercising
small, but essential, changes continuously. This mode of operation
is known as Dynamic Operation. Despite this, we will spend
GENERATION
4-1
Module 1
Exercise
Consider what advantage this
form of construction offers by
examining how electrical
connections are made to the
rotor.
4-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
GENERATION
4-3
Module 1
Figure 4.1
We now allow a lagging current I L to flow into a load. As it flows
through the armature windings this current produces its own
magnetic flux Fa . This flux Fa will be in phase with I L . The
resultant flux, Fr , in the air gap of the machine will be the sum of
Ff and Fa and the summation is illustrated in Figure 4.2. The flux
Fa will also induce an emf Ea which will lag the flux by 90 . This
will have to be added to the emf Ef to produce the effective emf
Et generated by the machine. The effect of I L can be represented
more easily by considering Ea as a voltage drop across an
imaginary reactance Xa so that jEa j jI L 6Xa j and
E f E t I L Xa .
Figure 4.2
We now have two more effects to consider. The first is leakage
flux. Despite our simplifying assumptions, superimposing one flux
on another is not straightforward and some flux is forced into
leakage paths. By this we mean paths that do not pass through the
main windings. The flux-coupling with the windings is not 100%
and we find that the emf Et is reduced. The reduction is
proportional to the load current and we can represent it as a
voltage drop I L Xl where Xl is defined as a leakage reactance. The
final effect is winding resistance Rs which causes a further drop
I L Rs in our terminal voltage leaving us with the output voltage on
load defined as V in Figure 4.3. We write this as
Et V IRs jXl .
4-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.3
A single-phase equivalent circuit can be drawn with the reactances
Xa and Xl representing the effects of armature reaction and
leakage flux. This is shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5 shows a further reduction of the circuit with Xa and Xl
combined to produce the synchronous reactance XS and with RS
removed on the assumption that losses will be relatively small.
The corresponding phasor diagram is also shown. The angles
marked in the Figure are the power factor angle f and the load
angle d. A typical value for XS would be 2:8 for a modern
machine.
Figure 4.5
Now let us return to the no-load condition with the emf E and the
voltage V set to be equal and held at these values. E can be held
by excitation controls and V can be maintained by connecting the
generator to a large system with a system voltage V . The system is
assumed to be so big that the behaviour of the one generator is
not likely to effect either the system voltage or the system
frequency. Such a system is known as an infinite busbar.
GENERATION
4-5
Module 1
Exercise
Figure 4.6 represents a generator
connected to an in.nite busbar
operating with the excitation
emf E equal to the terminal
voltage V on no load.
Deduce what would happen to
the various parameters in the
phasor diagram if the input
power were increased and V and
E were maintained constant.
Figure 4.6
E = V + ILjXS
E must follow a circular locus of radius E because it is held
constant in magnitude. So we have the phasor diagram of
Figure 4.7.
4-6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.7
The current I L has to have a component in phase with V and the
only possible solution is the one shown in which d has increased
and the current has a leading power factor.
Let us go back to the no load condition and this time let E be
greater than V . Now increase the input power and we move from
Figure 4.8a to Figure 4.8b.
Figure 4.8
Notice that in this case we can actually have a current at unity
power factor, but I L XS is looking a bit large and we would not
really want a voltage drop of the same magnitude as the terminal
voltage. The situation is complex and an easy way to represent it is
to produce a load chart.
GENERATION
4-7
Module 1
Figure 4.9
The current has an in-phase component I P and a quadrature
component I Q . If we multiply all phasors in Figure 4.9 by V=XS
we obtain Figure 4.10 in which IXS has become VI , the complex
power, and I P XS and I Q XS become the real power VI P and the
reactive power VI Q respectively. We now take the point O in
Figure 4.10 as a new origin and rotate the diagram by 90 to
obtain Figure 4.11.
4-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
GENERATION
4-9
Module 1
Figure 4.12
4-10
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.13
E = V + jXsI
and if we take V as the reference phasor we obtain:
I=
E V0
= Icos jIsin
Xs 90D
GENERATION
4-11
Module 1
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Exercise
Calculate the powers in the two
single-phase sources of Figure
4.15 when:
V 1 = 2000 V
V 2 = 20411.3 V
XS = j40
4-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
V 1 V 2 IXS
V 1 V 2 200 200 j40
XS
4090
j40
1:00 A
I
4090
Therefore:
P1 20061:0 200 W
P2 20061:0 200 W
We have power flow from right to left in the diagram.
Some people would say that this is obvious simply because V 2 is
greater than V 1 . This is not a sufficient answer. If you doubt this,
then repeat the exercise with
V 2 204 11:3 V
You should now find that the current has reversed and that the
power flow is from left to right. This is interesting because it tells
us that the flow of power between two a.c. busbars is controlled
electrically both by the magnitudes and by the relative phases of
the voltages at each end of the link.
Phase angles are very important to us. Remember however that
there is a mechanical system behind all this. We can only move
power across an interconnection if the power is available on one
side and can be absorbed on the other. Remember also that there
is energy contained in the spinning masses of all the generators on
the system. They can speed up, or slow down, and so absorb or
release energy. This will be seen as a change in the frequency of
the generated voltage and explains why a power provider will run
the system at a frequency slighter higher than the nominal value
just before a major load increase is expected. And as the load
increases, so the frequency drops, because the system takes energy
from the spinning mass of the generators to meet the initial
demand for more power.
GENERATION
4-13
Module 1
Pe = VE sin /XS
The excess power that has been added is, for a short time,
available to accelerate the rotor. We shall call this power the
accelerating power Pa which will provide an accelerating torque
Ta acting on the rotor which has a polar moment of inertia J.
Under dynamic conditions therefore, the input power
the mechanical system must provide:
Pm from
4-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
so that:
= torque,
s,
H=
Js2
2S
M=
2 HS
joule-second per radian
s
2 HS d 2
2 watt
with Pa =
dt
s
We now need a corresponding expression for the electrical output
and we will only consider the simple case of constant excitation
at this stage. Then:
GENERATION
4-15
Module 1
or:
P1 = Kd
d
( )
dt
d2
d
+ Kd
+ Go = Pm
2
dt
dt
2n =
Kd
G
2
and n = o
M
M
4-16
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
n =
Go
= 5.1 rad/s
M
We can simplify the problem a little for the case of a solid threephase fault ocurring at the generator terminals. In this case the
electrical power output must go to zero if the fault has zero
resistance and if we ignore all losses then the swing equation
becomes:
or:
d/dt
GENERATION
4-17
Module 1
dd Pm
6t
M
dt
Integrating again gives:
Pm
6t 2 d0
2M
Exercise
A three-phase, 2-pole, 50 Hz
turbogenerator is rated at
1 100 MVA at a power factor
of 0:8 lagging. The polar
moment of inertia of the rotating
parts is 61 000 kg m2.
Calculate the value of the H
constant. If the peak on the P=d
curve occurs at a power of
1 020 MW, find the full load
operating load angle and the
undamped natural frequency of
the electromechanical rotor
oscillations.
Angular velocity:
2p
63 000 100p rad=s
60
Jo2 61 000100p2
H s
2:74 s
2S
261 1006106
os
Given:
Pe Pmax sind;
and
4-18
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
with
Pmax 1 020 MW
Section Four
Therefore,
n =
Go
M
but:
and:
n = 5.18 rad/s.
GENERATION
4-19
Module 1
Figure 4.16
Let us assume that the generator is initially operating with a load
angle do and that the mechanical power input equals the electrical
power output and has a value PA . Losses are ignored.
Let us now increase the input power to a new value PB . The
machine cannot move to its new equilibrium position, d d1 ,
instantaneously, so initially we have excess power, PB PA ,
which is available to accelerate the machine. The load angle
begins to increase.
As d d1 the accelerating power falls to zero because the
electrical power has now become PB , but the machine has inertia
and it will therefore run on past the position d d1 . Once d is
greater than d1 the electrical power will exceed PB and we will
now have a power deficit Pe PB . This represents an energy
deficit and the only source that this can be taken from is the
kinetic energy of the machine. So the machine must slow down. It
slows until its excess kinetic energy has been lost. At this point it
must be running at synchronous speed again, at some angle
d d2 . However, we still have a decelerating force created because
Pe now equals PC which is greater than the mechanical input
power PB . The machine continues to slow down. With no
damping the machine will simply swing back to d do and the
whole cycle will begin again. We have set up an oscillation about
the new steady state position d d1 . In reality, losses in the
machine will cause it to settle down quickly to its new steady state
position.
Figure 4.16 contains two areas, ADB and BEC. It can be shown that
these areas represent energy. The area ADB represents kinetic
energy gained by the machine as it accelerates to increase its load
angle from do to d1 . The area BEC represents the kinetic energy
given back as the machine slows back down to synchronous speed.
It should be obvious that for stability these two areas should be
equal.
So, how could a machine become unstable?
4-20
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.17
Consider Figure 4.17. Here we have increased the input power by a
considerable amount and the area ADB represents the increase in
kinetic energy of the machine as its rotor accelerates past the
position d d1 . The area BEC is clearly less than ADB so when
d d2 the machine is still running beyond synchronous speed.
But, we now have a new problem because as soon as the load
angle increases beyond d2 the electrical power drops below the
new input power PB . and the machine starts accelerating again! It
cannot return to d d1 . If we allow this situation to continue
then the rotor of the machine will advance so far that the
electrical power output will go negative, i.e. the generator will
suck power in from the infinite busbar and try to act as a motor.
This is not a good thing to do with a 500 MW generating set. So
we have to control things. We need fast-acting controllers on the
power input and in the field excitation circuit and we need fast
protective gear to isolate the generator from the busbar before the
situation gets completely out of control.
GENERATION
4-21
Module 1
Exercise
A synchronous generator
operating with constant
excitation is connected to an
infinite busbar through a fixed
transfer impedance and has a
power/load angle curve of the
form P 100 sind. Draw this
curve to scale and use the equal
area criterion to confirm that,
after a sudden change in output
power from 40 to 80 units, the
machine returns to a stable
operating mode.
Figure 4.18
The P=d curve is drawn to scale and the two operating points,
P1 40 units of power and P2 80 units of power, can be
identified. The construction of Figure 4.18 can be used to identify
that the area A2 is greater than the area A1. The machine is
therefore stable.
We can put the equal area criterion on a firmer footing with a
little bit of mathematics. Starting with the swing equation, and
assuming no damping, we have:
4-22
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
d2 d
M 2 Pm Pe Pa
dt
where P m is the mechanical power input;
2 dd
M dt
gives:
d2 d dd
Pa dd
2
2
M dt
dt dt
d 2
dy
y 2y
dt
dt
to convert
d2 d dd
2 2
dt dt
into
d
dt
"
dd
dt
2 #
so that
d
dt
"
dd
dt
2 #
2
Pa dd
M dt
so
"
d
2 #
dd
Pa
2 dd
M
dt
Integration gives:
GENERATION
4-23
Module 1
"
dd
dt
dd
dt
2 #
Z
Pa dd
s
Z
2
Pa dd
M
Zd2
Pa dd 0
do
Zd2
Pm Pe dd 0
do
Zd1
Pm Pe dd
do
Zd2
Pm Pe dd 0
d1
The two integrals represent the areas ADB and BEC in Figure 4.16
respectively.
Note that when using this formula, area ADB will be positive,
whereas area BEC will be negative. We can re-express the above
equation to make both areas positive i.e.
Zd1
Pm Pe dd
do
4-24
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Zd2
d1
Pe Pm dd
Section Four
Exercise
A three-phase generator is
operating under conditions that
define its power angle curve as
Pe 100sind MW . It supplies
a power of 50 MW.
The mechanical input to the
generator is suddenly increased
to 75 MW. Determine whether
or not the machine remains
stable.
ABD
Zd1
Pm Pe dd
do
GENERATION
4-25
Module 1
ABD Pm d1 do
Z48:6
100sind dd
30
BEC
Zd2
Pm Pe dd
d1
BEC 26
Zp=2
Pm Pe dd
d1
h
p
i
p
BEC 26 75 d1 100 cos cosd1
2
2
BEC 23:81
The machine will remain stable because jarea BECj>jarea ABDj
4-26
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.19
In Figure 4.19 we begin with a machine operating in a steady
condition and feeding an infinite busbar through a network. The
effective reactance between the generator emf E and the voltage of
the infinite busbar, V , determines the Psind curve (see Section 4.4
and Figure 4.15).
The Psind curve for the system is shown as the pre-fault curve in
Figure 4.19. The initial value of the load angle is do .
We now imagine a fault occurring away from the generator which
results in an increased value of reactance between the source emf
E and the busbar voltage V . This means that we must
immediately transfer to the new Psind curve shown in Figure 4.19
as the fault curve.
The load angle cannot change instantaneously so the operating
point for the machine drops from point a to point b in the figure.
We now have accelerating power available because the mechanical
input power is greater than the electrical output power. As the
machine accelerates, the load angle d increases along the fault
curve. Now, after a time t 1 , the protection equipment operates to
open a switch which removes the fault, but leaves us with a
network connection which is different from the original one. At
t t 1 the load angle has advanced to d1 so that as the switch
opens the electrical output characteristic changes from fault to
post-fault and the operating point moves abruptly from point c
to point e.
GENERATION
4-27
Module 1
Exercise
What would be the condition of
critical stability on Figure 4.19?
4-28
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Figure 4.20
The pre-fault equivalent circuit reduces to that of Figure 4.21. The
Psind curve is given by:
1:25
sind 3:125sind
0:4
Figure 4.21
The fault condition is represented in Figure 4.22(a). The star
network ABC is converted to a delta network ABC in Figure 4.22(b)
to give the transfer reactance between E and V as X 1:1 p:u.
GENERATION
4-29
Module 1
Figure 4.22
The fault Psind curve is given by:
1:25
sind 1:14sind
1:1
The post-fault condition is defined by Figure 4.23 and the postfault Psind curve is defined as:
1:25
sind 2:5sind
0:5
Figure 4.23
4-30
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
Referring back to Figure 4.19, the condition for stability would be:
Zd1
Pm 1:14sinddd
do
Zd2
Pm 2:5sinddd 0
d1
cosd1 0:755
so that
d1 139
GENERATION
4-31
Module 1
2.4 p.u.
Hence determine:
4-32
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Four
E = V = 1.0 p.u.
PI = 0.8 p.u.
X = 0.5 p.u.
A fault occurs which increases the value of the series reactance to
1.2 p.u., but the emf, E, and the busbar voltage, V, remain at
1.0 p.u. By the time the fault has cleared, the load angle of the
generator has increased from its initial value to a value of 100.
Determine whether or not the generator will remain stable.
GENERATION
4-33
Module 1
4-34
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 5
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
5.0 Objectives
When you have completed this section you should be able to:
5.1 Introduction
In a large integrated power system, it is difficult to assess the
voltages and currents associated with each individual transmission
line, although the positions of power generation and consumption
are known. The difficulty lies in the fact that the system equations
are nonlinear and cannot be solved directly. Instead an iterative
approach is used where an initial guess is made to the problem
which is subsequently changed until the solution fits the problem.
This activity is referred to as load flow, since the solution will
account for all flows of power, both active and reactive, between
the generator and the load.
Load flow analysis is important to power utilities for many reasons
but the main two uses are concerned with day to day operations,
where the redistribution of power flows due to a line being
removed for maintenance are important to the economic
operation of the power system, and power system planning, where
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
5-1
Module 1
Exercise
Can you think of other reasons
why power utilities use load flow
analysis?
Figure 5.1
It is common in power systems to specify the loads in terms of
their power, i.e. so many watts, kilowatts or megawatts. Thus, the
5-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Five
S VB I
Equation 5:1
VA VB IR
Equation 5.2
VA VB
S
R
VB
Equation 5.3
VB2 VB VA RS 0
Equation 5.4
Figure 5.2
This seemingly simple exercise has turned out to involve solving
quadratic equations. This is the fundamental problem in
calculating load flows: nonlinear equations. Consider now the still
relatively simple network of Figure 5.2. Here there are four busbars
to consider. If we wished to find the distribution of power flows
along each line, we would need to solve four simultaneous
nonlinear equations. This may no longer be solved by inspection.
Instead, we have to use iterative techniques which are far more
easily performed by computer than by hand. The simplest method
of iteration is called the Gauss method.
5-3
Module 1
Exercise
Write a solution to the nonlinear Equation 5.4. Can this
solution be used to solve for the
power system of Figure 5.2?
VB
VA +
q
VA2 4RS
2
5.3.1 Theory
The operation of the Gauss iteration can be appreciated readily by
applying it to the solution of the simple quadratic equation 5.4.
Equation 5.4 is rearranged as:
VB
RS
VA
VB
Equation 5.5
VBk1
5-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
RS
VA
VBk
Equation 5.6
Section Five
400 MW
15:5 O
A 231 kV
Calculate the answer using the Gauss iterative method and check
it by using the quadratic solution formula.
To proceed we use Equation 5.6. Taking an initial value of VB as
231 kV (i.e. the same as VA ), we get the following results by
iterating:
Table 5.1
k
VB kV
204.16
200.63
200.10
200.02
200.00
200.00
VB
q
VA + VA2 4RS
2
VB 200 kV
or
VB 31 kV
The above example has illustrated another important point
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
5-5
Module 1
VB 200 kV
is the correct answer. However, if the two answers are closer
together, this selection process becomes more difficult. For the
example given above, the initial choice of VB has little bearing on
the result.
Having found VB , we can calculate the power loss in the
transmission as:
PL
VA VB 2 31 kV2
62 MW
R
15:5 O
Equation 5.7
Exercise
Try performing the iteration of
the previous example using
different starting values.
You should find that the result is always 200 kV, even for starting
values close, but not equal, to 31 kV.
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Five
V3 I 3 P3 jQ3
Equation 5.8
P3 jQ3
I3
V3
or
P3 jQ3
I3
V3
Equation 5.9
P3 jQ3
Y13 V1 Y23 V2 Y33 V3 Y43 V4
V3
Equation 5.10
Note that admittances refer only to the transmission lines and not
the busbar loads or generators. Equation 5.10 may be rearranged
into a form suitable for iteration:
1 P3 jQ3
V3
Y13 V1 Y23 V2 Y43 V4
V3
Y33
Equation 5.11
5-7
Module 1
"
#
N
1 Pk jQk X
Vk
Ykn Vn n 6 k
Ykk
Vk
n1
Equation 5.12
Exercise
Explain the significance of
admittances Ykk and Ykn in
Equation 5.12.
S P jQ;
is specified for all buses. However, no allowance has been made for
the power losses, real or reactive, that occur in the transmission
lines; these losses are, of course, load dependent. If we specified S
for all buses, then clearly no solution could be found unless the
generation power exactly equalled the load plus the losses. To
allow for this, we make one bus within the system independent of
S; this bus is referred to as the slack or swing bus and is usually
denoted as being node 0. Furthermore, the voltage is specified at
the slack bus and, hence, Equation 5.12 is not applied to the slack
bus.
5-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Five
Exercise
Why is a slack bus necessary to
iterative load flow analysis?
Figure 5.3
Example
Find the voltages at busbars 1 and 2 of Figure 5.3 after one
iteration of the Gauss method.
Table 5.2
Busbar
Voltage
Generation (p.u.)
Load (p.u.)
0.9908
1 j2
0.3 j0.1
0.2 j0.1
0.7 j0.1
5-9
Module 1
3 2
3 j6
I0
4 I1 5 4 2 j4
I2
1 j2
2 j4
3 j6
1 j2
32 3
1 j2
V0
5
4
1 j2
V1 5
V2
2 j4
Equation 5.13
1 P1 jQ1
V1
Y01 V0 Y21 V2
V1
Y11
Equation 5.14
1 P2 jQ2
V2
Y02 V0 Y12 V1
V2
Y22
Equation 5.15
and
1
0:1 j0:2
V1
2 j40:99 j0 1 j21 j0
3 j6
1 j0
Equation 5.16
and
1
0:7 j0:1
1 j20:99 j0 1 j21 j0
V2
2 j4
1 j0
Equation 5.17
V1 0:973 j0:027
and
V2 1:085 j0:130:
Note, that from Equation 5.13:
and so:
5-10
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 5
Exercise
Why is the Newton-Raphson
method superior to the Gauss
method?
5-11
Module 1
5.4.1 Theory
The NewtonRaphson method differs from the GaussSeidel
method in that new iterative updates of the required busbar
voltages are based upon the rate of change of the solution.
Initially we will simplify the theory in order that the basic
principle of this method of iteration is fully understood. We will
begin by considering the d.c. system of Figure 5.1. We learned that
the relationship describing voltages, power and line resistance is
given by Equation 5.4 which is repeated here in a slightly different
form:
VB2 VA VB RS F1 VB 0
Equation 5.21
F1 VBk DVBk 0
Equation 5.22
where VBk is the error between the correct value of VB and its
estimate on the kth iteration. In order to update the value of
DVBk1 , we will try to estimate the value of DVBk by using the
Taylor series expansion of F1 :
F1 VB
F1 VBk
DVBk
dF1
dVB
Equation 5.23
Equation 5.23 shows the first two terms in the Taylor series
k
expansion where dF1 =dVB is the derivative of F1 with respect
to VB evaluated at VBk . Since Equation 5.23 equates to zero, we
may evaluate DVBk as:
F1 VBk
DVBk
dF1 k
dVB
5-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Equation 5.24
Section Five
Note that Equation 5.24 only approximates to DVBk since only the
first two terms in the Taylor series expansion of Equation 5.23
were considered.
Exercise
What is the expression for
dF1 / dVB ?
dF1
2VB VA
dVB
Equation 5.25
Exercise
Using the same example of
Section 5.3.1, calculate the first
iterative value of VBk1 starting
with VBk VA initially.
and
dF1
dVB
5-13
Module 1
Hence,
Equation 5.28
Table 5.3
k
VB kV
204.16
200.10
200.00
5-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Five
Vk jVk jdk
Vn jVn jdn
Pk jQk
N
X
Equation 5.31
n1
Pk
N
X
Equation 5:32
n1
Qk
N
X
Equation 5:33
n1
Pkspec Pkcalc
qPk
DVk
qVk
Equation 5.34
Equation 5.35
and similarly:
Equation 5.36
5-15
Module 1
qP1
6 qd1
2
3 6
6 qP2
DP1
6
6 DP2 7 6
6
7 6 qd1
4 DQ1 5 6
6 qQ1
6
DQ2
6 qd1
6
4 qQ2
qd1
qP1
qd2
qP2
qd2
qQ1
qd2
qQ2
qd2
qP1
qjV1 j
qP2
qjV1 j
qQ1
qjV1 j
qQ2
qjV1 j
3
qP1
qjV2 j 7
72
3
qP2 7
7 Dd1
qjV2 j 7
Dd2 7
76
7Equation 5.37
76
qQ1 74 DV1 5
7
DV2
qjV2 j 7
7
qQ2 5
qjV2 j
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 6
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6.0 Objectives
When you have finished this section you should be able to:
6.1 Introduction
In this section we develop the use of symmetrical components for
analysing three-phase unbalanced systems. The particular
unbalanced conditions created by faults on systems will be dealt
with in Section 7. Here we just want to concentrate on the
principles of the method and apply it to simple examples of
unbalanced loading.
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-1
Module 1
Figure 6.1
Finally in Figure 6.1(c) we show three phasors which are in phase
with each other. These are called zero sequence components.
For the purpose of our analysis these phasors are going to be
theoretical concepts, but we could produce them if we so wished.
The positive sequence would come from a standard three-phase
generator, the negative sequence we could obtain simply by
swapping over two of the output connections from the standard
generator and the three zero sequence components could be
obtained from three, separate, single-phase generators mounted on
one shaft with the windings so arranged that the three output
voltages were in phase at all times.
Now let us add together the a phase, the b phase and the c
phase components respectively of Figure 6.1. The result is shown
in Figure 6.2. We have created three new phasors, V a , V b and V c
and these are obviously unbalanced. Writing these as vector
equations, we have:
V a V a0 V a1 V a2
V b V b0 V b1 V b2
V c V c0 V c1 V c2
Figure 6.2
What we now need to recognise is that we can represent any
arrangement of three phasors by a unique set of three sequence
components. So that any unbalanced condition can be represented
6-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
in this way. This makes analysis easier because we are then dealing
with two sets of balanced three-phase systems the positive and
negative sequence components and one set of co-phasal
components. We solve the problem for each set of components
and simply add the results together.
Now comes the difficult part.
How do we know what the unique values of the sequence
components are?
We will return to this question shortly, but first we need the help
of the a operator.
i:e:
j 1:090
and, if V V0
then; jV 1:090 6V0
V90
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-3
Module 1
or
Equation 6:2
(Before proceeding further, just make sure that you really know what
V0, V1 and V2 stand for.)
So far so good, but we still need to know the values of V0, V1
and V2 and we obtain these by using some mathematics.
Equation 6.2 is written in matrix form and can be inverted using
standard methods to obtain:
6-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
3
2
V0
1
7 16
6
4 V1 5 4 1
3
V2
1
2
1
a
a
3 2
3
Va
1
7 6
7
a 2 5 64 V b 5
a
Equation 6:3
Vc
or
1
V a V b V c
3
1
V 1 V a aV b a2 V c
3
1
V 2 V a a2 V b aV c
3
V0
Exercise
The following phase voltages are
measured at the output of a
three-phase, star-connected
generator. The star point is
earthed.
V a 1:00
V b 1:2100
V c 0:7145
p:u:
p:u:
p:u:
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-5
Module 1
1
1:0 1:2100 0:7145
3
1
1:0 1:20:174 j0:985 0:70:814 j0:574
3
1
0:218 j1:584 0:073 j0:528 0:53482:13 p:u:
3
1
V a aV b a2 V c
3
1
1:0 1:0120 61:2100 1:0240 60:7145
3
1
1:0 1:2220 0:725
3
1
1:0 1:20:766 j0:643 0:70:906 j0:423
3
V0
V0
V0
V1
V1
V1
V1
V1
1
0:715 j0:476 0:238 j0:159 0:287 33:75
3
1
V 2 V a a2 V b aV c
3
1
V 2 1:0 1:2340 0:7265
3
V 2 0:689 j0:369 0:78 28:17 p:u:
p:u:
6-6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
Figure 6.3
If we let the generator provide a set of positive sequence voltages
V a1 , V b1 and V c1 then the solution for this set is straightforward.
The phase voltage V a1 creates a phase current
V a1 =Zc ZL
The neutral impedance Zn has no effect because the voltages are
symmetrical and the circuit is symmetrical so that the three phase
currents sum to zero at the star point and there is no positive
phase sequence current in the neutral wire.
We can therefore define a positive phase sequence impedance
Z1 for the circuit as:
Z1 ZC ZL
Now let the generator provide a set of negative sequence voltages
V a2 , V c2 and V b2
The phase voltage V a2 creates a phase current
I 2 V a2 =Zc ZL
and the negative phase sequence impedance Z2 is defined as:
Z2 Zc ZL
We might reasonably expect Z1 to equal Z2 in symmetrical, static
circuits. This is true provided that Z1 and Z2 are not sensitive to
phase sequence. In most cases this is true. A transmission line, a
cable or a transformer will not behave differently if we simply
swap over two of the supply connections. However, for electrical
machines things will be different because the reversal of the phase
sequence will reverse the direction of rotation of the magnetic
field in the airgap. We can therefore expect that for electrical
machines Z1 will not equal Z2 .
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-7
Module 1
Exercise
If the zero sequence current in
line a of Figure 6.3 is I 0 , what
is the zero sequence current in
the neutral wire?
I N 3I 0
The voltage drop across the neutral impedance is then:
3I 0 ZN
We can now draw three equivalent single-phase circuits for the
three component systems. These are shown in Figure 6.4. Note
that we have to put 36ZN in the zero sequence equivalent circuit
to allow for the voltage drop 3I 0 6ZN that is produced across the
neutral impedance. Take note of this because it will be important
when we move on to fault calculations.
6-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
Figure 6.4
One last problem: suppose that the neutral of the load is isolated.
What happens to I0?
If we break the neutral circuit then I0 cannot flow! The balanced
positive and negative sequence components are not affected
because they sum to zero at the star point, but co-phasal currents
cannot sum to zero at a point and this means that if the neutral is
open circuit then no zero sequence current can flow.
This is an important conclusion for us because it means that we
need to know whether or not star points are earthed in any
system that is likely to be unbalanced. And what if there is no star
point? Suppose the supply system, or the load, were connected in
delta?
We need to examine this more closely, but first another exercise.
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-9
Module 1
Exercise
A balanced, star-connected,
resistive load of 0:4 p.u. per
phase is supplied via a feeder
from the unbalanced supply
defined in the exercise in Section
6.3. The feeder has positive,
negative and zero sequence
reactances of j0:14, j0:14 and
j0:28 p.u. respectively. There is
a resistance in the neutral
connection of 0:25 p.u.
Calculate the current in the a
phase of the supply.
We have:
V 0 0:53482:13 p:u:
V 1 0:287 33:75 p:u:
V 2 0:780 28:17 p:u:
The total positive sequence impedance per phase is:
p:u:
p:u:
p:u:
Therefore:
0:534
68:45 p:u:
1:184
0:287
53:04 p:u:
I1
0:424
0:780
47:46 p:u:
I2
0:424
I0
6-10
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
Ia I0 I1 I2
I a 0:4510:0:367 j0:930 0:6770:601 j0:799 1:8400:676 j0:737
I a 1:817 j1:478
I a 2:342 39:13 p:u:
This leads us to our first two zero sequence equivalent circuits for
two common transformer connections. These are shown in Figures
6.5(a) and 6.5(b).
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-11
Module 1
Figure 6.5
In Figure 6.5(a), co-phasal currents can flow to earth on the
primary side and balancing currents can flow in the secondary
windings. These currents can also flow to earth via the earthed
neutral on the secondary side. The equivalent circuit shows a
straight through connection via the transformers zero sequence
impedance. Whether or not zero sequence currents will actually
flow depends on the neutral connections of the equipment that is
connected on either side.
In Figure 6.5(b), zero sequence currents cannot flow in the
secondary winding because the neutral connection is open circuit.
This means that there can be no zero sequence currents in the
primary winding. This is because there has to be a balance of
Ampere-turns in a transformer, i.e. N 1 I 1 N2 I2 . The equivalent
circuit shows the zero sequence impedance in place, but the circuit
is broken on the secondary side to prevent the flow of zero
sequence currents across the transformer.
6-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
Figure 6.6
Our second common transformer arrangement is the star/delta
connection shown in Figure 6.6. In Figure 6.6(a), the star point of
the primary is earthed. Zero sequence currents therefore have a
path to ground on the primary side. Balancing currents can flow
in the secondary windings as illustrated, but I a0 , I b0 and I c0 are
all equal and co-phasal. They therefore represent one continuous
zero sequence current, which is circulating around the delta
winding. There can be no zero sequence component of current in
the secondary lines. The delta winding effectively traps the zero
sequence currents. The equivalent circuit demonstrates this. A
path remains for the zero sequence currents to flow in the primary
network.
In Figure 6.6(b) there can be no zero sequence currents in the
primary and therefore none in the delta.
Finally we have the delta/delta winding. From what we have said
above, zero sequence currents may circulate around the delta but
cannot flow into the lines. The connection and its equivalent
circuit are shown in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-13
Module 1
The one helpful note is that the value of the zero sequence
impedance in a transformer is the same as the value of the positive
and negative sequence impedances.
Remember that any added impedance in the neutral circuit must
be represented in the zero sequence equivalent circuit by an
impedance of three times its value. This means that if ever we
have an earthing impedance connected between the star point and
earth then we must add three times its value to the zero sequence
impedance of the transformer. The connections of the equivalent
circuits shown above are not changed.
V A 220 j0 V
V B 0 j200 V
V C 100 j200 V
6-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Six
V a 110 kV
V b 10 110
V c 12115
kV
kV
Determine:
(a)
(b)
(c)
UNBALANCED SYSTEMS
6-15
Module 1
Figure 6.8
Hence obtain the value of the transfer reactance that exists for
each sequence component.
6-16
Positive sequence
reactance
Negative sequence
reactance
Zero sequence
reactance
Transformers
0.2
0.2
0.2
Generators
0.1
0.1
0.05
Tie line
0.2
0.2
0.3
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
Section 7
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7.0 Objectives
When you have completed this section you should be able to:
7.1 Introduction
We shall be using the concepts gained in Section 6 to develop
techniques for determining the fault currents and fault voltages in
various commonly found fault conditions. We will assume that
the three-phase supply is always balanced and to distinguish
supply voltages from voltages elsewhere in the circuit we will
define the three phase supply voltages as Ea Eb and Ec. Since
these voltages are balanced, their symmetrical components are:
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-1
Module 1
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Our first exercise will be to short circuit the terminals a, b and c in
Figure 7.1. This is a simple, balanced fault, but it will help us to
see how the sequence networks are used.
7-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
Figure 7.3
Three-phase fault
Figure 7.4
Sequence network connections
for three-phase fault
From which we learn that under symmetrical, or balanced, threephase fault conditions we need only consider the pps network.
This is another justi.cation for describing three-phase power
networks with one line diagrams but only under balanced
conditions.
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-3
Module 1
Exercise
A synchronous generator with
terminal voltage 11:8 kV,
rating 20 MVA and pps
transient reactance X1 0
0:08 p:u: is subjected to a
three-phase short-circuit.
Calculate the fault current.
X0 p:u:base voltage2
X O
base VA
0:08611 8002
0:557 O
206106
0
;Taking E1 to be
11:8 kV
p
3
(see Figure 7.5) the fault current I1 is
I1
E1 E1
11:86103
0 p
12:2 kA
Z1 X1
360:557
Base VA p
3VL Isc
Zp:u:
where Isc short-circuit current
and VL line voltage
FL
206106
VA
0:08
FL
206106
1
p
12:2 kA
And thus; I1 p
0:08
3611 800
3V
Hence
7-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
FL
Section Seven
=0
Figure 7.5
V0 + V1 + V2 = 0
Equation 7.1
Furthermore:
Icf = Ibf = 0
and so, from Equation 6.2 formulated for currents rather than
voltages, we get:
I 0 = I1 = I 2 =
I af
3
Equation 7.2
Exercise
Can you arrange an
interconnection of the sequence
networks of Figure 7.2 to agree
with Equations 7.1 and 7.2?
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-5
Module 1
Figure 7.6
Sequence network connection for
'a' to earth fault
Note that we could have readily chosen either the 'b' or 'c' phase
for the earth fault. However, the choice of 'a' to earth leads to a
sequence component diagram, Figure 7.6, which does not involve
a the 120 shift operator. This will simplify hand calculations.
Phase to phase fault
Now consider a 'b' to 'c' clear of earth fault.
Figure 7.7
'b' to 'c' fault
Exercise
By considering the fault point
currents, can you describe the
function of the zps network for
this fault?
7-6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
bearing on this fault. In fact, the zps network is only ever present
under earth-fault conditions.
To deduce the nature of the pps and nps networks connections
we proceed by realising that:
Vbf = Vcf
Thus from Equation 6.3:
3
V1 = V2
1
2
V2 = (Vaf + a Vbf + aVbf )
3
V1 =
Furthermore
I1 = ( aI bf a2 I bf )
3
I1 = I 2
1 2
I 2 = ( a I bf aI bf )
3
Hence the connections of the networks are:
Figure 7.8
Sequence network connections
for 'b' to 'c' fault
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-7
Module 1
Figure 7.9
'b' to 'c' earth fault
Exercise
Can you deduce the sequence
network connections to describe the
fault of Figure 7.9?
Since Iaf
that:
I0 + I1 + I2 = 0
We also have it that Vbf
= Vcf = 0
V0 = V1 = V2 =
Vaf
3
7-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
Figure 7.10
Sequence network connections
for 'b' to 'c' to earth fault
Note that the choice of b and c phases for the last two faults
(b to c and b to c to earth) has resulted in sequence network
connection diagrams that do not involve a the 120 shift
operator.
Figure 7.11
Resistive single phase to earth
fault
Total line impedance between A and B = Z1.
In order to derive the sequence component networks,we will use
Figure 7.6 as a basis, but we must also consider separately Zs and
Z1 the proportion of the overhead line involved in the fault, as
well as the fault resistance.
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-9
Module 1
Figure 7.12
Sequence network connections
for resistive earth fault
Ibf = Icf = 0
From Equation 6.3:
I0 =
I af
I af = 3I 0
3
Equation 7:3
Since all of Iaf flows into Rf we take account of this and the
relationship of Equation 7.3 by making Rf 3 times larger in the
sequence network diagram of Figure 7.12.
7-10
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
Exercise
A 100 km, 400 kV
transmission line is subject to an
'a' phase to earth fault at 80
km. If the fault path resistance
is 10 , calculate the fault
current.
Figure 7.13
Data:
Thus,
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-11
Module 1
Ia = I0 + I1 + I2
= 3I0
= 1 092 j4 035 = 4 180 75 A
Exercise
Deduce the sequence network
connections of Figure 7.14 for a
resistive 'a' phase to earth fault.
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.15
If you are not sure about this, cover the right hand side of Figures
7.14 and 7.15. Do you notice the similarity between these and
7-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
Figure 7.11 and the pps network of Figure 7.12? Thus, to deal with
2-ended systems, we need only consider the sequence networks to
be of the form of Figure 7.15, with the connections as shown.
To finish this problem, we need to concentrate on the zps
network, since the nps network will be similar to Figure 7.15 with
the sources shorted out. The transformer at B will cause us little
problem since, according to Section 6.5, it is simply a series nps
impedance connection.
However, owing to the presence of the delta winding of the
transformer at A, we will need to take account of the inhibited zps
current .ow into the generator at A. The entire sequence network
will, therefore, be:
Figure 7.16
Figure 7.17
For the 400 kV system of Figure 7.17, calculate the following:
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-13
Module 1
Figure 7.18
The 132 kV system of Figure 7.18 is fed from end A only. The
switch at B is open.
The per unit sequence impedances of the circuit components are
as follows, to a base of 132 kV, 100 MVA:
Positive sequence
impedance
Negative sequence
impedance
Zero sequence
impedance
0 + j0.04
0 + j0.04
0 + j0.02
Transformers 0 + j0.20
0 + j0.2
0 + j0.2
Line
0 + j0.10
0 + j0.3
Source
0 + j0.10
7-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
(ii)
(iii)
I a 3I 0 3I 1 3I 2
where I 0 ; I 1 and I 2 are the zero, positive and negative
sequence components respectively.
(b)
A 400 kV transmission line connects two 400 kV, threephase earthed systems.
At one end, the line is connected to the system via a delta/
earthed-star transformer of unity turns ratio. At the other
end the line is connected to the system via an earthed-star/
earthed-star transformer of unity turns ratio.
A resistive phase-to-earth fault occurs at the mid point of
the line. The value of the fault resistance is 5:0 O.
The per unit sequence impedances of the circuit
components are, to a base of 400 kV and 1 000 MVA, as
follows:
Positive sequence
impedance
Negative sequence
impedance
Zero sequence
impedance
Systems
0.006 j0.094
0.006 j0.094
0.003 j0.050
Line
0.013 j0.190
0.013 j0.190
0.060 j0.570
Transformer
0 j0.190
0 j0.190
0 j0.190
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-15
Module 1
Figure 7.19
(a)
(b)
(i)
(ii)
a line-to-line fault.
Positive sequence
reactances
Negative sequence
reactances
Zero sequence
reactances
Transformers
0.2
0.2
0.2
Generators
0.1
0.1
0.05
Tie line
0.2
0.2
0.3
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Seven
(b)
(c)
FAULT CALCULATIONS
7-17
Module 1
7-18
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 8
TRANSMISSION LINE
CHARACTERISTICS
8.0 Objectives
When you have completed this section you should be able to:
8.1 Introduction
The simplest view of a transmission line is that it is a length of
conductor used to connect a load to a source or to interconnect
two supply systems. As with any conductor it has inductance,
capacitance and resistance. The simple view would suggest that
the resistance is the most important factor because the I 2 R loss
and its associated heating will place the only limit on power
transfer.
TRANSMISSION LINE CHARACTERISTICS
8-1
Module 1
This limit exists, but for high voltage, long transmission lines
other factors are just as important. We have already seen that
there is a theoretical limit on the power that can be transferred
between a synchronous source E and a synchronous load V and
that the limit is determined by the load angle between the two
voltages and by the transfer impedance between them. The
inductance is a critical component of this transfer impedance.
Capacitance is also significant on long, high voltage lines. Reactive
current has to flow along the line to charge up the capacitance of
the line. This will affect the voltage distribution along the line. An
underground cable is far more capacitive than an overhead line
and will need proportionately more capacitive current to charge it.
The design and operation of long transmission lines is not
therefore a simple issue and lines are a very significant part of the
transmission and distribution network.
The inductance, capacitance and resistance of a transmission line
are distributed parameters. That is, each infinitesimal section of a
line has its own inductance, capacitance and resistance. An
accurate mathematical model of this is complex, but we only need
such accuracy when considering high frequency, or transient,
effects on a power line, or when dealing with exceptionally long
power lines. Fortunately, we can establish the man principles of
power line operation by using good approximate models that are
easy to set up and deal with.
In this section we will be examining how the physical dimensions
of a line determine its inductance and capacitance and we will use
these derived values to establish simple models to describe the
operation of the line. The models will be based on P and >
network approximations which are justified for line lengths of up
to 150 km. These models are then used to construct a simple line
chart from which we can determine the practical power transfer
capabilities of the line.
8-2
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Figure 8.1
The magnetic field set up by a long, cylindrical conductor has a
circular symmetry about the axis of the conductor and at a radius
x away from the axis the magnetising force H is given by:
I
2px
Bx m0 H
m0 I
2px
dF Bx 6l6dx
The total magnetic flux existing between the surface of conductor
A and the surface of conductor B will be the sum of a series of
small fluxes dF as the variable x increases from x r to
x D r . i.e.
ZDr
m0 I
m0 I
Dr
l dx
l ln
2px
2p
r
8-3
Module 1
suggests that it will have the same magnitude. So, the total flux
linking the two conductors is:
m0 I
Dr
l ln
FT
p
r
Inductance is defined as flux-linkages per ampere, so we can define
the self inductance of a two-conductor line as L, where:
FT m0
Dr
l ln
L
HenriesH
I
p
r
or, writing this as a per unit length value:
FT m0
Dr
ln
L
Hm1
I
p
r
The calculation for a three conductor line is a little more involved
and becomes difficult if the line is not symmetrically spaced or if
the conductors are transposed. In a transposed line the conductors
are crossed over every so often, so that the a conductor moves to
the position of the b conductor, the b conductor moves to the
position of the c conductor and the c conductor moves to the
position of the a conductor. This tends to happen only on very
long lines.
The effect of earth wires and of the ground also need to be taken
into account for exact solutions, particularly when transient
conditions are being analysed. You can imagine how difficult this
can be when you consider that the resistivity of the ground will
vary with ground and weather conditions along the length of the
line.
However, we have developed a simple equation for the inductance
of a simple line which shows the way that inductance varies with
line separation. We also have a straightforward method of analysis
which we can use to calculate the electromagnetic interference
between adjacent lines.
8-4
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Figure 8.2
In Figure 8.2 we represent a two-conductor power line, AB, and a
parallel two-conductor communication circuit, CD. We will define
the distances separating the conductors as dAB ; dAC . etc and
assume that the radius of all conductors is small with respect to
the distances between conductors.
Following the procedure of the previous section, we can define the
flux passing between conductors C and D due to current I in
conductor A at a distance x from the axis of A as:
dF
m0 I
ldx
2px
The total flux linking the circuit CD due to the current in A is:
FA
xd
Z AD
m0 I
m0 I
dAD
l dx
l ln
dAC
2px
2p
xdAC
m0 I
dBD
l ln
FB
dBC
2p
However, FB is opposing FA so the total effective flux linkage
with CD is:
TRANSMISSION LINE CHARACTERISTICS
8-5
Module 1
m0 I
dBD
dAD
ln
l ln
FT
dBC
dAC
2p
m0 I
dBD dAC
FT
l ln
dBC dAD
2p
The mutual inductance, M , between the two circuits is defined as
the flux-linkages per ampere, so that:
m0
dBD dAC
l ln
M
H
2p
dBC dAD
or
m0
dBD dAC
ln
M
Hm1
2p
dBC dAD
Calculating the induced emf, e, is now straightforward because:
eM
dI
dt
and, if
I isinot
then:
d
e Mi sinot Miocosot per metre length
dt
Exercise
Four long, straight conductors lie
in the same horizontal plane
with 1 cm between adjacent
conductors. The two left-hand
conductors supply a circuit with
500 mA r.m.s current at
12:5 kHz. Determine the e.m.f.
per metre run induced around
the loop formed by the two
right-hand conductors and the
mutual inductance between the
two loops per unit length.
8-6
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
A =
x = dAD
0 I
I
3
l dx = 0 l ln
2 x
2
2
x = dAC
B =
0 I
l ln 2
2
T =
0 I
4
l ln
2
3
The mutual inductance per unit length, M, is the flux linkage per
ampere which is calculated as 0.58 107 Hm1.
The induced e.m.f. per metre run of CD is:
e=M
dI
= M 0.5 0.2 0.5 2 f cos 2 ft
dt
8-7
Module 1
Figure 8.3
In this case we assume that the current I is supplied by the central
conductor and that it returns via a second conductor or, in the
case of low level signals, along the co-axial sheath. Either way, the
conducting sheath of a co-axial cable protects the inner from the
effects of externally generated electromagnetic fields. The only
magnetic flux within the cable is produced by the current I in the
main conductor. Following our earlier examples we have:
m0 I
l dx
2p
m0 I
R
l ln
FT
2p
r
FT m0
R
l ln
L
I
2p
r
m
R
Hm1
L 0 ln
2p
r
dF
8-8
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Low voltage wiring will not have screening about the conductors
and mutual electromagnetic coupling will be maximised. This will
be a major problem when there are high frequency fields or where
transient conditions occur. Wiring in any control or data network
which may be susceptible to unwanted interference should always
be screened.
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.4 represents a section through two, long, cylindrical
conductors. The effect of earth is ignored and the charge
displacement is balanced with Q coulombs on conductor A and
Q coulombs on conductor B.
Electric field strength E is defined as acting positively along the
line of increasing x. We can then define the potential of a point at
x a with respect to a point x b as:
Vab
Za
Edx
b
8-9
Module 1
Figure 8.5
Theoretically it does not matter which path we take when we
determine the potential difference A and B, but for ease of
calculation we choose the one which gives the easiest solution. In
this case the choice is the shortest line between the two axes. At
the point x along this line the two components of E are:
E at x due to charge on A,
EA
Q
2pe0 xl
EB
Q
2pe0 d xl
[If you are unsure about this then you need to refer to a basic text
on electrical theory and look up Gauss Law]
The constant Eo is the permittivity of free space and has a value
109 =36p Farads per metre (Fm-1). If the material between the
conductors is an insulator other than free space (or air) then we
have to multiply Eo by the value of relative permittivity for the
material.
The resultant electrical field strength ER is:
Q
Q
ER
2pe0 xl
2pe0 d xl
so that the voltage between A and B is:
VAB
VAB
Q 1
1
dx
2pe0 l x dx
dr
Q
dr
ln
pe0 l
r
Zr
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Q
pe0 l
Farads F
VAB ln dr
r
pe0
Fm1
dr
ln r
Exercise
Two long, straight, cylindrical
conductors run in parallel to
form a go and return circuit.
Each conductor has an outside
diameter of 2 cm and they are
separated by a distance of 1 m
between centres.
Determine the capacitance
between the conductors per
metre run.
8-11
Module 1
Figure 8.6
Assume a charge Q on the inner conductor so that the electric
field E acts radially outwards from the centre in the direction of
increasing x.
The potential of the inner conductor with respect to the outer is
then:
V
Zr
Edx
a
Q
2pe0 xl
so that
V
Zr
a
a
Q
Q
dx
ln
2pe0 xl
2pe0 l
r
which gives:
8-12
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
2pe0
Farads per metre length:
a
ln r
Section Eight
Exercise
A concentric cable consists of an
inner conductor of diameter 2
cm and an outer conductor of
internal diameter 6 cm.
Polythene tape is wrapped
around the inner conductor to a
thickness of 1 cm and then a
layer of Nylon tape is laid on
top of the polythene to fill
completely the remaining space
between the two conductors.
Calculate the capacitance of the
cable per metre run. Take the
relative permittivity for
polythene as 2.4 and the
relative permittivity of Nylon as
3.6.
Figure 8.7
r2
r2
r1
V = E1dx E2 dx
E1 at x for r2 < x < r3 =
Q
2 0 1 xl
Q
2 0 2 xl
TRANSMISSION LINE CHARACTERISTICS
8-13
Module 1
so that:
Q
1
r3
1
r2
ln
V
ln
r2
r1
2pe0 l e1
e2
Substitution gives:
Q
140 pF=m
Vl
XC
1
2pfC
per unit length, where L and C have the values already defined.
If we allow for the possibility of losses along the line then the
series impedance Z R joL should be used and it will be
easier to work with a shunt admittance Y joC rather than a
shunt reactance.
For lines less than about 150 km long we can choose one of two
approximate representations: either the P equivalent circuit or the
> equivalent circuit. These are illustrated in Figures 8.8 and 8.9
respectively.
Figure 8.8
8-14
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Figure 8.9
In practice, there is little to choose between the two models
although for some applications one may be better suited than the
other.
Now, what we need to do is to develop the models a little bit
further so that we end up with the standard four-terminal (or twoport) representation of a transmission line. This will enable us to
represent the line by the equivalent circuit model shown in Figure
8.10 and by the two following equations. Unfortunately this
means a bit of tedious manipulation, but it is worth doing because
it will show us exactly how the A B C D constants are related to
the basic parameters of the overhead line (or even underground
cable!).
Figure 8.10
VS AVR BIR
IS CVR DIR
Exercise
Refer back to Figure 8.8 and try
to show that the following
equations are valid:
ZY
VS 1
V R ZI R
2
"
#
ZY 2
ZY
IS Y
VR 1
IR
4
2
8-15
Module 1
V S ZI B
IC
Y=2
IB IR IC
V RY
IC
2
;
;
or
V RY
IB IR
2
V RY
VR
V S Z IR
2
ZY
VS 1
V R ZI R
2
We also have:
IS IA IB
and
IA
ZI B
VR
Y=2
Y
2
Y
I S V R ZI B I B
2
V RY
ZY
IB
1
IS
2
2
I A V R ZI B
or
;
or
V RY
V R Y ZY
IR
1
IS
2
2
2
or
"
ZY
IS Y
4
ZY
VR 1
IR
2
8-16
VS
IS
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
ZY
1 2
6
4
ZY 2
Y 4
3
7 VR
5
IR
ZY
1 2
Z
Section Eight
or
VS
IS
B
D
VR
IR
VS
IS
ZY
61 2
4
Y
3
Z2 Y
Z 4 7 V
R
5
I
R
ZY
1 2
Y 0 j0:756102 S.
Determine the A B C D
constants for a P representation
of the line.
8-17
Module 1
( 4 + j12 ) ( 0 + j0.75 10
ZY
A = 1+
= 1+
2
2
B = Z = 4 + j12
C =Y +
) = 0.955 + j0.015
ZY 2
= 0.0056 + j 0.733S
4
D=A
Exercise
A balanced three-phase overhead
line has constants A =
0.910 and
B = 10064 . The
receiving-end line voltage is held
at 400 kV. Determine the line
voltage at the sending end
needed to deliver 900 MW at
0.9 power factor leading at the
receiving end.
900
= 1000 MVA
0.9
1000 106
= 144326D A
IR =
3
3 400 10
S=
VS = AVR + BI R
40010D
D
+ 1443 100 ( 26 + 64 ) V
3
VS = 204.64 + j36.1 + J 144.3 kV
VS = 0.9
VS = 272.841.4D kV
VS(Line) = 472.541.4D kV
[Note the large value of the load angle which would be
unacceptable in practice].
8-18
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
8.8
As shown earlier:
From which:
Figure 8.11
PR = 3VRIRP
QR = 3VRIRQ
[Note the negative sign to represent the leading vars].
Remember from the first section that lagging vars are associated
with an inductive load in which the current lags the voltage and
by convention a positive sign is used. Leading vars are used for
capacitive loads in which the current leads the voltage and in this
8-19
Module 1
case the sign for vars is negative. It can be said that an inductive
load absorbs vars and a capacitive load generates vars.
From the phasor diagram of Figure 8.11 it is apparent that because
the B parameter of the line is effectively a constant for any given
application, the following relationships apply:
jBjIRP ! PR
jBjIRQ ! QR
We can use this to scale the phasor diagram in units of power. In
particular, any voltages, V 0 say, along the BIRP axis and V 00 along
the BIRQ axis are related to the received power by:
PR 3jV R j
V0
jB j
Q R 3 jV R j
jB j
V 00
Exercise
A three-phase transmission line
has a two-port B parameter of
5070 O=phase. The sending
and receiving end voltages are
held constant at 400 kV. If a
line performance chart is now
constructed, what will every 10
kV along the V 0 and V 00 axes
actually represent in terms of
real power (MW) and reactive
power (Mvar)?
400
jV R j jV S j p 231 kV
3
8-20
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
I RP =
10 103
= 200 A
B
It can be seen therefore that we can scale the BIRP and BIRQ axes to
represent real and reactive power at the receiving end of the line.
This forms the basis of the line performance chart.
A positive value of PR clearly represents power arriving at the
receiving end whereas a negative value of PR means that power is
being sent from the receiving end to the sending end of the line.
A negative value of QR means that the reactive power received at
the receiving end of the line is leading and conversely when BIRQ
is positive the reactive power received is lagging. These two cases
correspond to a capacitive load and an inductive load respectively.
We can now generalise the line chart as shown in Figure 8.12
which shows the axes for real power and reactive power with the
origin for power measurement at the tip of the AVR phasor.
Figure 8.12
Several important features of the active and reactive power transfer
characteristics of a transmission line are readily apparent from
8-21
Module 1
V S
0:95h h1:05
VR
There is also a requirement to limit the angle between the voltages
at each end of the line. This is the load angle of the line and for
stability reasons this is limited to within +308.
It is thus clear that in practice one is not entirely free to specify
any arbitrary power PR or reactive power QR to be transmitted to
the receiving end of a transmission line. In fact it is very evident
that, within the typical range of voltages possible, only certain
reactive powers can actually be transmitted to the receiving end.
In a practical system, these constraints are met by employing
special equipment on the system essentially to control the reactive
and active power flows.
It should be noted that the reactive power associated with power
systems is very closely bound up with the whole matter of voltage
control whereas the active power transmitted is largely dictated by
the load angle of the line.
An overhead earth wire can help to improve the capacity of a line
to transfer power. It can be shown that the earth wire reduces the
effective series impedance of the line, which of course means a
reduction in the B parameter. If you think back to the work we
did on synchronous sources and synchronous loads you may
remember that the maximum power that could be transmitted
between two voltages depends inversely on the transfer
impedance. Thus a reduction in B will mean an increase in the
maximum possible power transfer.
Surge impedance loading
This is an interesting case where the load on the line is resistive,
i.e. at unity power factor, and equal in value to the characteristic
impedance of the line.
r
r
Z
L=
Zo
=Y
C
With this loading, there is no voltage drop along the line
8-22
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
(b)
(c)
V S AV R BI R
so
IR
V S AV R
B
B
IR f
jV S jd jAja
6jV R j0
jBjb jBjb
AV R
2:816103 55 A
B
VS
3:56103 d 65 A
B
5006106
I
1:716103 25:84 A
3
325610
If we choose a scale of 1 cm 0:66103 A, then we can draw
the three phasors as in Figure 8.13.
8-23
Module 1
Line
AVR
55D
Line
VS
B
The horizontal intercept OW represents the in-phase current.
We now reduce the real power to one-half the original value, so
the new in-phase current is represented by OX where
OX = OW/2.
The terminal voltage remains unchanged, so the lengths of
phasors OS and ST cannot change. The angle of
AVR
B
cannot change, so the only possible variable is the angle between
the phasors, OST. The point T can therefore move on a circle
of radius ST centred on S. The new operating point must
therefore be the point T which defines the new current OT.
Thus IQ = XT = 0.5 cm = 0.5 0.6 103 = 300 A
and Q = 3 300 325 103 = 292.5 Mvar.
The power factor is now lagging
Finally, if we reduce the receiving-end
current phasor must be zero, so that:
AVR VS
=
B
B
or
VS = AVR = 308.7510 kV
8-24
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
Figure 8.13
(b)
8-25
Module 1
(a)
(b)
?
(a)
where
(b)
Figure 8.14
8-26
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section Eight
V 1 AV 2 BI 2
where A 0:9510
and
B 11065 O.
V 1
0:95h h1:05
V2
and
(b)
30 hdh30
8-27
Module 1
8-28
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Section 9
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9.0 Objectives
When you have completed this section you should be able to:
9.1 Introduction
In power systems all plant is subject to occasional failure and,
when this happens, has to be removed from the system. To detect
such failures we employ power system protection measuring
equipments. Protection is a measuring technique which monitors
the state of the plant and initiates its removal from the system if
and when faults occur. The need for protection is obvious in that:
(a) it provides for the removal of faulted plant so as to aid the
stability of the rest of the system and (b) it limits damage to plant
due to excessive fault current. In broad terms the main properties
of protection are as follows:
(i)
(ii)
9-1
Module 1
(iii)
Exercise
What is the basic difference
between a transmission and
distribution system, in terms of
protection requirements?
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Primary (or main) protection has the fastest measuring speed and
is designed to be absolutely discriminative. Back-up protection
often operates at a relatively slow speed and has relatively low
discriminative properties. It is provided as a back-up in case of
primary protection failure.
The protection device relies upon a comparison of the current
measured via the Current Transformers (CTs) at a particular point
in the system. This comparison is often arranged to produce
particular current versus tripping time response curves according
to the requirements of the system. In the simplest case, tripping is
initiated when the measured current exceeds a pre-set value.
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-3
Module 1
Exercise
Why is it essential to employ a
Current Transformer for current
measurements? In a particular
overcurrent protection system a
CT with a 500 : 1 ratio is
employed. If the level of fault
current is 2:5 kA, what will be
the current passing through the
overcurrent relay?
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Figure 9.1
A typical overcurrent relay
arrangement
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-5
Module 1
Exercise
In practice why is it desirable to
have nearly the same relay
operating times for all types of
fault?
9-6
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Figure 9.2
Protection of a radial feeder
system (a) System arrangement
(b) Relative time-multiplier
settings
Figure 9.3
Universal relay characteristic
This characteristic is better
described by its formula
0:14
psm0:02 1
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-7
Module 1
Exercise
An overcurrent relay with an
inverse characteristic shown in
Figure 9.3 sees a fault current on
a feeder of 4 plug settings. If the
breaker operating time is 0:2 s
and an overall fault clearance
time of 1 s is required,
determine the relay timemultiplier setting.
For a plug setting of 4, the operating time from Figure 9.3 using
the charactistic equation is 4:98 s. The relay must operate in
1 0:2 0:8 s. Therefore time-multiplier
setting 0:8/4:98 0:16
Figure 9.4
Ring distribution system
Unfortunately this means that a simple time-graded overcurrent
system of the type described before cannot be used as power and
fault current can flow in both directions. To provide
discrimination, directional relays must be used. These are arranged
to operate when fault current flows out of the feeder. The contacts
of the relay are arranged in conjunction with the over-current
relay to allow measurement when closed and prevent
measurement when open.
9-8
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
9-9
Module 1
Figure 9.5
Basic distance relay principle
With reference to Figure 9.5, if the distance from the relaying
point to the fault is x, then the impedance measured for a zeroresistance fault is given as:
V=I xZL
where ZL positive phase line impedance/metre.
The measured impedance follows the typical locus shown in Figure
9.6.
Figure 9.6
Typical impedance locus
It is important that the distance relay, say at end A in Figure 9.5,
sees faults only on the feeder AB, i.e. forward faults, and does not
operate for reverse faults behind A. Furthermore, in practice there
is very often a small resistance present in the fault. The Distance
protection is thus arranged to compare the circuit impedance with
a defined area of the measured impedance plane so that any fault
within the defined area causes tripping of the circuit breaker. A
very common form of arranging the Distance protection
characteristic is shown in Figure 9.7a (also known as the MHO
characteristic) which very adequately meets the two
forementioned requirements.
The primary circle shown in Figure 9.7a is constructed on the
diameter AB of Figure 9.6. AB is the impedance of the protected
length of line. If the value of line impedance to the point of fault
plus any fault resistance lies inside this circle, then the protection
will operate.
9-10
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Figure 9.7
Relay MHO characteristics
It is normal practice to arrange the protection characteristics in
zones as shown in Figure 9.7b.
Exercise
Why is it necessary to cater for
a small fault resistance? What
will happen if the fault
resistance is very large?
Figure 9.8
If Rf 0 the measured impedance
ZM
V
xZL
I
Otherwise
ZM
V
xZL Rf
I
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-11
Module 1
Figure 9.9
Time distance characteristics of
a practical distance protection
scheme
9-12
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Exercise
Why is the zone-1 relay set to
only 80% of the line?
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-13
Module 1
All unit schemes derive from the Merz and Price circulating
system. In its simplest form, the CTs at each end of the line are
connected as shown in Figure 9.9a so that in theory no current
flows in the relay for faults outside the zone.
Figure 9.9a
Circulating current system
Figure 9.9b
Balanced voltage system
An alternative, but similar, technique hinges upon connecting the
CTs in opposition so that under external fault conditions no
current flows in the series connected relays. This technique, often
referred to as the balanced voltage principle, is shown in Figure
9.9b.
Circulating current schemes are rather limited in feeder
applications because the voltage developed across the CT
secondaries increases in proportion to the length of the feeder.
Prohibitively large CTs are required when applying the principle to
feeders of longer than about 2 km and the balanced voltage
principle finds more widespread use. The series connected relays
are of relatively high impedance and the system may be
satisfactorily applied in principle for the protection of feeders up
to about 50 km. It should be noted that in such applications pilot
wire circuits (which are normally rented telephone cables) have to
be employed for transmitting currents from one end to the other
for the purposes of comparison.
Some modification to the basic scheme is required for two main
reasons:
(i)
(ii)
9-14
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Ibias= {kIA+}
Figure 9.10
Typical bias characteristic
Summation Devices
So far the differential principle has been discussed as though it
were applied to single-phase systems. In dealing with three-phase
systems, the principles could be applied to each phase, but this is
not economically justified because three pilot wire pairs would be
required. It is therefore common practice to sum the currents at
the feeder ends. A common arrangement using a summation
transformer is as shown in Figure 9.11.
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-15
Module 1
Figure 9.11
A typical summation
arrangement
Here the output is proportional to:
SYSTEM FUNDEMENTALS
Section Nine
Figure 9.12
Each breaker has an operating time of 0:2 s and the plug setting
on both relays is 125% for normal overcurrents. If each relay has
the inverse characteristic as shown in Figure 9.3, determine the
following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(b)
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-17
Module 1
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.13
IA = (40 j30)A
IB = (20 + j15)A
If the tripping criterion for the relay is such that:
deduce a value of the constant k for which the relay would just
operate.
125%.
9-18
SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
1 000 A.
Section Nine
Determine:
(i)
(ii)
(ii)
80%
PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION
9-19