TAN KER

OPE R ATION S
A Hand book
for th e
Person -in-Ch arge (PIC)
FOURTH EDITI ON

MARK HUBER

Based on earlier editions of

Tanker Operations
A Ha nd book for the Sh ip's Officer

by G. S. Marton

A~rican Progress, one of the Doubl

Shipbuilding. CourtellY Mobil 8hi ,e Eagle-class vessels built at Newport N ews
ppmg and Transportation Company.

CORNELL MARITIME PRESS

Centrevi lle. Maryland

Copyright <0 2001 by Cornell Maritime Press

With love to my wife J ody

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in a ny

manner whatsoever without written pennission except in the case of
brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews . For
infonnation, address Cornell Maritime Press, Inc.,
Centreville, Maryland 21617

Library of Congrt'sa Cataloging-in.Publication Data

Huber. Mark, 11)54Tan;,~::~ratiOnl : a handbook for the peraon-in-chll.rge (P IC) I Mark Huber.-4th ed.

'Bued on e:rlier edition, of Tanker operation" a handbook for the eh ip'e officer by
G .S. Marton.

Includea inde.

ISBN0-8703S-528-6
1. Tankera--Handbooka " manual' etc . I . Marton, G. S., 1948-- Tanker operat ionB. II
-Tille

VM~ .HBa2001
623.88"245--dc21

Manufactured in the U m. te d
First edition 1978 F
Sta~~ of America
,
. ourth edition, 2001

2001032582

Contents

P REFACE TO THE FO URTH EDIT ION

xiii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDI TI ON

xvii

CHAPTE R 1

Tank Ves sel Design and Classification

3

Oil Tanker
Parcel Tanker

10

Combination Carrier

13

Barges

16

18

Barriers

19

Class ification

23

Development of the Sup erta nker

23

Review

CHAPT ER 2

Cargo Characteristics
Richard Beadon and Mark Huber
Bulk Liquid Cargoes
Properties of Petroleum

Flammability Characteristics of Bulk LiquidCargoes

Avoidance of the Flammable Range

2.
25
26
29
31

Classification of Petroleum

32

Cargo Weight. Capacity, and Flow

vii

CONTENTS

rot _ M lIurcmt'nt and Regulation 8

of Cargo Infonnation

CONTENTS

35
37

40

'0

CloBed Gau ging

ix
106

HighlLow Vapor Pressure Protection

111

Operation8

112

Review

120

CHAPTER 3

CH APTER 6

Oil Exploration and the Refining Process

Cargo Measurement and Calculation

Robert Stewart

J ohn O'Connor
52
The Purpo se of Cargo Measurement

121

Part ies Involved

122

Terms of Sal e
Meas urement Equipment

122
123

Tank Structur e an d Measurement

125

Meas urement Procedures

130

Equip ment Use

Postloadin g Inspe ction and Meas urement

134
134
136

Pred isch arge Inspecti on an d Meas urement

140

64

Poetdi achar ge Ins pection and Measurement

141

70

Cargo Calculation

78
80

Cargo Planning

141
144

95

Cargo Term s

87

Loadin g to Fin al Draft

91

Loadin g and Discharging Rate s

95

Revi ew

55

56

59
62

63
63

Pre loading Inspe ction and Measurement

CHAPTER 4

Cargo Piping Systems

Load Lines and Zone Limitations

146
150

156

156
157

96
C HAPT E R 7

Cargo Pumps
Kinetic Pumps

Poeitive-Diaplecement Pumps and Eductors

Review

161
175
160

CONn:NTS

CONT ENTS

C HAPTER 8

Review

xi
249

Cargo Tran sfer Operati ons

182
197
200
201
203
20.

RecuJation.
OperBtlOnB

Toppmg-Off OpE"rBtion

Fini.hinr Cargo Loading

Offshore Moorings
Dischargmg Operation

209

Review

CHA PTER 12

Tank Cleaning Operations

Equipment

253

Crude-Oil-Washin g (COW)
Supplemental Cleaning

263
270

Tank Coati ngs

27l

Revie w

273

CHAPTER 9

CHAPT ER 13

Chartering and Operations

Enclosed Space Entry

Scott R. Bergeron
Veuel Ownership
1'ypell of Charter Agreements

The Charter Party

Tenns of the Charter Party
Pricing
FreiJht Rate

Review

211

Gas -Free ing Process

212

Testin g

27'
278
280

213

Entry Procedure

284

215

Instrum entati on

22.
225
228

Review

289
29.

Risks Associated with Enclosed Space Entry

CH AP TE R 14

Pollution Regulations
CH A PTE R 10

Source s of Pollution from Tank Vessels

Vetting Inspections

Federal Pollution Legislation

Inte rnational Pollution Legislation, MARPOL

Scott R. Bergeron

229
231
237

Inapectiona
'The Grew'1 Role in Vetting
Review

Pollution Reduction Efforts

295
296
298
30.
30'

Review
CHAPTER 15

Inert Gas Syst ems

CHAPTER 11

Sources of Inert Gas

Genera l Requirement s for an Inert Gas System

Ballasting and Deballasting Operations

ijallutirtg Operations

238

System Components

Dlb ~wting: O l?l'r8 ti 0 D8

245

Emergenc y Procedures

307
308
308

322

CONTENTS

322

32,
326

1b1\.....'" S)'I!tam ll
fione in th e V ile of IG SYlitemll

327

329
CH AP TE R 16

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Emergency Procedures
331

332
333
334

335
335

336

337
~l'P,ENDlX ,

CONVE RSION FACT ORS

339

GLOSSARY

341

BIBLIOGRAPHY

3 56

INDEX

359
374

he fourth edition of Tanker Operat ions ha s und ergone substa ntial

change since it was last revised in 1992. The text has been completely
reorgani zed wit h the addition of new subject material , illustrations, review questions , and a glossary of key terms and acronyms . As many readers of Ta nker Operations can attest, this text is-and will always be-a
work in progress as long as the design , equipment. regulations, and operationa l procedures on tank vessels continue to evolve. I must admit that I
underestimated the magnitude of this project and, as a result , have a much
greater a ppreciation for the efforts of Greg Marto n in producing the original work in 1978.
Th is text is intended prim a ri ly for individuals ente ring the ta nke r indu stry. However , se asoned tanker mates , barge tankermen. a nd ma ny of
the shore side staff may find th e information in this edition of practical
valu e.
In recent yea rs, th e ru les governing th e min imum qualifications for
per sonnel servi ng on tank vessels have cha nged both domestically and internationally. In addition to obtaining practical sea experie nce, individuals servi ng on ta nk vesse ls mu st now complete an a pproved tra ining
program in ca rgo hand ling a nd fire fightin g. With these requirements in
mind , it seemed a ppropriate for this edition of Tanker Operations to serve
as th e sta nda rd re ference for this specialized cargo tra ining. Successful
complet ion of th e aforement ioned requirements qua lifies a person to receive an endorse ment on the following docum ents :
In th e Uni ted St a tes, the indi vidual receives an endorsement on the
Merchant Mariner Document (MMm AS a Tan kennan Person-in-Charge
(PIC) Dangerous Liquid s (OL) or Liquefied Gas (LG). Under the Inte rn ational Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watch keeping for Seafar ers, 1978 (STeW), as amended in 1995. an indi vidual

xiii

rv

PREFACr. TO T NI', rouHIH I'; UII IU ,"

nk"t..iv
an l'ndortll'ml.>nt on the STeWcert ificate. This endorsement stutes
th.t the person is qualified to se rve on tan kships carrying dan gerous oils,
che micals. or gas in bulk . The following references sho~ld be consul~ed for
details concerning each of th ese endorBements: th.e U n ~ted States Code of
F~rol Regulat ions. Title 46 CFR Pa~ l~, ~ertlficatlOn of Ta~kennen;
and the Intern ati onal Maritime Orga nlza tlOns STCW Conventlon , 1978,
as amended in 1995, Annex 2, Cha pter V, "Special Training Requi rements
for Personnel on Tankers" (Regula tion v/n
I would like to thank many individu a ls for ass isting me with th is seemingly endless project. In particular, I am !p"at~~ to my wife, Jody, a nd my
family for th eir patien ce and support . This edition of th e text ha s also been
enhanced throu gh the efforts of severa l contributors , eac h of whom wrot e
new chapters: Captain Richard Beadon, Director, Center for Ma ri time Education at Seamen' s Church Institute; Robert Stewart, Professor, Ca lifornia Maritime Academy;John O'Connor, Pr esid ent of In ternati onal Ma rin e
Consultants; and Scott Bergeron, Chief Operating Officer , Liberi a n Sh ip
and Corporate Registry. The glossary was written by Kelly Curtin , Assistant Professor, State University ofNew York Maritime College. I a lso wish
to thank my colleagues at the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad em y: John
Hanus, Lt. Rob Smith (USCG>, Paul Zerafa, and Brian Holden for th eir
computer expertise , and Captain Douglas A Hard for his ti reless efforts
throughout this endeavor, reviewing each cha pte r and offering constructive criticism. Finally , I would like to thank th e following individu als a nd
organizations for providing information and many of the illustrat ions:
Alaska Tanker Company; Ameri can Petroleum In stitute; Atl a ntic
Richfield Company; Avondale Shipyard; Mary J en Bea ch; Ian -Conra d
Bergan, Inc.: Bethlehem Steel Corporation; BP Pip elines (Alas ka) Inc.;
British Petroleum Company , Ltd.: Butterworth Systems , In c; Calhoon
MEBAEngineering School; California Maritime Acad em y; Chevron Shipping Company; Clement Engineering Services ; College of Nautical
Studies; Coppus Engineering Corporation; Dixon Valve a nd Coupling Co.;
Environmental Protection Agency; ExxonIMobil Corporati on ; Th omas J .
Fellei~n; Bill Finhandler; Foster Wheel er Boiler Corpora tion ; Ga mlen
Che,:"~cal Company; General Dynamics Corporation; Keith Gill ; Global
~~tIme a~d Transportation Schoo~; Gulf Oil Corporation; Eri c Halbeck;
nan HaU, Haywood Manufactunng Company; Howden En gin eeri ng;
Lynn Hu~r.; ~udson Engineering Company; IMO Industries, In c., Gems
Sensors DIVISion; Ingersoll Dresser Pump; International Association of Independent Tanker Owners UNTERTANKO); International Association of
Ports ~nd Harbors (lAPH>; International Chamber of Shipping (ICS l; In~~~~~o~al Ma~ne Consultants; International Maritime Organization
Shi : n~matIonal Tanker Owners Pollution Federation; Keyst one
I~PLe,"gKiom~any; Keystone Valve Division of Keystone International,
Inc., e nceid: Kockumatt AB'L
'M arttime;

. Law ; LIbrary
.
lon, aunn
Bnan
,

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~ .u

I U I'Hl':

t'OURl1i EDITION

of Congre ss Photo Duplication Service' Kimberly Lo

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'1 P rt (LOOP)' E ' M
. '
renzo, Ullllana OfTshore 0 I 0 ',
, n c a; MalOe Maritime AO"d"m ' 1/ ' Lo
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T
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....,.
'"
y, .. an ne g;
Maritime I n eu
' ,John
, ute I 0 8ec nology' and Grad uate St udiiee :' Caplam
Mazza; Metritepe, nc.; teve ~ Miller; Mine Safety Appliances Com an .
MMC Intem atlOnal Corporati on; Frank Mohn Services AS Ron ~r ~~
Nat ional Acad emy Pre ss an d the National Academy ofScien~es' N t?ne I'
letvy,r Nat
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.
, 8I 1~
0na
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Audu bo n 8 ocre
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1' \ -Ire rotectton Association', N"
a rena ueu8
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Union
ofAmerica'
Nation
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,
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,
a ne searc
CounCil; Natr ona tee ~ n d S hl p~U1ldmg Company; National Trensportation Safety ~oard ; Nau~Ical Instlt u~ ; Newport News Shipbuilding; J ohn
O'Connor ; Oil Compames Intem atlOnal Marine Forum; Penn-Attransco
Corporation; Per:rnea Mari time Protection ; Phillips Petr oleum Company;
George Roeanovich ; Saab Electronics; Saab-Seania, Aerospace Division;
Sailors Union of the Pacific; Salen & Wica nder AB; Salwicc, Inc.; San
Fr an cisco Maritime Museum; E.W, Saybolt& Company, Inc.; Ed Schultz;
Seafarers Intern ational Union ;Sea men's Chur ch Institute;SeaRiver Maritim e; Servomex (U .K. ), Ltd .; Shell International Petroleum and Shell Oil
Compan y tU.S.A.); Shipbuilders Council of America; Skarpenord Data
Systems AS; Southern Oregon State College; Sperry Marine Systems;
Sta cey Val ve Co" Inc.: Star Enterprise;State University of NewYork Maritime College; Stolt Nielsen Transport ation Company; Sun Shipbuilding
and Dry Dock Company; Texaco, Inc.; Tosco: Transamerica Dclaval, Inc.;
TS Tanksyetern SA; Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.; U.S. Coast Guard;
U.S, Depa rtmen t of Transportat ion; U,S, Maritime Administration ; U,S.
Sal vage Association; Val ve Manufactu rers Association; Viatran Corporation ;Vitronics , Inc.; Rosalie Vita le; West Coast Ship Chandlers, Inc.;Terra
White ; J eff Willia ms; William E. Williams Valve Corp.; Wilson Walton Intemati onal ; Worthington Pu mps,
Th e last edition of Tanker Operations offered this word of advice to the
read er : "You can't learn tankers from a book; don't try to do so, Ships are
design ed an d equipped differently, and notwo are exactly alike. In th~ en~.
there is no substitute for seeing th e actual equipment and operatmg ~t
your self." As a follow-up to that thought , I would add that no
on thi s
subject ca n ade quately address every vessel design, piece ofeqwpment , or
procedure. Ultimately, a thorough working knowledge .of the cargo Syste~
on th e vessel is your best defense aga inst potentlal mishaps. Remem~ ,
. lized
.
. . a nd pr actrca
. I expenen
' c. gained
trammg
. as an apprentice
t h e specia
on tankers is just the beginni ng of a lifetime of Ieammg.

u:xt

Prefa ce t o the First Edition

nu mbe r of ye ars ago, when I wua beginning mycareer on oiltank

I
ofte n felt the lack of a simple, stra ightforward handbook on the basic
problems of tanker ?pera tions . Hence, this book. Tanker Operations: A
Hand book {or the S hIp's Officer is directed primarily toward the newcomer
to t anke rs ; specifically, the new officer. Generally speaking, it is not 8
step-by-ste p manual covering every possible situation. Instead, it is intended as:
1.
2.
3.

An introductory guid e designed to make the new officer's adjustment to

tanker life smoother , less perilous.
A source of useful infonnation for th e more experienced officer.
A refe ren ce book for ot he r ind ividu als interested in the operation of oil
tanker s, pa rt icularly tho se as piring to the ratin g of tankerman.

I should point out, h owever, that tanker s cannot be learned entirely

from a book . The tankerman'a job is too complex and, in many ways, intuiti ve. Moreover, eac h t anker is unique a nd mus t be learne d individually .
Fortunately, the lea rning process is not an entirely lonely tas k. Shipmates-pumpmen, fellow officers , sa ilors-ha ve knowledge to share, an d
some make exce lle nt teacher s. In th e end, however , th e way to learn a
tanker is to put on a boiler suit and, flashli ght in hand , explore every co.me r
ofthe vessel, learning pum pr oom, piping systems, valves.This is a ~e~lOus,
sometimes exhausting process , but it must be done. A~ officer unwllhng to
make this effor t should forget a bout a car eer , even a bn efone, on tanke rs.
Some tankers. old and ru sty. a re relics of a bygone era. Others are so .futuristic, so thoroughly automat ed . th at th eir crewmembers feel more like
astronauts than t ankerm en . And, in all likelihood, th e futur e tankerman
will need the training and temper ament of an astronau t.
xvii

v III

Rl.'gardl('s~of age or equ ipment, however, all tankers perform th e 8a~lle

bl~ zmg

basic task-they carry oil. Their voyages span th e globe~ from th e

deserts of Saudi Arabia to the frozen shores of the Ar ctic. 'Throu gh It a ll,
tankermen are accompan ied by the pungent smells of ~rude. Oila n d ~a8o
line, by loneliness, tension , exhaustion .. . and the s8t1~factlOn of d~mg a
job well. No individual can adequately describe this unique way of hfe . It

. ..
must be experienced firsthand.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the m an y mdlVldual s and
organizations who were kind enough to help mein th~seffort. ~ome showed
remarkable patience with my repeated requests for mfonnatlOn , resea rch
. . '
materials, and illustrations.
Special thanks to ; The American Bureau ~f Shipping; ~encan ?ast
Iron Pipe Company; American Institute of Manne Unden~ters; Amen can
Institute of Merchant Shipping; American Petroleum institute ; the Ansul
Company; Apex MarineCorporation ;Atlantic Richfield Company; the Scott
Aviation Divisionof ATO, Inc.; Mrs . Gerry Bayless; Bethlehem Stee l Corporation ; Bingham-Willamette Company; British Petroleum Company, Ltd..;
Henry Browne & Son, Ltd.; Buttenvorth Systems, Inc .; Chevron Shipping
Company; Coppus Engineering Corporation; Exxon Corporation an d Exxon
Company ,US.A.); FMC Corporation; Mr. Steve Faulkner; Mr. Bill Finhandler; Gamlen Chemical Company; General Dynamics Corporation;
General Fire Extinguisher Corporation; Mr . R.W. Gorman ; Gulf Oil Corporation; Mr. Arthur Handt; Hendy Inte rn ational Company; the Pen ce Division of the Hudson Engineering Company; Mr . John Hunter; Huntin gto n
Alloys, Inc.; th e Keystone Valve Division of Keystone Internation al , In c.;
~kumsAutomationAB; Mr. Gene D. Legler; the H arry Lundeberg School;
Mine Safety Applian ces Company; Mr . C. Bradford Mitchell; National Audubon Society; National Foam System, In c.; National Maritime Union of
America; National Steel an d Shipbuilding Company; Miss Maureen Ott ; t he
~~h M. ~~rson s Company; Paul-Munroe Hydra ul ics , In c.; Mrs . Pi a
P~ pp ; Phillips Petro l e ~ Company; Sailors' Union of the Pacific; Sal en &
WIt:lJlder AB; S~ Francisco Mari tim e Muse um ; E.W. Saybolt & Compan y,
Inc., Mr. W.F. Schill; Seafarers International Union; Shell Intern a tion a l Pe~roleum an~ Shell Oil Company m.S.A); Shi pbuil ders Council of Am erica ;
pehITY,Manne Syste ms; Su n Shipbuil ding an d Dry Dock Company' Mr Bob
ut er and: Und
S
ite L ho
.
' .
United Sta~ Me~~ T8 a. ~aton~s, In c.; Un ited State s Coast Guard;
e antime Administration; U.S. Salvage Association ' Valve
.. ~
Menur acturers Aeeociati
' p Chan dlers Inc ' Worthingto
'
.
on,. Wes t C
oast Shi
n
'
.,
Pum p Corpora uon.
G. 8. MARTON

fi th C l"
.
Qu inghi s seagoingca rohm e a ifomia Maritime Academy ill 1969.
G B. Marton 8r.aduated

reerd' e. serued on all types ofmerchant ships, includ

ing tan'kerIJ of a1l 1\Jpe8

'1sl

an

SIUs.

TANKE R OPERATIONS

C HA PTER 1

Tank Vessel Design and Classification

he first tanker appear~d over a century ago, and sincethat time tanker
transport ha s evolved into one ofthe most efficient modes oft ranspor tation in the world . Modem refinements in th e design ofthe se vessels have
resul te d in the development of a versatile carrier capable oftransport ing a
wide array of bulk liquid cargoes. Today, tank vessels (both ships and
bar ges) are responsible for the movement oftremendous volumes of liquid
cargoes . This chapter focuses prim aril y on vessels th at are designed to
carry cargoes classified as "dang erous liquids."
Th e following definitions are provided to eliminate confusion about
th e typ es of vessels de scribed in th e te xt. The Unite d St ates Coast
Gu ard (USCG) defi nes a tank vessel as "a vesse l th at is constructed or
ad apted primarily to carry, or that carries, oil or ha zardous material in
bulk as ca rgo or cargo residue." The USCG further categori zes a tank
vessel as a t ankship (if it is self-propelled) or a tank ba rge (if it has no
mean s of pr opulsion ). Th r oughout the text, efforts have been made to
use the term "tank vessel" ift he topic applies to both shi ps and barges.

OIL TANKER
The earliest design of tank vessels involved construction with a single hull .
Figure 1-1 shows a cross section ofa traditional single-hull design .
In the early part of the twentieth cent ury, th e shift toward longitudinal
construction resulted in a unique subdivision of the cargo tank area . A13
seen in figure I-I, the use of twin longitudinal bulkheads divided the vessel
athwartehipa into three tanks: a center tank flank ed by a set of wing tanks.
A series of oiltight transverse bulkheads completed the subdivision of the
cargo area, as required, for the particular trade of the vessel. This method
3

"'L

!,

_ . __ / ACCOmmod ali On

j- -

Figure 1-2. Profile view of a doubl e-bottom ta nker. The double-bottom space serves
8S the s egr egated-ballaet ca pacity for the vessel. Copyright e In terna tional Maritime Organization CIMO), London .

of con struction wa s well s uited for the bulk t rans portatio n of liquid cargoes ; at the same time it virtuall y eliminated the free surface problems experi enced with earlier tanker designs.
Free surface is an effect cre at ed wh en liquid s move about in an unrestricted fashion within a compartment such as 8 cargo or ball ast tank. The

,-

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Ij;~

KHtil

~<

>
~I
,.
~-

l'~

,i'
~

resultant shift of weight has an adverse impa ct on the stability ofthe vessel.
so every effort is made to minimize shifting.Typical methods of reducing the
free surface effect include keeping the number of slack cargo and ballast
tanks to a minimum, constructing smaller compartments (subdivisions).
an d utilizing partial bulkheads (swas h plates or swash bulkheads).The success of the single-hull design is evidenced by the fact that it has withstood
the test of time and deadweight Idwt) tonnage. Single-hull construction predominated until the late 1960s when political and environmental pressures
drove the tanker industry to seek other methods of construction. By the
19708 a number of owners had shifted to double-bottom construction (fig.
1-2) to meet the new segregated-ballast requirements.
Th e gr ounding of the Exxon Valdez in 1989 prompted domestic an d international requ iremen ts calling for newly constructed oil ta nkers to be fitted with a doubl e hull. Double-hull tankers had been successfully operated
for a number ofyea rs, hence this design took cente r stage as the most likely
re sponse to the public 's out cry for height en ed protection of the marine environment. The use of two pieces of stee l (inne r and oute r hull s)to separa te
the cargo area from the sea is expected to minimize oil outfl ow from the majority of tanker casualties-grounding, collision, or minor shell dam age-that involve a breach of the hull . The cons truction scenes of the
ARGO Endeavour (fig. 1-3) clearly illu strate th e protection afforded the
cargo tanks wit hin the double hu ll.
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 called for new tankers contracted after
J un e 30, 1990, to be constructed with a double hull. The U.S. construction
requirements contained in Title 33 CFR Part 157.10d specify minimum
spacing as follows:

TANK VESSEL DES IGN AND CLASS IFICATION

OIL TANKER

For vessels of 5.000 dwt and abov eFor vessels of less than 5,000 dwtDouble sides 'WI
W z 0.5 + dwt 120 ,000 or 2 meters the lesser and in no case lesa t ha n 1 meter
Doubl e bottom (In
H '" Bre adth / 15 or 2 meters t he lesser an d in no case less than 1 me te r

Dou ble sid es (W )

W . O.4 + / 2.4) (d wt / 20, OOO ) in mete rs , but in no case less than 0 .76 mete
Double bottom (II)
r
H Breadt h / 15 in meters, but in no cas e lesa th an 0.76 m('ter

Figure 1-4 sho,:",s t he newly ~n 8tructed double-hull tanker American

In th e domestic trade by Mobil Shipping a nd 'I'rene portatton Company.
Th e.double-hull requirement created tremend ous cont roversy with in
t he United ~tate8 and inte~na tional shipping communities. Industry experts questlOn~d the effe:t.lvene~s of th e double-hull design in a h igh energy grounding or collisio n WIth the potential for significant 10s8 of
cargo. Th e Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA '90) left th e door open toaltem at ive vessel designs which could offer en vironme ntal protection that was
equ al to or better t han the protection provided by the double hull . During
the 1990s research into al ternative designs and techno logy was conducted
t hroughout th e world . However , in 1993 , a USCG report to the U.S. Congress reaffirmed t he double-hull design 8 S the only method of construction
th at s hould be permitted to ope rate in U.S. wate rs . This conclusion placed
the United St ates at odds wit h t he rest of th e shipping commun ity as the
Inte rn at ional Maritime Or ganization (IMO) had embrace d not only the
double-hull method of construc t ion but also the controve rs ial mid-deck design .
The Coast Gua rd cited inexper ien ce with th e mid-deck design as one of
the re asons for not recommending it as a viable alte rnative to the double
hull. In the mid-de ck design (fig. 1-5)an inte rmediate oiltight deck essentially creates an up per an d a lower cargo ta nk. In the event ofmajor bottom
damage, thi s design pr even ts sign ificant loss of cargo based on the hydr ostat ic principle . When fully loaded , th e head pressure of th e oil in the bottom tank is less th an the wat er pressure exert ed on the outaid e of the hull .
Once the vessel comes to rest, ins tea d of oil gravitating out the bottom of
the vess el, water Flows in , pressing up the bottom tank. This simple but effective concept ap pea rs to outperform th e double-hul l design in model tests
t hat simulate casualties involving significant bottom damage. The wider
doubl e side s in th e mid-deck des ign resemble tr aditi onal wing tanks and
provi de better protection against collision dam age than the double hul l.
Another des ign closely related to the mid-deck is th e Coulombi Egg
shown in figu re 1-6. After seve ral years of evaluation, IMO has also accepted this design as affording a mea sure of protection for the marine
environment equivalent to that of the double hull. As in the case of the middeck des ign, however, the U.S. Coast Guard opposes the idea of equivalence
and will not perm it eit her design into t he United States. The controversy
Pr~gr(,s8 operated

Figure }-3 Conat eli

1
hull at number 1ru on scene oftheARCO EndeolJOur showing th e protective daub e
cargo tanks port and starboard. Courtesy ARea Marin e, Inc.

Upper cargo tank

Wing tank
(ballast)

Air pipellrunk

Figure 1-5 . The mid-deck design shown here uses hydrostatic pressure to minimize
oil outflow in the event that the cargo tanks are breached. Courtesy Marine Log.

Ballast

Cargo

Ballast

Cargo

Cargo

Cargo

Figure 1-6. The Coulombi Egg design .

10

TANK VESSE

DESIGN AND CLAS!:l1 1"lL;A' I IU1~

O'It"T aJtemative design s continues in part because ~he U.S . posi t ion ha s er.
Iecnve ly closed th e door on ot he r tec h ~ol ogy as evidenced ?y the fact ~hat
double-hull orde rs and deliveri es dommate new construction worldwide.

P AR CEL TANKER
As cons umer demand for che m icals an d ot her s pecialty products incre ased worldwid e the need for vessels desi gn ed s peci fica lly to transp ort
th ese cargoes also expande d. As a qui ck fix, so me owners modified exi sting product carriers into what were te rmed "drugs!ore" ve ssels , carrying
lim ited quan tit ies of ma ny differen t pr oducts . tr.ItImatel~, these vessels

paved the way for parcel carrie rs, vesse ls specia lly designed an d constructed from the keel up to accommodate the growing m arket . Figu re 1-7
shows one s uch vessel , the Stolt Innovati on, built and operated by
Stolt-Nielsen S.A.
Figure 1-8 shows the deck of an externally framed vessel. This method
of cons t ru ction allows th e in ternal s urfaces of tanks to be smoot h . Du e to
the nature of the ca rgoes transported, parcel tan ke rs a re desi gn ed to maintain a high degree of segregation bet ween ca rg oes . Fi gure 1-9 s h ows t he
complexity of deck pipin g on one coastal che mical carrier.
Toward th e end of th e t wentieth century, the demand for parcel tankers
incr eased as th e tr an sport of th ese ca rgoes by s uch vessels proved to be sa fe
and cost-effective while maintaining th e hi gh est stan da rds of qu a lit y assurance. The list of differ ent cargoes ca rri ed by parcel t ankers is exhaustive; however , th e rul es governing t he sa fe t ransport of these cargoes a re
well defined in th e international bul k che mical codes. Th e construction
and s urvi vability requirem en ts for che mica l vessels ca n be found in Title
46 CFR Part 151 (barges ) and P art 153 (sh ips) as well as in the bulk chemical codes (lBCIBCHl from the Inte rn ational Maritime Organi zat ion (lMO>.
nB C is the Internati onal Code for the Cons t ruction a n d Equipment of
Ship s Carrying Dangerous Ch emicals in Bulk . BCH is t he Code for the
Construction and Equipment of Ships Ca rrying Dan gerous Chemicals.)
The marine environment is afforded three levels of protection against
an unc~ntrolled r~lease of t he cargo re sulting from a brea ch of the cargo
tank. FIgure 1-10 illustrates th e spacing requ iremen ts for Ty pes I II and
III containment in the cargo area , as specified in t he bulk chemical codes.
1.

Type I containment provides the maximum level of protecti on possible

~hen transport ing f1ubstances t hat pose th e greatest environmen tal risk
I an .uncontrolled release from th e vessel should occur. In addition to the
spaCing requirements between th e side and bottom shown in figure 1-B,
veuelsconatruetedin
.
. .
eccordance WIththese
rul ea must also be capable 0 r
SUI"VJVlng a certain prescribed level of damage to th e hull.

Figure 1-7. The St olt Innovation serves in the parcel tra de worldwide. Dourteay
Stolt-Nielsen Tran sportation Group Ltd .

Figure I -B. The deck of an externally framed parcel tanker. With thi s design, the
cargota nks have smooth internal surfaces. Courtesy International Marine Consulta nts lIMC).

12

TAN K \ 'ESSEL DESI GN AND CLASSIFICATION

COMBINATION CARRIE R

2.

13

Type II conta inment ill required whe n t ran8por1ing substance/:l t hat pONe a
significant ha zard to the environmen t . T he s paci ng require ments and t he
aurvt va bihty requirements orthe vessel a re Ieee than those for Type I COn _
tamment .

3.

Type I

T)-pe III containment affords a moderate leve l of protection. No special

spacing requi rements a re neces sa ry and the s urvivability cri teria in the

even t of vessel damage are not

8S

'",,-

'""

115m

11.5 m

st ringent as those for Type I or II .

The chemical codes furt her classify cargo tanks according to t he ir con.
struction.Independent tank s are cargo tanks not designed as a part of the
hull structure. An examp le of an independent tank would be a cylindri cal
cargo tank installed above th e deck . An indep endent tank is u sed to eliminate or at lea st minimize the forces or st resses th at may be working on the
adjacent hul l structure. An independent tank is in stall ed in such a manner
that it can be moved relative to t he vessel.
Integral tanks are cargo tanks t hat fonn a n essential part of t he hull
structure and contribute to the st rengt h of the vessel. In tegral tanks are
subject to the forces and stresses experienced by t he hull structure as a resul t of cargo operations and motion of the vessel. Figu re I- I I illustrate s
several cargo tank configurations on parcel tankers .

6115 or 6 m

760mm

Cargo

Cargo

7"~
Type II

Bfl50r6m

Type III

Cargo

Figure 1-10. The s pacing requiremen ts for Types I, II. a nd III containment un der
the bulk chemical codes . Copyright C> International Maritime Organization (110101,
London .

Gravity ta nks ar e those tanks ha ving a design pressur e not gre ater
th an 10 pounds per square inch gauge and of prism at ic or ot her geomet ric
s hape where s tress analysis is neither readily or complete ly determinate.
Pressure tanks are independent tanks whose pressu re is above 10 pounds
per square inch gauge and fabri cated in accordance with domestic rules.

C OM B I NAT IO N CAR R I E R
The USCG defin es a combina tion carrier as a ny vessel designed to carry oil
or solid cargoes in bulk. Th ey are s pecially built vessels often referred to as

COMB INATION CARRIER

i!

III

,
,e

J
0

~,
s

0"

-;

,,c

I
~

,,

relbu1k/oil ca r rie rs (OBOs) capa ble of alte rnat ing betwee n carrying oil
oa rgoee a nd bul k comm odities auch 8S ir on ore or coal. Combinat ion ca m : r8 ca n also be ada pted to meet th e s pecia lize d requireme nts of a custome r
8uch 88 alte r nating between the transport of ca ustic and alumina for th e
aluminu m indu stry. The advantages of t his design include th e ab ility to
carr)' cargo in both directio ns during a voyage a nd to shift t rades ea market
conditions and frei ght rate s change .
Figure 1-12 illustrate s a typical c r08S section of a n DBO . Th e design is
characteri zed by large rai sed h atch openings 8S well 8 S a doubl e-bottom
and top side ball ast tanks for t rimming of solid cargoes. Some of the concern s expressed with t his design include damage to t he tank coati ngs a nd
high st resses from t he loadin g of dry ca rgoes. Problems also arise in sit uations where m aj or components ofthe ca rgo sys te m (such as pum ps, valves.
ine rt ga s systems , and so forth) experie nce extended periods of inac tivity.
To combat thes e proble ms. combination carriere requir e frequent in spec tion and on goin g pre ve nti ve maintenance to e nsur e the continued reli ability of ca rgo system equipment.

,E

i"
9

15

"

Waler

Uw'"

hopper
la nk

ba llaSI

oroil
l arge ha\Ct1way

8
& e
,

H.d
Oil or dry bulk taiga

-;
~

,
i

!
~

Duel keel

.s>

lower
hopper lank

water
Double ecucm

ballas!

"-

~gure 1-12. OBO; typical section. Reprinted with permi ssion from t~~ lntemauoncl Safe ly Guide for Oil Tank ers and Terminals flSGOTTJ, 4th editio n. Cour-

>:

tesy OCIMF, ICS, and !APH.

BARGES
rtation by water ut il'
thod of bulk liquid transpo
An f.'(me
induatrv
.
Th domesne tank barge 10
ust ry iIS com posed of approIZCllt
' "l.rtk
bll.rVs . e an d th ey account for th e transp ort of milli ons afton 8!(!ly

""'r

.II 000barges,

Ited States d e I"rver produ cts 8th0 ce'iO

II T k barges within th e U rute
annua y. an
.
I k
h
rough
inl d waterway system (rivers
, a es , aya, and sounds) d '
out th e i an
.
d Th
.
. un th
shore in the coastWIse tr a e. eee versati le vessels tr ll ey
aI.. run 0 ffi
k hi
F'
8 SPort
the full range ofcargoes carried by tan 8 IpS . rgu re 1-13 shows a tYpo
I
nd profile view of an existing single-hull ba rge.
leal
p anr~"barge8
are constructed
with
'
.....,
.
' a centerline bu lkh ead and a 8 ene80f
transverse bulkheads . This results In a port-and-starboa rd ca rgo tank
figuration 8S seen in figur:e }-13. The number of ca rgo compartments fo~~
on a barge is generally dictated .by the trade ?ft he ves ~el . Under the Oil
PollutionAct of 1990, the barge industry al so IS fa ced ~th converting the
existing single-hull fleet to a double-hull standard. Fi gure 1-14 show
new double-hull barge that is being constructed by Ala ba m a Shipyard ~o:
the domestic coastwise trade.
Barges transporting ca rgoes other than oil must m eet the constructioll
requirements outlined in Title 46 eFR Part 151, which ca ll for heig htened
pro tionofthe cargo area from side or bottom damage to the ba rge. Barge
,

Tank hatch

3 eiertoaro
cargo tank

2 starboa rd
cargo tank

3 port
cargo lank

2 pert

cargo tank

1 starboard
cargo tank

Ra~e

t pert
cargo lank

Tank hatch

0
0
2 starboa rd
cargo tank.

0
0
1 starbOard
cargo tank

TANK VgSSEL Dc"

re

_" t , t_ 'ctuTalstrengt h, collision a nd ground

0 ,...
"
hullsare categon"l ed al.'COnung
d
. bility
in the event of floodilog fr om specified
iog ."quiremant8. "
are cate gorized in th ree wa ys as follow s :

8 ': r;;ySTWS

daInagt>tothehull. The u

r~

'".,.,-'" to ea....... products wh ich req uire the maxi.

'O J
urw topl't'Clude the uncontrolled reles se of th e ca rgo.
ItIUlii pre"l'ntl\'e m69ll
.
.
Type ll bargt' hull. I re theee designed to ca rry products which require sig.
"\'1' measures 10 preclude the u ncont roll ed r ele a se of t he
nlfieant pl't'ven... ...
'1'....-

'lr

I barge hu It8 are delll.... <...

,

Type III bargehulll are th081'designed to carry prod ucts of sufficient h az'"''

ard to rvquireB moderate degree of control.

BARRI ER S
In the construction ora tank vessel, a physical barrier is genera lly required
to seperate the cargo and noncargo are a s of'the vessel. Se ve ral a p proaches
to meet this requirement are outlin ed in th e constructio n regulation s . The
m t common m thod is the we of a void-dead a ir space, known as a
cofferdam-that placestwo bulkhead s between the ca rgo an d non cargo a reas lUI seen in figure 1-15.
Alternative methods of separation includ e th e use of a ca rgo or ballast
pumproom an empty cargo tank, or a tank carrying a grade E ca rgo
dfl hFOmi of 150 F and above). This barrier extend s the breadth and
ellthtr~evesselcreating-thetransiti on betwe en the gas -s afe areas ofthe
e:ntructure and engine space s) and the potentially ha zardrie m~t8.lity ~:r:ve;: ~ther design features contribute to this bar,
u ng e act that the forward side of the after house

::::a

19

CLASSIFICATION

~RI(1N AND CLASSIFICATION

facing the ca rgo tank area is sea led, and aCCeR!! to the house te limited to
doors loca te d at the Bide of the superst ru ctur e. These changes have im proved the safety ofth~ ves sel o~e~ e~r~ier de sign s by enh.ancing two ba sic
principl es of constructIOn: (1) rrunmuzmg the ac cumulation of flammable
cargo vap or s in and a round the su pe rs t ruc t ure and (2) sepa ra tin g the
cargo area from potential sou rces of ign it ion.

C L AS S I F IC AT ION
Tank vessels are usually clas sified by the trad e in which the y are engaged
and according to deadweight tonna ge.
Th e tra de of a vessel is defined by the type of cargoes r outinely carried
over a n umber of voyages. In the tanker industry three bro ad categories
predomina te:
1.
2.

3.

Crud~il

carrie rs
Product carriers
Clean (gasoline, jet , diesel, etc .)
Dirt y (black oils-residual fuel oils, vacuum gss oils, asphalt. etc .I
Par cel camet'll (chemical/specialty cargocs, etc.l

Tankers tend to remain in one trade. Howeve r , as market conditions

an d cu stomer req uir em ents change, a vessel may move back and fort h between t ra des d uring t he lifet im e of t he vessel. To change the t rade of a vessel is a su bstantial commitment on the part of a n owner as extensive
cleaning a nd even m odifi ca ti on ofthe vessel may be neces sa ry .
Tanke r pe r son nel often r efer to the vessel acco rding to its dead we ight
ton nage Idwt). The de adweigh t t onna ge is used as a roug h m ea su re ofthe
cargo carrying ca pacity of the vessel a nd is usuall y ex pressed in long ton s
(1 long ton = 2,240 pounds ) or metric to ns (1 metri c to n 2.204.6 pounds ).
The dead weight tonnage of a vessel is defined as the a mount of ca rgo, fuel,
wat er, a nd stores a vess el ca n carry wh en fully loa ded . Ta nk er s a re typ ically divided in to four broad ca tegories a s see n in table I -I a nd figure 1-16 .
TABLE 11
Classification of Tank ers
According to Deadweight 'po nnege

Tonnage Rang!!
5 ,000 W 35,000 dwt
35, 000 W 160,000 dwt
Medium
VLCCs (very-large cru de carrier) 160,000 W 300,000 dwt
ULeCt! (ultra-large cru de carri er ) 300,000 dwt and above

Category
HandyfCoosto1lParcellBarge

Trod,

Pr oduct/parcel
Product/crude oil
Cru de oil
Cru de oil

~ 532"

./1

16.500 dw1

DnIn 30 6'

Beam 70'

Lenglh 86 1'

'00=_

Drafl49 ,6'

Beam 125'

2~ = _
Lengl h 1,141'

Ora" 65.4'

7
Beam 170'
~

500 ,000 dwt

Length 1,300'

Draft 82'

Beam 233'

Figure 1-16. Rela tive sizes of tankers. Tanker s ize ha s in crea sed dr amatically s ince \\!\\1I. The
Courtesy Exxon.

s"' ~''l.

o~ "
0
.:! ':'"
"oo .c
~~

'< 0

Z~

;:;. 2
,,- ~ g.
.

;;
5
~

ii

~
[

0;
~

\;'

a-

top fiKU rl"represe nts

e TZtanker

REVIEW

23

D E VE L O P ME NT O F Til E SU P E RTAN KE R
During the post-World Wa r 11 era, t he lanker industry experienced dramatic change s in bot h t he dimensions a nd the t rade routes ofthese vessels.
Th e eve r pop ul ar T-2 tanke r of t he war yea rs gave way to modem construction (fi g. 11 7 ) in order to create more economica l ways of transpo rti ng oil
to meet the grow ing dema nds of t he industrialize d world.
A nu mb er of factors contributed to the rapid increase in ta nker size. includin g the hostilities in the Middle East that resulted in the closure of the
Suez Ca nal , a choke point for tanker t raffic to and from the oil fields of the
Per sia n Gulf. Nationalization of the oil refineries in the Middle East and
fier ce competi tion a mong international shipowners all played a role in accelerating the development of the modem-day supertanker. VLCCs and
ULCCs ply the most solitary trade routes of the oceans, typically loading at
offshore plat form s or single-point moorings and discharging at designated
lightering zones off th e coast (fig. 1-18).
Th ese vesse ls can ente r only a limited numb er of port s in the world
when fully loaded a nd ther efore remain at sea for exten ded periods oftime,
a typical voya ge often ta king seve nty to seventy -five days.

REVIEW
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.

a.
9.
~ 1-18.Lighteringoperalion at Ilea A VL
b eBfJOW 8 8mallershuttle tank
.
CC (209,000 dwt) discha rges part of
ry. Oourteay Shell lnte
ti er(71,000 dwt ) th at delivers the cru de oil to th e
rna 10na1 Petroleum .

10.

Defin e the te rm "tank vessel."

Wha t is th e effect of free surface on a vessel?
How can the effect s of free surface be reduced or eliminated?
Describe the method of const ruction of single-hull ta nk vessels .
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mand ate s double hull s for new const ructi on. What are th e minimum spacing requi remen ts bet ween th e hulls?
Dr a w a cross sect ion ofa mid-deck tanker an d explain the meth od employed to reduce oil outflow in the even t of'a casualty (grounding/collision ).
In the transport of hazardous chemicals, explain the require ment s for
Types I, II , and III containment.
In the construction of a modem tank er , the cargo and noncargo areas
of the vessel mu st be phy sically se parated through what means?
List three factors that contributed to the development of the mode rn
supertanke r .
List the va rious trades in which a tank vesse l is typically engaged.

PROP ERT U:S OF PETROLEUM

Ch e m ical Liquid"
A liquid chemical.is a ny substance used in , or obtaine d by, a che mical process . Ther e a re literally hundreds of differ en t che micals t ra ns porte d by
tank vessels . Th ese s ubstances a re deri ved from ma ny sources and ha ve diver se characteristics. Th ey may be catego rize d aa organic or inorganic
che mica ls . Table 2-1 shows a sampling of each .

CHAPTER 2

TABl.E 21
Chemical Liquids

Cargo Characteristics
RICHARD BEADON AND MARK H UB ER

umeroWi potential hazards a re associ a ted with the s eagoing transport

of bulk liquid cargoes. To minimize th ose ri sks it is im perati ve for th e
person-in-charge (PIC) to hav e a keen understanding of the phys ical propernee of the cargo being transported. Experienc e has shown t h at knowledge
about the cargo is vital to intelligent decisi on-making with re spec t to sa fe
carriage 88 weU 88 to efforts to maintain quality assurance. I mp roper transfer procedures, stowage, and care of the cargo h ave all fa cto red into incidents that resulted in harm to personnel and damage to ves sel, ca rgo, a nd
the environment. This chapter seeks to address the main ch a racteristics
and hazards presented by the cargo as it relates to the role of t he vessel PIC.
Many of the properties and hazards discussed in this chapte r a pply to all
bulk liquids . However, due to their special nature, liquid chemica ls may
present significantly different characteristics and hazards .

BULK LIQUID CARGOES

Tank vessels transport a wide variety of liquids in bulk (u n pack age d).
~e~ fall under three broad classifications : petroleum liquids , chemical
liquids, and special liquids.
Petroleum Liquids
PfW'pleum
liquids
. I 0 f naturally occurring crude oil and the various
r U
.
conere
J! od ctsdenved(refinedl from this raw material, including the following:
GuO
Jine

1<11
_I

Ker08ene
Jet fuel
Lubricants

Residual fuel oil

Asphalt
Coke

24

25

Orga nic Chemical.

Inorganic C~micals

Aromatic hydrocarbons
Vinyl chloride
Acetone
Acetic acid
Styrene monomer
Acrylonitrile

Boricscid
Sulfuric acid
Phosphoricacid
Caustic soda

Hydrochloric acid
Molten su lfur

Special Liquids
Liquid substances other than th ose classified as petroleum or che mical are
described as special1iquids. Table 2-2 shows some examples.
TABLE 2-2
Special Liquids
Animal l Vegetabl e Oils

Palm oil
Soybean oil

Sunflower oil
Other vegetable oils
Animal oils
Tallow and greases

...tisct'llant'ous Liq uids

Freshwater
Beer
Wine

Molasses

PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
Crude oil a nd th e pr oducts derived from t he ra w mat eri al are cons ide red
petroleum liquids. Crude oil is a mix tu re ofa wide ran ge of long-chain hy d rocarbon mole cules. A hydro carbon molecule is esse nt ia lly one or mor e
hydrogen atoms linked with one or more carbon ato ms , hen ce th e te r m hydrocarbon. The comp osition of crude oil va ries wid ely (pa raffins, naphthenea. or aromatics) depending on its geographic sou rce . Crude oil ca n be
described as eith er "he a vy" or "light" based upon its specific gr avity. The
number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon molecul e influen ces the

CARGO CHARACTERISTICS
FLAMMABI LITY CHARACTERISTICS OF BULK LIQUID CARGOES

., r. crude oil The greater

the number crcarbon a toms In
' a
spec Ifie graVl y o '
.
molecule the heavier the molecule will be.
Arom~ound is a chemical substance ma,de up of tw o or mor e eleme nts
bondf'dtogt"therand not separable by.physlcal means . Crude oil is a mix.
ture of hydrocarbon compounds rangl~~ from th ose th at are pa rt ly eee.
eous under normal atmosphenc conditions to th ose t hat are liq uid
solid. Also present are traces of nitrogen, s u lfu r, oxygen , and metal:~
Crude oil8 containing sulfur compounds such a s hydrogen s u lfide
known as sour crudes and are characterized by a vile a n d nauseati ng ::t~
~negg odor.
The refining process, described in more detail in ch apter 3, involv
separating the various hydrocarbon compounds in crude oil into grou ps ~8
fractioM of compounds having similar boiling point ranges . A number f
methods are used in the refining process including the followi ng :
0
Distillation. or physical separation, consists of boiling off the crud e oil and

splittingit into a number of fractions.

Grading is 8 chemical conversion that results in splitti ng the heavier frac.
tJo~ into lighter fractions. Each fraction has
urnque set ofphysical properties.

its own boiling point and a

Purification is the process ofremoving certain impurities (such as sulfur)

from the petroleum products during the refining process.

FLAMMABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF
BULK LIQUID CARGOES
There are serious fire risks ass . t d . h
certain chemical cargoes' h ceredi WIt. the transport ofpetroleum and
order. To enable the PIC iude a h ISCUBSlOn of these characteristics is in
gorieed accordingtotheirfl~~~:~'l~ degree ofriek, most ~argoeB are ceteterms used in the c1assificati
f I tty . FolloWlnglS a review of'so me basic
goes
. Volatility: In a fire invof~: c:r
'.
:
gIVen off by the liquid burns g fla~m.able liquid. the va por that is
mability of a liquid cargo will d not .d n liquid itself. Therefore, the flam to Produce. flammable vapor. V:iaet~i p,:manly on the ability of the liquid
dency of oils or chemical prod ta ty IS a term used to de scribe the tenthe PIO, thereareanumbe fUC to Produce flammable vapor. To assist
Tru
ro weyaof'ex
.
. . evaporpressure (TVP). V
presslOgthe volatilityofa liquid.
a liquid. FQr example wh
. apor pressure indicates the volatility of
::~~' ithwiU begin to va'pori::i~~~~roleurn (liquid) cargo is loaded into a
un t e space reach equilibri
th Space above. When the vapor a n d Iiq8

a
prellsure. The trueurn, e pressure exerted on the liquid is its
a
ue d'fli
vapor preaeu
f
I erences in compo.,",.
re 0 a petroleum liquid will
Ion and tern perature; consequently an-

to

27

other method of expr essing th e va por pressure is empl oyed- t he Reid va .

per pressu re (RVPJ.
Reid vapor p ressu re (RVP): Reid va por pressure is the measured vapor pre ssure th at resul ts when a sa mple of liqu id in a closed container is
heat ed to a sta ndard te mpe ratu re of lOOF (37 .SOC ). It is determined in a
standa rd lab orato ry experiment u sin g Reid te stin g app aratu s. Thi s te st is
ofpracti cnl va lu e to t he PI C as it replicates the conditi ons th at may exis t
du rin g tr ansport of a cargo at sea. It does so by providi ng an indication of
the behavior of a pa rt icular cargo in th e sealed tanks of a vessel whe n s ubjecte~ to changing ambi~n t (s.e a and ai r) te mpe ra t ures. Reid vapo r pressure 18 used In the claeaificat ion of flammable liqu ids, as shown in table
2-3"
Flash point: An other term frequently encountered in t he classification of liquids is fla sh poin t. Th e flash poin t of a flammable liquid I S th e
lowest te mperature at whic h t he liquid gives otfsufficient va por to fonn an
ignitabl e mixt ure n ea r its su rface. Th is mixture of va por and ai r is ign it abl e by a n ex ternal sou rce of igniti on , but the rate of va porizatio n is usu ally in su fficien t to su stain combustion .
Fire point: Th e fire point of a flammable liquid is t he lowest te mpe rature at wh ich t he liquid will produce s ufficient vapor to igni te and continue
to burn. Thi s te mperature is high er than th e flash point of a liquid. Th e
principal u se ofthe terms flash poin t and fire point is to indicat e the relati ve fir e h azar d associated with differe nt products.
Autoignition temperature: Th e autoignit ion point of a liqu id is t he
lowest temperature at which sus taine d combus tion will occur in a liquid
without the applicat ion of a spark or flame <exte rnal source of ignition ).
Thi s temperature is a bove th e fire point of a liquid,
Flammable limits: A liquid ca nno t bum unless it emits flammabl e vapors. In orde r to bu m , t he correct proportions of oxygen, va por, a nd h eat
mu st be present. Th e flamm abl e va por ofa liq uid mu st t h er efore mix wit h
air in the proper proportions to form an ign itable mixture.
Lower explosive limit (LEL) or lower flammable limit (LFL): The
lower explo si ve li mit is the smallest percentage of vapor in air that will
fonn an ignitabl e mixture (point C in figure 2-0. If t he concen tration of'vapar is below the LEL, the mi xture is cons idered "lean" an d will not su pport
combustion .

Upper explosive limit (UEL) or upper flammable limit (UFL):

The upper explosiv e limit is the greatest per cen t age of va por in air that will
form an ignitable mixture (point D in figure 2-1 ). If the pe rcen tage of vapor
present exceeds the UEL, th e mix ture is conside red "ric h" a nd will n ot s upport combustion.
Flammable range or explosive range: The flammable or explosive
range diagram in figure 2-} illustrates all th e possibl e combinations of vapor in air (bet ween the upper and lower flammable limits ) that form an

CARGO CHARACTERISTICS

AVOIDAN CE OFTIl F. FLAMMABLE RANGE

'"

"
T'''' ' '~.,

10

OllutJon

WIth nett gas

(purging)

o
..... DtI!JbOn
WIth air

(unacceptable)

.......

..... .......

5
G
H

''' "

.....
s

o
_

= .....
. ..-

15

10

20

A
21

Oxygen--percentage by volum e

ThI_I'IiI'9'~_ ~ "' . JrpoeII cn.o. oiI n does l>()f rel\llel ll'lll

"'~ClWI~l<bsl.~be_. . Wldc::::.

29

The fla"mma
1 ble limits
T blca n vary
' su bstant ially for diff
ueren t petro1eum
Bnd chemica carg oes. a e. 2-3 list s th e ty pical limi te
..... of n a mma b"I"
t tt y <lor
several cargoes. T 0 d ete rrm ne the fla mm able limit s of. pa rtiICU Iar cargo
ry a na lys is of the cargo.
'
consult th e data'" 8 h eels
V or dt he l.aborato
.
Va por. d "nat y: apor en eit y ie t he ratio of th e weight of a vapor or gas
with no air pr esen t compar ed to an equa l volume of air at the sa me temperatur~ a nd ~re s s ure . The va por dens ity ofa liquid can only be accurately detennmed m a s tandard .laborato ry experiment. A vapo r den sity of 1
indi cates t hat t he ~as .wetg hs the sa me as that of an equal volume of ai r.
Valu es lesslhan 1 indica te t hat the gas is lighter than air a nd will tend to
rise. Values greater than 1 would indicate that the gas is heavier than ai r
and would tend to settle.
An unders tandin g .of vapor ~ensity is important because most petroleum
cargo va pors are heavier than air and will settle in lower regions of a tank or
purnp room . This is an important consideration when determining the method
and adequacy of te sting a n at mosphere for the presence of cargo vapors.
Vap or den sit y is also an important element that contributes to the accumulation of fla mma ble vapors on deck and around the superstructure
while tanks a re venting during a loadi ng ope ration.

_ _ t.Thll......
....., lot Ill"*-' _ _ purposes 01Ny

Figure 21.
Flammable
range
. sron
. f rom t h e International
S r.
G '
. diagram. Reprinted with perrrua

otety uldeforOdTankersandTermina[s(1SGOTTJ 4th diti C

tesy OCIMF, IeS, and lAPR

e mon . our-

ignitab le mixtu re. Mixtures of h dr

bo
.
the flamm able range (sha d d y .ocar n vapor and air that lie outside
tion. In the ca8e ofoil cargoe~ .~;~8 ~n the curve ) will not support combuelower explosive limit th
,.1. e ydroca rbon concentration is below t he
, ere 18 Insu fficient
.
Conversely ifthe hydr cca bo
vapor to support combustion.
"mnt. , t here ' is insufficient r . n concent ratio n 18
. a b ove t h e upper explosive
"
1
air to support com bus tion.
TABLE 2-3
p Typical Flammable Limits of Sam p Ie C argoes
rod uet
LEL
UEL
Ra nge
Crud~ (average)
1.0%
10.0%
9.0%
Gasoline
1.3%
7.6%
6.3 %
Kerosene
0 7%
6.0%
5.3%

Benzene
Ethyleneoxide
Am
"
moma
Naphtha

1:4%
2 ooc
ro
15"5%
0:9%

Souru: United State8 C08al Guard

8.0%

6.6%

100 .0%
27.0%

98.0%

6.7%

5.8%

11.5%

AVOIDANC E OF THE FLAMMABLE RANGE

To enhance the ove rall safety of transporting flamm abl e cargoes, many
tank ve ssels are eq uipped with inert gas syste ms (see chapte r 15 for a detailed discu ssi on ). The purpose of this sys te m is to maintain the atmosphere of the ca rgo tanks in a nonflammable condit ion throughout the
voyage cycle (ope rati ng life ) of the vessel. This is achieved t hrough the use
ora ga s or a mixture of gases t hat is deficient in oxygen and therefore incapable of su pporting combusti on . Alth ou gh the atmosphere or a tank may
contain flammable vapors in varying concentration , there can be no fir e or
explosion if the t ank is starve d of oxyge n .
A properly inerted cargo s pace is a ny com pa rt ment wit h an at mosphere
contain ing 8 percent or le ss oxygen by volume an d mainta ined under posi ti ve pr essu re . The application of an inert gas syste m during a typi cal voyage can best be illustrated re lative to a flammable range diagram (fig. 2-1).
Th e goal of t his system is to prevent the atmosphere of th e cargo tanks
from ever e ntering the flamma ble range.
Voyage Cycle (Inert G a s Cycle)
A conve n ie nt starting poin t for thi s discul'l sion is a vess el in t he shipyard
with t he en t ire ca rgo system clean and ga s free (see chapter 13 for a discussion of th e gas-free state). As shown in the fla mmable range diagram (fig.
2-1), the a t mosphere of t he cargo tanks would like ly be found near position

CARGO CHARACTERISTICS

C LASSIF ICATION OF PETROI.EUM

A wi th an oxyge n cont~>nt of2 l pe~ent by v~lu~e and a ~eadi ng orless than

1 pt'rt'E"nt ofthe LELan a combus tlble,-gas mdlcsto,r. Prior to depart ing the
vard or while en route to the first loadi ng port. the Inert gas ~Y8tem iso per .
ated to carry out th e primary inerting of the ca rgo tanks . "':'lth vents open

to prepare th e ca rgo tank~ s ) for entry by personnel. The ta nk or lanks

should be w ~u:r- was~ed 10 ac~~dance with recommended guidelines
hile maintaining an 1O~rt condition. Following the wash. the tanks are
;llrged with in ert gas pnor to vent ilation with air.

30

t he fresh air is driven out of the cargo tanks and replaced WIth good quaHt;
inert gas. The net effect of t his opera~ion is ~ lo","er ~h.e oxygen content of

the atmosphere in thecargotanks . P~marytne:tmgl s 11I~strated in figure

2.} by moving to the left along the honzontal axi s from pom t A until t he at.
mosphere reaches 8 percent or less oxygen by volume. It should be noted
that 8S the oxygen content ora space is lowered ,.the ran~e ?fflarnmability
for most petroleum products decreases progressively until it terminate s at
about 11 percent oxygen by volume .
At the loading port, cargo entering the empty tanks will st art to displace the ine rt atmosphere. Due to the turbulence ofthe loa din g oper at ion
flammable cargo vapors are generated, resulting in the a tmosphere mav:
iog up the vertica l (hydrocarbon ) axis ofthe flammabl e range di agram toward-point F. There is no material change in the oxygen content provided a
positive pressure is maintained within the space, thereby preventing the
ingress of air. At the completion of the loading operation , the atmosphere
above the cargo in the topped-off tanktel is likely to be a rich mixture, yet
still in an inert state.
Durin g the sea passage to the discharge port, the oxygen content and
tank (deck) pressure should be monitored. Due to the fact tha t liquid cargoes expan d and contract with changes in sea and air tempera ture , significant fluctu ati ons in the tank (deck ) pressure occur during the voyage . If,
for example, the deck pressure rises as a result of increasing a mbie nt tempera tu res, it may be necessary to vent off the excess pressure . Conversely,
when colder te mperatu res and a corresponding drop in tank (deck) pressu re are encountered. it may be necessary to start the inert ga s sys te m and
to~ up the p:essure in th e tanks. Toppin g-up is defi ned as the introduction
ofme.rt gas mto a tank already in the inert con dit ion with the object of increae mg th e .tank press~re to preve nt a ny in gr ess of air.
o Upon amval at th e.discharge port. the in ert gas system is started and
perated for th e duration of th e ca rgo discharge . In ert gas is delivered to
the tankB. to re~lace th e ca rgo bein g discha rge d. To ensure that positive
~~:s sure 18 mal~ta ined . ~h e inert gas su pply mu st exceed the cargo disrge ~ate. Dunng the discharge oper ation (fig . 2. 1) the hyd rocarbon concentration
of th e atmo sph ere WI'II d rop as the ca rgo va pors a re diluted WI'tit
.
mtertgahs. Thereafter, during each success ive load an d di sch arge the tank
a mosp ere' moves up and down th e vertical
' (hy droca rbon) axis .T' hi s vertiI....,1 h
~ C ange IS acceptable provid ed
' ,
'
the
~a ce ossibJ
. .
oxygen (aIT) 18 not in trodu ced m to
I I P bl y ~mpromlfHng the in ert stat us of the ta nk or vessel.
u~r~ ~S~iuld develo? at th e discharge port. th is may nece ssitate
a
~ ';..;k ,~~":'\
pyerd. During the ball ast trip it m ay become necessary

31

PURGING

Purging is the introduction of inert gas into a la nk th at is already in an inert condit ion with the object of ~educing the hydrocarbon concentration to
a point wher e subsequent ventilation with fres h air will not result in th e
creation of a flammable atmosphere. The purgi ng process is illustrated in
figure 2-1 by moving fr~m ~i nt F to point H.
Safe indus try practice dictate s that purgang of a tank should conti nue
until the hydroca rbon concentration of the space is 2 percent or less by volume as detennin ed by usin g a su itable hydrocarbon analyze r.
Upon completion of purging, the space is ventilated with air using portabl e fan s or the inert ga s system in the gas-free mode. Ventilating with air
at this point fu rther reduces the hydrocarbon concentration while increas ing the oxygen content ofthe space. Th e ventilation process conti nues un til
th e atmospheric tests reve al a return to sa fe readings (21 percent oxygen
by volum e a nd less that 1 percent LEL on a combustibl e-gas indicatorJ. '!?e
process of ventilating the tank with air is shown in figur e 2-1 by moving
from point H to point A.
.
.
It is imp ortant to realize that avoidance of th e namm~ble ran ge I~ thi.s
way is the exp ectatio n of the tran sportation industry and ISonly possible If
the operator thoroughl y understands the use of the inert gas syste m.

C LASSIF ICATION OF PETROLEUM

Petroleum liquids are classified in many ways throughout the world . The
following information addresses two common approaches.
Intemational Classification
In many safety-related rules and regul ati ons, ?etr:ole~m cargoes are
broad ly classified as volatile liquids a nd nonvolatile Iiquida,
.
Volatile liquids: Petroleum liquids tha t have closed-cup flash pom u: below 1400F (600C)are considered volatile. Over th e nor~al ra.nge of ambient
'
t cargoes m thi s category are
t emperaturee encountered d unng transp?r ~
ble
capable of producing gas/air mixtures within and above the flamm~
range. For this reason , volatile cargoe s are frequently transported In a
la nk with a cont rolled (inerted) atmosp here.
Nonvol at ile liquids ' Th ese arc pet roleum products that have closed-.cu~
flash points of 140 F (60 C) and above. Over t he normal range ofamblen
...
'
t th atmosphere above these
wmpere t u res encountered during transpor
e

CARGO CHARACTERISTICS

30

ica lly contains gas concentrations below t he lower

Ihelld space ) typ
.
id I fuel oi
it
CS..anPsin
this category include
bl

Ilamms (' IIml. e-~

.
h rest us ue hoils and die.
'A
ther
properuee
associated
WIth
t ese cargoes, cweve-, th e
0 1I8. DU 8 ... 0

h
C

ti n or hea t is often necessary du nngt e voyage. aution mu st be

. ppIlea 10

bl
excrt"illf'd with heated cargo, 8S the creation 0.(a flamma e at mosphere is
po8tlible if it is heated to or near the flash point.
ClITpB

United St ates COBst Guard Classific a tion

The United States Coast Guard (USCG) separates petroleum liq uids into
two categories: flammable and combustible.
Flammable liquids: Liquids that have an open -cup flash poin t at or below BO' F (26.7 CJ are classified 8S flammable liquids .
Combustible liquids: Liquids that have an open-cup fla sh poi nt above
BOF 126.7C) are classified as combustible liquids.
The flam ma ble and combustible liquids are subdivided into grad es
based on their flash points and Reid vapor pressures. Tables 2-4 and 2-5
show the USCG classification system contained in Title 46 eFR Parts
30.10.15 and 30.10.22.
TABLE 2-4
USCG Clll8sific atio n of Flammable Liquids
Fla sh P oint at or belo w sooF (26 .7C)
Gnuk
B

Flash Point
BOF or below
BOoF or below

BOF or below

Reid Vapor Pressure

14 psi and above
More than 8.5 but less
than 14 psi
8.5 psi and below

Exa mp les
Natural gasoline, nap htha
Most commercial gasoli ne

Most crud e oils

Aviation gasoline

TABLE 25
USCG Cla ssification of Combu sti b le Liquids
Flash Point above go OF (26.70C)
Gnuk Fltu h Point

D
E

Reid Vapor Pressure

Above 80F but N/A

below 150F
150F and above N/A

Examples
Kerosene
Commercial jet fuels
Heavy fuel
Lube oils
Aspha lt

CARgo WEIGHT, CAPACITY, AND FLOW

u

. ~- a tan k vess el it is necessa ry to

'aaing
. of a liquid ca rgo into
el
of th e ca rgo a nd the a moun t of epace it wi ll occupy.

CARC.o WEIG HT , CAPACITY, AND F LOW

33

Once a cargo ~ a s been load ed into.a ta nk, it is th.e~ nec essary to deter:rnine
he quantity 10 t he tank . At t he discharge port, It IS necessary to again de t rmin e the quantit y of ca rgo onboard pri or to the disch arge.
e The sa fe, efficien t , and accurate determination of the qu antity of cargo
. the vessel's tanks is a key re sponsibility of the P IC . The quantity of cargo
~n an important factor for proper accou nting (billing); for ca rgo cal culat ion
:~etennining draft, trim, and st ress in orde r to ensu re the vessel is not
overl oade d); a nd for ca lculation of transfer rates. Th e PIC shou ld therefore
be familiar with t he followin g tenns relat ing to volume a nd weight, as they
are used in conju nction with the tra nsport ofliquid ca rgoes in bulk.
Density
Th e density of a substance is the weight per unit volume at a standa rd ternperature of60F (15.6C ). The de n sit y of a liqui d is expressed in ounces per
cubic foot. For example, at a standard temperature of 60 F 05 .6C ), the
density of freshwater is 1,000 ou nces (62.5 Ibs) pe r cubic foot and t he density of salt water is 1,025 ounces (64 .06 Ibs) per cubic foot .
If the densit y and volume ofa liquid a re known , the weigh t of the volume occupied by the liquid can be found by us ing t he following formula :
Weight:: Volume l( Density
If the wei ght a nd volume of the liquid are known , then the density can
be found by transp os in g the fonnula :
Denaity

Weight I Volume

Specific Gravity (8m

The specific gravity (SG) of a substance is t he ra t io of a given volume of a
substance at a standard t empe rature of 60 F (15.GoC) to t h e weight of a n
equal volume of freshwater at the sa me te m pe rature. Fo r exam ple:
Specific gravity of salt wet er

e Density of salt water - Deneity of freshwate r

:: 1,025 + 1,000
:: 1.025
This mea ns that salt water is 1.025 times as heavy DS freshwat er .

If t he de n sity ofa liquid is known, it can be converted into s pecific gravity by di viding its de nsi ty by t he density of fre shwater.

API Gravity
API gr avity is a n arbit ra ry sca le developed by the American Petroleum I nst it ute a nd us ed in the transportation industry as an alternative means of
expressing the we ight of a mea s u red volume of a liquid.

CGO rHARACTERISTICS

TOXlC ITY-MEASUREMENT AND REGULATIONS

Th API gra vity uf a liquid is expressed in a scale of degr ees API at a

sta nd: rd temper ature of 60F (IS.6 G). Freshwater has an a r bit rary grac.
ity of 10 degrees. Liquids lighte~ than fre sh water ha ve an API gravity
greeter than 10 snd liquids heavier t han freshwater have a n APr gravity

than 10.
. .
.
For information purposes, the API gravtty 19 denved
ing formula:
8

.
u Sin g

the follow.

API gravi ty in degrees = ( 14 1.5/S pecific gravity @ 60 "F) - 131 .5

Determination of Density, Specific Gravity, a n d API Gravity

Ahydrometer is one ofthe instruments commonly used to measure density.
Hydromete rs are cali brated to measure density in ounces; howe ve r . those
th at measure API gravity 8 Te marked in degrees API . To obtain the s pecific
gravity of a liquid, a density hydr ometer is used and the reading is di vided
by 1,000 (the densi ty of fres hwater).
To obta in the density/API gravity of cargo in a tank, a s a m ple is drawn
and the appropriate hydrometer used. Due to the fact that liq uid cargoes
expan d or contract with changes in temperatures, the reading obtained is
the den sity/API gravi ty of t he liqu id at the temperature the s a m ple was
tes ted. Th erefore, it is esse ntia l to ta ke a te m perature readi ng of the sampIe to accurately calculate t he density or AP I gravity.
Units of Measure
Table 2-6 shows the typical units of measure used in the transportation in.
dustry .
TABLE 2--6
Units of Measure

Un.it
1 barrel
1 cubicmeter
1 ton metri c (tonn e)
1 ton (long)
1 gTOs.e ba rJ't'1
1 n barJ't'1

ltfeasu~

42 gallons (US )
6.2898 barr els
1,000 kilograms (2,204.6226 poun ds)
2,240 pounds (1,016.0469 kilograms)
42 gallons at actual temperature in the tank
42 gallons adjusted to standard temperature of 60F

Viscosity

Viscosity is a mea sure of th . t

If "
no It

e m ema ncnon ot a liquid or its resi st a nce to

"'I'. ISds n Important consi dera t ion whe n determin in g t he pumpebility
o
IqUI fl.cargo. Th
I e viscos'I t yo f a Iitqurid ch anges with different tempera(u
o e a mp e. ~s th e te~perature of a liquid increases, the viscosity
F
be WOl effiCie nt loading a nd disch argin g of t he vessel the PIC
a ar e of th e opt imum viscosity of th e cargo. This value is useful

35

in determining t.he h.eati ng requ iremen ts of a ca rgo and t he proper tem peratures to be maint ain ed dunng cargo t ransfer a nd in t ra nsit .
Th ere are man y st a nda rds for expressing viscosity . Cont rolled laboratory expe ri me nt s a re used to determine the viscosity of a liquid. In one
method, Saybolt Second s Universal (SSU). viscosity is measured by the
time in second s t hat it take s for a liquid at a pre scribed temperature to
drain from a standard viscosimeter. Thi s information is typically derived
from a laborato ry analysi s report of t he cargo.

Pour P oint
The pour poin t of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which the liquid will
remain flu id . It is expressed as a temperature eith er in degrees Fahrenheit
or Celsius. The PI C s houl d be mindful of thi s temperature whe n transportingcargoes with elevated pou r poin t s. Exa m ples ofs uch cargoes include residual fuel oils, vacuum gas oils, wa x, and as phalt. During transport, the
cargo temperature in t he tanks should be closely monito red an d t he hea ting sys te m adj usted to mai n ta in t he recommended temperature. To avoi d
possibl e solidificati on of the cargo, th e temperature should neve r be allowed to approach t h e pour poin t of t he su bstance.

TOXICI T Y-ME AS UR EME NT AND REGULATIONS

Toxicity refers to the poison ou s nature a nd poten t ial heal t h risk s associated with a particul ar subs ta nce. Th e toxicity of a substance is difficult to
measure and is subject to re vision a s more detailed inform at ion a bout t he
ramificat ion s or exposure become available. The t hr eshold limit va luetime weighted average provides a convenient in dicator of t he relative toxicity of gases and assists individu als in re ducing heal t h ri sks. Studies per formed on animals a nd ext rapolated for the human body form the ba sis of
rating toxicity le vel s.

Threshold Li mit Value-Time Wei ghte d Ave rage (TLV-TWA)

The t hreshold limit value-time weighted average (TLV-TWAl is a designation established by the American Conference of Govemmental an d Industrial
Hygienis ts (ACGl H) for vario us substances. Th ese des ignations are used as
recommended guidelines in th e workpl ace; th ey are subject to review and
may be updated annually, in whi ch case the results will be publi shed in
ACGlH publi cations . The term th reshold limit value-time weighted average
(TLV-TWA) is use d in the transportation industry to express the toxicity of
vapors from a substance. The TLV-TWA ora substance is usually expressed
as the number of parts per million {ppml by volume of vapor in air.
According to ACG IH, "Threshold Limit Values refer to airborne con centra tions or substances and represent conditions under which it is believed

CARGO CHARACTE RIST ICS

that n rly all workers may be repeatedly ex~ed day after day wit hout
ad,' rae health E'ffE'cts.- When expressed 8S 8 t~ m e weighted average, the
l'Onct'ntration is considered over a normal eight- hour workday a nd a
forty-hour workweek.
Permissible Exposure LimitTime Weighted Average (PEL-TWA)
TIlt'penn issible exposure limit (PEL) ofa substance is a designati on used
by the Occupational Sa fety an d Hea lth Administra tion (OSHA) and the
United States Coast Guard (USCG). The PEL represents a regul atory
value (as opposed to a recommended guid elin e>that mu st not he exceeded
in the workplace. For example, th e PE L-TWA for cargoes covered by the
benzene regulation is 1 ppm.
Threshold Limit ValueShort-Term Exposure Limit (TLVSTEL)

The thre shold limit valu e-short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL) defines
the concentration ofa substance to which workers can be exposed continuo
c usl y for a short period of time, provided th a t the da ily TLV is not al so exceeded.
The STEL is a fifteen-minu te time weighted average exposure that
should not be exceeded at any time during t he workday, even if the
eight-h our time weigh ted average is within th e nv.
Exposures at the STEL may not be longer th an fifte en minutes and cannot be repeated more than four tim es per workday. There mu st also be at
least sixty minu tes between successi ve exposu res at the STE L.
Threshold Limit Value-Ceiling (TI..v-C)
The thresh old limit val ue-ceiling (TLV-C) is th e maxim um concentration
of vapor in air , expresse d as either a TLV or PEL th at mu st not be ex~eed?d ~ven for an instant. In situations when there is no es ta blis he d ceil109limit , the TLV-STEL is used.
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)
The .designation IDLH (immedia te ly dangerous to life or heal th) was estabhshed by the Nation al Institute for Occup ational Safety and Heal th
(NIOSH1, an agency of the Public Health Servic e
IDLW
d f
.
t_
IS e ined by NIOSH as a condition "that poses a threa t of exposure
W airborne contamina' ~
h
h
. likely
.
to cause death
'
.
n.... w en t at exposure IS
r mrmedlateor delayed permanent a dverse health effects or prevent eeto such an environme nt:
ca
rllct~cal application of th e IDLH design ati on is to provide a baste
ejectum of an appropriate respirator.

SOURCESOFCARGOIN FOa~TION

37

Odor Threshold

Expressed in parts per million by volume in air, the odor threshold is the
smallest concentration of a gas th at can he detected by most individuals
through the sense of smell.
It is not an ab solute valu e as it can vary considerab ly among individuals. Some odors are also capable ofdeadening the sense ofsmell. It is therefore not advisable to rely on the sense of smell as an indicator of the
presence ofa dan gerous vapor .
Knowing th e odor thre shold of a toxic substance is important . If, for example, a liq uid ~~s a TLV-C of 20 ppm and an odor th reshold of 50 ppm , by
the time an individu al dete cts the presence of this substance by the sense
of smell, harmful exposure has alrea dy occurre d.
Given th e number of differ en t liquid cargoes transported on ta nk
vessels. it is not possible for one person to know all the details concerning a
particular produ ct. It is a daunting task to become familiar with all the
products a PIC migh t be expected to handl e and transpo rt; therefore, it is
vital that th e PIC kn ow where to turn for accurate, reliable information.

SO UR CES OF CARGO INFORMATION

There are various sources of inform ation regard ing the physical properties
and hazar ds of cargoes. Th e need for curre nt, accurate cargo infonnation is
essential for t he sa fety of tho se in volved in the transport ofbulk liquid cargoes. Some of the more common sources of cargo specificinformation available to the per son-in-charge includ e the following:
Ma te rial Safety Data Sh eets (MSDS) produced by the manufacturer
of the substance
Chemical Data Guide for Bu lk Shipment by Water (former CG388),
figure 2-2, a nd Chemical Hazards Response Information System
(CHRIS), figure 2-3, from th e United States Coast Guard . As of thi s
writing, the United States Coast Guard has revised th e CHRIS database and made it available to th e public in a number of ways:
CDROM, the Intem et (www.chrisma nual.com).and in hard copy.
The CD-ROM contains physical , chemical , toxicological , and combustion pr opert ies for over 1,300 chemical s and mixtures in addition
to pollution resp onse and regulatory information. In the event that
th e listed sources of in formation do not address the substa nce being
handl ed or tra nsported , in an emergency, the PIC shou ld contact
CHE MTREC or the National Response Center.
Tank er Safety Guide Data Sheets from the Intemational Chamber
of Shipping (lCS)

__ _

e... BENZENE
...

(eoI _

-~---

-__.
--.........
___
_--..
. . cn_ _"------_._
. .. __
_--"_e-_.
---...... -""
---_
_-........ .. _---. ..
--

~ .r;-1II

:::=:;:E =:ii :~

.. ..

~,-

. . . . ,.

~ -_

~
,rooo~

.c,..,, -.... " --"

_ _

_~~ ----4.-

~ " ,.. ", ....,

n il E: <II OPLOSION H AZARD DATA

~ l-,
_ . . . - ..
~

,. "

........-..-"" ......

" ....... . _

"" ' "

'0"

_1_,""

00.. .. _

~_

...

.-

...

..

~-

1----_
-------_-----:tOJIl_._.. . __
CM. "HE.unt
" - ,-,HAZAR D DATA

____

, ~ ~

'. ' J

.... _. CIOlU

...IT!

._

....

_ _ -..lI"

'-'

..- ........

n""...._'

... _0100<"'._ ......... _ .

lt tnl "lll.t~ZOI

.....

'0

r...- I_
,
I
"""_ . . - - .. _ _ .......
.... _
__
r.
_ ..
_
-_
_"_ _ _ 01 ... _ .,. ,,,--..-.
.... _
-...._
_
,...,
I ,lI_
<-.g
_ ~fO .OOIl_

-=-

... ,._

._-.. _.--__
__
_.- \'--,_.-'_..--- -'--- - ..,,--_
_ .--_--_._- "-'
.
__
.. _--"--.._._--.
_-_
...
"---'
:::::-==- - ....._..-..
__
. ....
"---,_
.
_--...
_-_.
"--"= =:'"':' ;:::'.= =.. _-_
..- .. -_ .
-_
..
-- '
_._"---".
..
_--._-----,_._-..
_-.-u
-=___.
____ ._.-..
"---".._----=
_
-__
-.......__._ .. _- " .... __
..:=..--_._
,----------"_._'
__,,.. _...........-_.-.-."-_
..
._.....
_
...
.... __
__
...... ....
.-- -----.. _-_
_."
,-._- -.. ...---_
.. _...
_--...-_
....
.
....
....=-_...
_--__.__---"
. ... _........
...--- ... _.
r;.>.l,I1IONNt'I llUPOHS! ''''QfllIlo\llOW

.........

a~
-::=:;,,:::::~

BENZENE

_.~

~ ' o

GoI _ _

:=.

,..

-.-----

l-__ __ _""
~'
.

_._--_

..... N _

~ =:--

......

u _ _ ..

_ ~'

."':::..- _

_'-1::. ____

.~---_.

=':'..:'~- _ . _ ---

'"'=--=-'''''''=='''

='.=.- ..-

..-=-.:-...:-...

~-

.,- -

-.,

....

........ "'-

.. ,..,,.. ,,,,... .
...

.mo:::...--........

.."::"::0--- '

===:.::-- - - . -_.....

"-- '~ ''''..':':,.":'::;-

....-_._-_.
."_
....._ ........
..... . . _.
-_.
==-z
_._'
"
...... _
_
... -._-...., ----- --..
."--_
...-..-...... _--,._
-_
--_
.. _...
_--_._
---_
..
__
....
------_-..=.-=--=-.. .- ._._._............
,,_.
__
.. ,,_
.. - .. . _
u
_.___
..........".-.____._00_---___.........._--.........-_-,._---,... _.... . ...u __

t:=:"l':::"" ..... ~

_-_

...~---

'

.~ --_

--"''''-

. ~- - _

...= ::.=_ - - - - ~ - -

,,-,,,,_

_ _ _ 0 .. -

,-

. ~_

_-

rp f{dmCh emical Data Guide for Bulk S hipment by Water (fermer

y United State8 Coast Gua rd.

..

- ---.. . -...... - -_I.....'W'Ol__.. :--""""','

, - - ----.....
II.

....

~_

5PIU OR ILU PROCEDURE

.~'::...-- -

;:,,::r.:..._ _ . _ -

. ~_'":"=.."':"'::"..:.:::-"
..;.::,- - - - _

. . _._ ... _ .... _

" ~. _ ..:.; ~

""='=.:::..::~=.:.. :::'':7--

~.:::= ::.'=. - ....

u _

RUCl1VITY DATA

.... .......
...

.. ':..0.:=::::.::....

:::'..:::'"-- " - - =:::.:- ..:'.::,'= ~ -

.,.

...

-'Figure 2-3. Excerpt from the Chemical Hazards Response Informa tion System
(CHRIS). Courtesy Unite d St ate s Coast Guard .

. uu.n.n.u "

CARGUCHARACTERISTICS

.0

~ ~ ,S mmllry ofMi nim um Requ irements) from th e In .

'
IMOl
Gh mical ou t' ll U
. I Ma rit ime OrganizatIO n (
t~:::;:~r;:deral Rellulation.~ (CFR) from the United States govern.

;:'~t Guide to Chemical Hazards from t he National In stitute for

Occupational Safely a nd Heal th (NIOS H)
Th 'nfonnation provided is of particular relevance to individ ua ls rensi;te for the safe transfer and transport of bulk liquid cargoes. Th e
sPOrson_in-charge should not only have ready access to this informa t ion but
~ould also possess a thorough understanding ofthe characte ri stics of th e
substances being handle d. Toward that end, the following list summarizes
the various categories addressed in a typical material s afe ty d a ta sheet:
Cargo idl'ntification and emergency informstion
Compon{'nls and hazard information
Primary route! of entry and emergency and first aid procedures
Fire and esplcsicn hazard information
Health and hazard information
Physical data
Reactivity
Environmental information
Protection and precautions
Transportation and OSHA label information

HAZARDS
and follo.wing list shows the main hazards associated with the handling
an carnage of bulk liquid cargoes:
Fire and explosion
Static electricity
Toxicity
Oxygen deficiency
Reactivity
Corrosivity

Fire and Explosion

:rhe"'safetyof
mendous strides ha ve been
de i
.
personnel a d fth rna e tn th e des ign
n

In

of t a nkers to impr ove

the design of and 0
I' vesse~. One of the primary a reas of'attenmo ern tanker IS fire safety.

HAZARDOUS

AIU~

41

010' 'ru e VESS Io:L

I-Jistori ca lly, efforts to r ed uce the ri sk ~ f ha n dli ng and tran sp orting fla mmable cargoes h a ve focused on t he eh m in at ion of igniti on sources from
h
those areas of the vessel where the e xiste nce of a flammable at
,
Thi I dto th id
' r.
'
.
moap er e
was Hkely- IS I' .
e I e nt mcatio n a n d deelgn auon of certain areas of
the vessel as potent Ia lly hazardou s zones.
As an a ddit ional safeguard, r.n a ny tank vessels are now equipped with
inert ga s syste
im p ~ d th e
, ms . T he u se' of hthia safety system has greatly
~fire_preventIOn m e asu r es In t I' tanke r ind u stry . AI!, pr eviously di scus sed,
operators must have a th or~ugh unders ta nding ofine rting procedur es to
realize t~ e ful~ be ne~ t of this system . The hazards a nd precau ti ons su mmarized 10 this section a ddress t he s afe carriage a nd ha ndling of t
c:
leurn and ch emica ls. For the purposes of fire prevention , a tank
be divided into the followin g a reas :
Loc a tion of fl a m m a ble atmosphe res : These are a reas such as
noninerted .ca rgo tanks, pumproom s , deckhousee, ven t stacks, ca rgo and
vapor manifolds, and others where the existence of a fla m ma ble atmos pher e is pos sib le.
Two general pr e ca u t ion s cover the ma in me thods of fir e pre vention in
th ese areas:

vess~

1.

2.

Elimin a te all source s of ign ition:

Smoking and open flam es
Port abl e electrical equipment a nd nona pproved flashlights
Nonintrinsica lly safe electron ic equipment (radios, cameras, etc.)
Hot work
Use of power and hand tools
Electrosta tic discharges
Maintain th e atmospheres out side the fla mmable range, either by removing th e hydrocarbon content (gas -freeing) or by reducing the oxygen content to 8 per cent or less by volu me Itnert ing).

Areas containing h eat and ignition sources: These a re wor ki ng

spaces s uch as machinery and boiler s paces, ga lleys, and so forth, that cont ai n electrical eq uipment and ot her so u rces of heat a nd ignition . The m ain
method of fir e pr e ve n t ion in these are as is to keep t he m free of flammable
vapors.
Living a reas: Crew accommodation areas a re normally free of flammabie vap ors but contain combustible material s uch as furniture , linen,
pap er, a nd m or e. The m a in method of fire prevention in t hese areas is to
keep ignition so u rces to a m in im u m .
Pumprooms: The ca rgo pumproom is a s m a ll, complex space that
conta.ins a large concentration of piping and equipment. Any leaka ge of
vola t ile liquids h a s the pote n t ial to generate flammable and/or toxic

('.ARGOCHARACTERISTICS

mproom may also contain a number of pot entia l igni tion

e tmos p heres. A pu
. '
d
', h,,' ng " tools elec t rica l eqUIpme nt, un mech an ical
!IOU f('t.'!I sue h I1S I,
equipmen t.
.
h k
Personnel s hould also in clude th e followin g c ec s a s pr ecauti ons
aga inst fire and explosion :
Ensure that forceddraft ventilation is operat ing and entry procedures are
Icllowed whenever the pumproom is entered .

Make frequent rounds to find potential sources of cargo leaks, flammable va_
pore. and ignition.
Ensure that pumproom bilges are clean and dry.

Cargo Tanks: The pre vention of fire .and ex plosion in t he cargo area of
the vessel is accomplished by th e Iollowing :
Maintaining an inert atmosphere in th e cargo and slop tan ks at all times unless they are gas free
Maintaining a positive deck pressure in the inerted ta nks to prevent the ingtess of air
Eliminating all possible sources of ignition
Electrostatic Hazards
Static electricity is a potential fire and ex plos ion ri sk wh en h andli ng certain types of petroleum and petrochemical cargoes . In some opera tions, the
electrical charge generated is cap able of igniting flamma bl e vap ors such 8 S
those found in the atmosphere of a nonin erted cargo tank.
CAUSES

The sequence nece ssary for the development of a static elec t ri city h azard
involves 0 ) charge gen er ation , (2) charge acc u m u lation , and (3) electrosta tic discharge.
The generation of static electricity occurs at the in te rfa ce of di ssimil ar
materials. These interfaces may be between two solids between solids and
liquids, or between liquids and liquids. If the two m aterials a re sep arated
by some mechanical action, one will carry an excess of positive cha rge and
the ot.her an excess of negative charge. The se pa rated charges typically recombine to neutralize each other.
. If on.e o.fthe materials is a poor conductor of electricity, recombination
will be limited and a difference in charge (elect rical potentia l) will exist between. th.B two bodies . These electric charges ca n acc u m u late and msY
equalize in the fonn of an electrical di scharge. If these electrical di scharges
generate a s~fficient amount of heat, they can ignite flamm able vapors . In
cargo operations, charge separation OCcursin many ways :

HA7.ARDS

43

Friction caused by t he flow or petroleum liquid th

h
.
tern s, strainers, a nd filters
roug exten aivs piping sysPetroleum and water mixtures in the cargotanks
Splashing or agitation of petroleum liquids such 88 flo lh
c
w r ougn a nozzle
When ha ndling a static accu mulator (poor conducto f I
"
' I
t.be zi
I '
ro elect ricity] the
materia mu s e grven amp e ti me for t he sepllrated cha. g to
b',
,
hi
kn
reee recom me
In practi ce, t I S IS own 8 S the relaxation time dun'ng hi h
'
' JI
.
w rc an aceumulated ch adrge
hI avedan dPportumty to dissipate. If the material has a
high can u ctwr Y goo con uctor of electricity), the recombination occurs
tl
q uickly and offsets t he accumulation of separated charge" Ccnse
ti
f t ' I
quen y,
there I,S uur
I e ge nera ron o a attc e ectri city by malerialsthat are goodconductors. ~xample s are m~tal8 and water solutions, including seawater,
that are inc ap able of holdmg a charge unle ss insulated. Oils in this category in clude crude oils , residu al fuel oils , and asphalt.
Static accumula tors are cha racterized as having low conductivity ; they
require a lon ger re laxation ti me before t he charge ultimately dissipates to
earth. In this ca se , more static electricity accumulates, increasing the possibility of a n electrostatic discharge that could ignite a flammable atmosphe re. Examples of k nown static accu mulato rs include gasoline, na phtha,
kerosene , h ea ti ng oil , jet fuel, and lubri cating oil.
Th e ch arge that a ccumulate s in a liqu id, solid, or mist establishes an
elect rical field between it an d nearby earthed bodies. The strength ofthe
elect rical field is the voltage gradient, which is determined by the difference in volt age bet ween th e two points and by their distance apart. To prevent the possibility of a n electrostati c discharge th at could occur ifportable
equi pment wa s introdu ced into a charged at mosphere, it is soun d practice
to bond all metal objects together. In ot he r words, th e PIC should not int roduce an y equ ip ment that migh t be electrically insulated into a potent ially
hazardous atmos phere. E xamples of port able equip ment tha t usually requires bon ding include portable tank cleaning machi nes, manu al gauging
equ ipment, temperatu re probes, a nd sampling equipment.

.W
\

LOADING OF STATI C ACCUMULATOR CARGOES

To reduce the risks associated with the handling of a known static accumulating ca rgo , the PI C mu st adhere to several precaut ions. (It should ~
noted th a t static precautions are not necessary when the cargo tank 10
question is ma intained in the in ert condition ).
Prior to the comme nce ment of a cargo t ran sfer, th e P IC should confe r
with a shore re presentative to identify any cargoes classified as sta ti c accumulators. Ifin dou bt the PIC should cons ult the a ppropria te :"ISDS and
follow th e guidan ce pertaining to the handling of th e particular p~uct.
The PIC sho uld take steps to min imize t he presence of water to t he
cargo system by properly draining all cargo tanks and pipelines pri or to the

CARGO CHARACTERISTICS

commencement of loading. The mixing of dissimilar liquids (oil a nd wet

,
ion aof an epprecta
iablee eelect roetau.e charge iner )
can contribute
to t h e creation
space and should therefore be avoided.
a
It is advisable to treat all distillates as static acc um u lators unleRs th
contain an antistatic additive. ~istillates may c~rry a s~fficient cha rge ~
constitute a hazard during loadmg e nd for a period of ti ma after the COrn.
pletion of the loading operation .
The beginning of the loading operation is a critical poi nt due to the risks
posed by excessive initial loading rates, exce ssi ve s plashi ng a nd tu rbu.
lence into an empty tank , or the presence of water in the pi peli nes a nd bot.
tom of the tank.
The PIC s hould minimize ele ct rostatic generatio n in the early stages of
the loading operation by restricting the in itial flow rat e to t he cargo
tankrs). This reduced flow rate sh ou ld be maintai n ed until th e bottom
framing in the tank is covered and all splashing and turbulen ce has ceased.
The term commonly used to describe thi s process is known a s cushioning a
tank. According to the Int ernational Sa fety Guide for Oil Tankers and Ter.
minals (]SGOTrJ, the initial flow rate s ho ul d be res t ri ct ed to a lin ear velocity that does not exceed 1 meter per second . Table 2-7 indicate s typical
loading rates that correspond to a linear velocity of 1 mete r pe r second
Throughout the loadi n g of a cargo tank and for a period of at lea st thirty
minutes after the completion of loading, metallic gauging and s ampling

TABLE 2-7
Flow Rates Corresponding to 1 Meter Per Second
Nominal Pipeline
Diameter ( m m )

80
100
150

200
250
305
380

Approximate Flow R at e
(cubic meters / hour )

17
29

87
118

183
282

320

410

424

480
510

542

710

676
987
1.354

810

1.782

810

Reprinted with permieaion from the I nterrnJtio1Ul1S arrty

Guilk for Oil Tanke" and Turninal, aSGQ1TJ, 4th
edition. Courtesy OCIMF, ICS, and IAPH.

HAZARDS

45

equipment ~lUe t not be i~troduc.ed or allowed to remain in th e tank.

Noncondu cting (nonmetal lic) equi pmen t may be used a t a ny tim e; however, ropes or ta pes em ployed wit h this equipment should not be made
from synt he tic materials.
After th e rel axation period of th irty minutes has ela psed , metallic
equipment ma y be us ed ; however, it must be bonded a nd properly earthed
to the vessel's st ruc t ure before use.
DISCHARGE OF STAT IC ACCU MULATOR CARGm: s

At the disch arge t e r min al, th e PIC shou ld consu lt wit h the shore rep resen tative con cerning th e prope r proce dure to be followed when comme ncing th e disch arge of a static accumulating cargo. In general, the initia l
pumping rate as ho re s houl d be limited until a sufficient cushion is devel oped in th e bottom of th e sho re ta nk . This pr ecaut ion is followed t o mini mize the s pla shi ng and agit a tio n oft he cargo at the in it ia l stage offilling
th e shore tank .

Toxicity-Effect on P e rsonnel
Poisoning by toxi c liquids can occur t hrough one or more of t he following
three methods : (1 ) ing estion, (2) skin conta ct, a nd (3) inh alation .
INGE STION

The ri sk of s wa llowin g pet roleu m or che mica l liqu ids in norm al day-to -da y
operat ions sh ould be minimal provided individual s alw ays exe rcis e good
hygiene. To mi nimi ze expos ure through ingest ion , per sonnel sho uld be re mind ed to was h ha nd s t horough ly befor e meals a nd never to eat or dri nk
on deck . If accid ental inges t ion does occur, gu idance can be found in t he
MSDS or cargo information ca rds. Medi cal as sistance should be sought immediately.
SKI~

CONTACT

With most petroleum pr odu ct s , skin contact can ca use irri tation and lead
to dermatitis. Contact with the eyes a nd ski n can be particularly dangerous when handling corrosive cargoes s uch as caus t ics or acid s. Personnel
should always wear protective clot hing a nd eye pr otection wh en there is a
risk of expos ure through physi cal contact (splas h hazard ). Th e M SDS gives
recommended pr ecautions for minimizin g exposures. If a toxic or corrosive
liquid Comes into contact with a ny part oft he body, guidance ca n be found
10 the cargo infonnation s hee ts.
INHALATION

!he inhalation of cargo vapors h as long been recogni zed as one of the lead109 hazards of exposure for workers on deck. Cargo va pors are pervasive
and therefore difficult to control . The effect of the inhalation of petroleum

46

CARGO CHARACTERISTI CS

HA ZARDS

47

va pors on an individual ca n vary from imperceptible to obvious signs of "

painnent. The acute, 8hort.te~effe~ts.o re~ posu re to pet roleum prod ~ rn.
can inclu.de he~dach.e, euphoria , eye rrntation, nose a nd t hro at irri tati ~la
loss ofonentahon, dizziness, and a drunken appearance. Conti nued n,
sure to h ig h concen t rations may lead to paralysi s and poss ibly de a t~ ); po..
The toxicity of petroleum and chemical cargoes varies wid ely de .
iog on the makeup of t he substance. The presen ce of some con8titue~n~.
t he ca rgo 8UC~ 8S. ~enzene, lead, and h.ydrogen s ulfide can POSe a 8ign~~
cant threat to individuals . AP, alread~ discussed. the TL V provides an indio

cation of the level of expos~re to a .toXI C s ~bsta~ce th at is accepta bledUrin

a typ ical workday over an indefinite penod of time. Th e ST EL is an indica~
tion that the h uman body can tolerate concentra tions greater than th
TLV for short periods, typically no more than fifteen minutes. Table 2~
shows the effects of exposure to high concentrations of petroleum vapors.
TABLE 2-8

Typical Effects of Exposure t o P e t role u m Gases

Concentration

Effect on Hum ans

Irritation of eyes within one hour
Irritation of eyes, nose, and th roat
Dizziness and unsteadiness with in half an hour
0.7 % volume (7,000 ppm)
Symptoms as of drunkenness within 15 minutes
1.0% volume (10,000 ppm) Rapid onset of"drunkenness ~ which may lead to
unconsciousness and death if exposure continues
2.0% volume 120,000 ppm) Paralysis and death occur very rapidly
0.1% volume (1,000 ppm)
0.2% volume (2.000 ppm)

Reprinted with peemieeicn from the InternatiollQl Sa{ety Gu ide {or Oil TonA:t r. and f ermi
rum. (/5G017), 4th edit ion. Courtesy OCIMF , les, and lAPH

The odor of ca rgoes va ries greatly and , in some case s, ca n fool an indio
vidua l's sense of smell. Also, with some produ ct s, the odor thresh old may
be much high er than the TLV . In this case, h a nnful exposure may occur before the individual sta rts to sme ll t he ca rgo va por. Th e impainnent of the
sense of smell is esp eci ally se rio us if the mi xture contains hydrogen aulfide . Because of these inherent dan ger s, the PI C should never ta ke th e absence of smell as a n indication of the ab senc e of gas, bu t should always test
for toxicity , be aware of the TLVs , an d follow the pr oper e ntry procedures
for enclosed spaces such as cargo tanks .
Aromatic hydrocarbon,,: Aromatic hydrocarbons-c-includius benzene, toluene, and xylene-are found in varying pr oportions in a WIde rde
ray of petroleum cargoes such as gasoline, n aphtha , a nd eve n some cru e
oils.
.
. hydrocarbons are lower than most nona tomS tIC
Il'he TIN80f aromatic
llyarocarbons. For example the TLV of benzene a recogni zed carcinogen,
"
I
'
,
canreI
0 l!i 1 ppm . The latent effect of expo sure to ben zen e vapors

.
renrially fatal disorders of the blood. In the United State
ItlUPO . .
t
b
s,any
ontalOmg
0.5 percen or more enzene hy volume is classified as a
c
g
c/l.r ol ted ca rgo ," an d specific ru les must be followed that address han.
~gu :nd occup ational ex posure in the workplace. The detailed requiredhng can be found in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (Title 46 CFR
rnl'n~97 subpart C). Th e per son-in-ch arge should have a thorough underr'''d"ng of the content of t hi s regu lation , as he or she is responsible for
stan I
I
lian ce wit h the ru 1'8.
COro; yd rOgen sulfide: Some crude oils, described as sour, conta in a high
1of hydro gen sul fide . Th e effects of exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas
levI'be both quick a nd dea dly. For a more comprehensive discussion of the
c:.: te of hydrogen sulfide to ind ividual s when exposed to concentrations
I' ec cess of its publish ed TLV of 10 ppm, consult chapter 13.
In ex
.
" ha ia,IOn
" : I n divid
" vcIve d
Preca ution s against
t orI,C'., ) ' by In
1\' ua IS m
. h ndlin g poten tially toxi c substances should avoid exposure to conce n~~at~ons above the publi shed TLV: If exposure through .i~h~lation . i8
should beworn to mimrmze
paSS1ible, suitable resp iratory protection
..
.
fthe mhalati on of harmful vapors . Certain o pera tlo~s such as the v~ nttng 0 cargo
tanks during loadi ng, purging, afold gas-freeing m.ay result m elevated exe to personn el on deck. Dun ng th ese operations , the atmos phere ~x
::S~e cargo tanks via th e vent system and dilutes with th e s~oundl~g
air, increasing the ri sk of fire an d exposure to per:wnnel. IndlVld.uals mvolved in su ch operations shou ld wear proper respiratory protecnon'.
Personnel are advi sed never to ente r a compart ment.th at conta med
cargo--or one that h as been sea led for a period oftime-....nthout firs t tes t~i
ing the atmospher e. It sh ou ld be ass~e~ that t?e atmosphere o~
closed space is in cap abl e of su pport mg life un til proven otherwis ":
company and industry gui delines sou ld be followed with r espect tad teftstm g
and entry into an encl osed space. E n t ry S hould only be permitte
.
d a er a
" cherma
ist ce rt iflcat e has been Issue .
permit-to-enter or a m anne
6U

a:

Oxygen Deficie ncy

.
t oxygen by volume. lndiAir norm ally contains approximately 21 percen I
t iek of suffering
viduale exposed to concentrations below that leve are a n
from oxygen defic iency.
t b volume an individAs the oxygen level decrease s bclov.: 2 1 percen 6nfortun~tely, many
uel will expe rience a changing bre athmg ~attern. iated with an oxyindividual s fail to recogni ze t he danger slT
g nh~ ASsobc. particu larly probgen-deflet
sloo late . h ta
encrent atmcsp h ere un nt
1 .1 I .
b can
ttomofaspacesuchasa
lem atic when escape in volves chmbmgfrom t. e 0 t "II differ among indif
'mpalnnen
WI
cargotankor pumproom. Th e dagree c I h " I ndition and so fort h;
vid ua Ia b ased on sue h vane
vari bies as age '~
p ystca co
,
ects foxygen deficiency behowever, all begin to expe rience theadverse~ t . 0 By maintained in the
low 16 percen t by volu me . The oxygen leve yprca

CARGO CliAltACTERISTICS

--4 percent to 8 percent oxyge n by vai_

. rted cargo tank
' di vi d I d
atmoeph Ttl:n! an ~o~
ediate unconsci ousness of an m IV! ua a n irr e_
ume:-W111 r"f'IIUIt 10 imm Ithi a shor t period of time,
v.nllble brain damage WI 10 I d s pace ma y be defi cient for II n u m ber
The oxygl'ncontent of a~y en h,e. ven seemingly h armless liquids were
.
.
rtffieotB 10 w h,IC
of ascns Compa
nd seawater ball ast, can pose a s ignifica nt
camPd, such as freshwater a 0 a modem tank vess el , the mo st obvious
haurd due to a lack o~oxy~n, ~n.rted cargo ta nk in which the oxygen
deficiency 18 an I
CSUl'>e o.( oxygen U
. tamed at or below 8 percent by volume.
levelis IOtentlOna Ymain
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WlTIlll'\I'ERT GAS

ed
adem tank vessels to control t he oxygen conten t
f hi
Inert gas IS us on m
ithi th t osphere of the cargo tankte). The use 0 t 18 8ys~em e nsures
WI
In
ea m
d .
d fi
. hi

that a nonflammable condition is maintaine via oxygen e rcre ncy WIt In

the cargo tanks unless they are gas free . On board most petroleu~ tanke rs ,
. rt gas is derived either by using the flue ga s from the boile rs or an
. I.~ ~roces sed
oil-firedgenerator,
Before the flue gas is piped to the tank s It
(cooled and cleaned) in a scrubber, Table 2-9 shows the com position of the
flue gas before and after the scrubbing process.
TABLE 2-9
Content of Flue Gas Before and After Scrubbing
ContinI

Before
80%by volume

Nitrogen
Oarbon dioxide

Approx. 14%

Ox)'gen
Sulfur dioxide

ApproJ:. 0.3%

Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen olides

2-5~

Appros:. O.oI % by volume

Appro:a:. 0,02% by volume
Wa~rVlpor
Approx. 5% by volume
Soot and particulate 300 mglm 3 by volume
H..,
200-300C

Aft"

Same
Sam.
Same
Approx. 0.005% by volume
Same
Same
Approx. 0.01% by volume
30 m glm 3
Near a mbient sea temp .

As indicated in table 29th

.
-, e pnmary hazard associated wi t h ine rt ga s
is its exception 11 I
pcsnre to a . a y owoxyg,encontent. In addition to oxygen d efi ciency. exbuati
n inert gas denved f
should be avoided as it
tai rom a com uation process (e xha ust gas)
I con ems a numb
f tcxi
.
. I di
. er 0
XlC constituents m e u 109
carbon IDQIlOxide, sulfur di ld
The ca.rbon m
id OX\ e, and mtrogen oxides.
onoxr e content d
d
. '
The 'IlLV of carbon mon lde t
epen 8 on the combustion con diti one the blood loses its abilit~~ :~8 35 ppm. At an elevated level of e xpos ure,
body, relulting in carbo
rry.oxygen from the lungs to the r est of t he
."L d
n monOXIde pcieontng.
'
.
tsne. rO~inell..8 Unco'
The symptoms a re hea d.
,nsclOuBneslI ad
' .
nel ... a
U ,p,U ocationii!llayoccur f II
,n vorruting. In extreme cases , inte r, 0 owed by death. The treatment is to re move

HAZARtl s

4.
the vict im to freah air or s u pply oxygen a d if
n , I necesS8n..
I
. ti
.-esplrs Ion .
..
'~ I app Y artifici al
Th e s ulfur dioxide content of t he exh
.
f
BUst gas uauan d
llulfurcontento t h e fu e I O1l con sum ed in th
b
Y ependa on th
.
( h
e com ust io
e
the effiC ie ncy 0 t e scrubbe r .
n Proceaaaa weUaa
Reactivity
Reacti vity hazards a re associated with certai I . _
f
,
n iqume that te d tc
ext re mesO temperat u re , Vlole nt move me nt and f h
n w~actto
ing with in com pa t ible liquids and material~ Th s~ ort raswe~lastomix_
pend on the stability of the liquid and its co~pa~'b~o ~aetlon will deand mat erial s .
I I Y with other liquids
STA8 1l.1IT

Stability refe rs to the ability ofa liq uid product to return to

I di
w a norma con I_
tion wh en a ffected by extern al forces. A stable liquid will not res et dangerously wh en ex posed to ex t re me conditions of te mpera t ure and movement.
On the other h and , an unstabl e liqu id may produce dangerous reactions.
Wh en transporting a ch emical ca rgo in which a vigorous self-reaction
(usually resultin g in pol ym e ri zat ion ) is possible, a specificchemical additiv e known as an inhibitor is required . Some of the more common example s of ca rgoes requiring t h e us e of a n inhi bitor include acrylonitrile,
vin yl ch lo ride, and styre n e mon om er . In ad ditio n to the use of inhibitors,
if a chemical cargo is pot enti all y react ive wit h air, then it may be necessa ry to m aint a i n an in ert a t mos phe re (typically nitro gen) in the tank.
Cargoes s uch as carbon di s u lfide, e t hy l et he r, an d propylene oxide are examples of s ubstances that must be main t ained un der a pad or blanket of
inert gas.
The MSDS sheet s hou ld be cons u lted for deta ils concerning the ste bility of a liquid and its reactivity, incl uding t he factors capable of causing violent reaction s .
COMPATIBl lI'IT

The com pat ibility of chemical ca rgoes is associated with the .type hf r'l~c.
ti
. t
tact Withot er rqIon that mi ght occur when a s ubstance comes m 0 con
, I
,
Ii ld and materia s are
h n they
ulds, structural ma t eria ls, and so on. Some IqU I s .
incompatible and will react violently or becom~ ~~nta~l~n~~~dc:rg:es can
q
come into contact with each ot her. The compatlb,i1~t~ 0 Ch rt contained in
be found in the MSDS and in t he USCG Compatlblhty . aI reproduced
',J'itle46 CFR Part 150 Tabl e 1 and Figu~e 1. This cl~::;~f::er CG.388).
In the Chemical Da ta Guide for Bulk ShIpment by .
nd .....viewemerTh PI
'.'
al propert ies a ' "
e C s h ould be familiar With any unu~u ch chemical ca rgo,
gency procedures invo lvi ng a casualty WIth ea

CAlibU

l n''''''~'-

,,, ....

"I';VI EW

01

Corrosives
wh n transporting cargoes that are capable ~fdeterior~ting the structure
of. cargo tank and/or the vessel, the use?f sUitable coatfnga or epeci al con.
struction materials is required. By their very nature, corrosrvs, cargoes
pres nt a significant risk, not only to the vessel ~ut al so to personnel. For
this l'6880n, individuals working around or handhng th ese cargoes mUst be
aware of the physical dangers, emergency response, a nd use of prop er Pro.
tective gear to minimize the risks.
COATINGS

To protect the steel shell of a cargo tank , hard coatings a re commonly em.
ployed to provide a protective barrier. Consult chapter 12 for a discussion
ofthe various types ofcoatings used in th e cargo sys te m of a tank vessel. In
certain situations. special materials such as sta inless steel may be used in
the construction of the tank, piping, valves, and pumps. An ot her alte rna.
live is the use of stainless cladding.

REVIEW
1. Define the followingterms associated with the cla ssifica ti on of liquid
cargoes.

Volatility
Flash point
'Reid vapor pressure
2. Sketch a typical flammable range diagram and id entify the following:
Upper flammable limit
Lower flammable limit
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Inert mixture
e e the following terms:
rimery inerting
",gj
freeing
op: ing.u

in:

eguipped vessels, how is a nonflammable condition main n Ii operating life of the vessel (between shipyard periammable range diagram to illustrate how thi s is
Jour ~int of a liquid cargo? Explain the jrn~ With respect to the cargo operation on s

6 List and define the various term s u d

an 10
i diIVIid ual's eena ae f to express th e toxicity of. b. stance. whv
y IteS an
e o smella
li
au
.
th e pr esen ce 0 f a toXI C vapor?
nunre lableindi cato f
7 What is th e difference between a TLV
ro
. . h
.
and PEL?
8. List t e va nous sources of car go info
.
.
n
List th e three primary ways a to . rmabtlo available to the PIC
9.
h
XIC 8U sta nce
.
Which oft ese exp osures is th e most dimcu
can enter the body.
10. Any cargo cla ssified as a static accumulator jl: ~ C()ntrol?
tor .
condue,
11. List the preca utions th at should be foll d
static acc umulating cargo into a nonine:~ when loading a known
I n... t .
t b
. .
vessel.
12. \ ' ne IS mea n y a reactt vn y hazard ae a r d
che mical cargoes?
pp te to the tr ansport of

13. What pr ecautions ma y be necessary when t

.
.
ran epornng a chemical
th at is self-reactive?
14. What publication woul d you consult to determin th
tbi .
differen t chemical ca rgoes?
e e compatt ility ef

15. Whe n h andl ing corrosiv e cargoes ' describe the pr eca u ti10m; t h at
should be taken to protect th e vessel and personnel.

C H A P TE R 3

Oil Exploration and the Refining Process

ROBERT STEWART

orldwide, indu stri ali zati on a nd development a re in cre asing. As th

standard of living improves, the re is a corresponding increase ins:.
ciety'e cons umption of petroleum resources. Consequently, t here is added
demand for th e dwindli ng supplies of petroleum , wh ich in creases pressure
on developers of petroleum reserves to search h arder in orde r to find recoverabl e amounts of th ese rese rves. Drill ing may take place in remote areas
of th e world (fig. 3-1).
The search for oil fields no longe r occurs exclusively onshore, but includes th e ocea ns of the wor ld. Searching the wor ld's oceans for oil requires
a complete ly different type of oil drilling equipment. Special platformsfor
drillin g and produ ction in such a hostile environment are continually being developed (fig. 3-2).
Locating the oil reserves is jus t th e begi nnin g of a long journey that
leads through the tr an spo rtation indus try and t he refining process to the
cons umer.

DRILLING
Crude oil found in the world tod ay was form ed millions of years ego. Oildeposits are typically found under mountains , dese rts , m a rshes , and seas.
They are often found as far below the s urface as two to three miles
down-or deeper. Figure 3-3 illustrates sever al types o[oil-bearing forma
tions . In order to reach these formation s far beneath the earth's surface,s
well mtr !li be drilled.
T:He arilling process, whether onshore or offshore, is essentially ~~~
8:m . ell 8 sp'ud~ed , .or started, and drilling advances downward;;lls
ecre 109 ID diameter at intervals through out it s depth .
52

Figure 3-1. The search for petroleum has led to drilling in obscure areasof the.....orld,
inclu din g this remote spot in AJaska. Courtesy AReO Photography Collection.

may also deviate from th e vertical in order to reach more ofthe oil zone in a
desired a rea (see figure 3-4). The well is dug by forcing a drill bit, usually
rotating clockwise, int o th e rock or sediment at the bottom of the well.
"Mud," a mixture th at bar ely resembles the mud in which children play, is
composed of clay, chemicals, and water . This mixture, which can be tailored to th e specific needs of an individual well, is pumped downthe center
of the dri ll stri ng a nd exits through mudports in the drill bit. The mud
serves severa l functins: it cools the dri ll bit, cleans away cutt ings, and
mainta ins hydrostatic pressur e in the well. This hydrostatic pressure
helps elimin at e the possibility of creating a well blowout, which can cause
a fire or an explosion . At th e very least, a blowout wastes valuable reserves.
Once th e mud has completed its cycle down into the well and bac~ up to ~he
drillin g deck, it can be sifted through a "shaker" to find any otl-.beann g
strata or debris that may cause problems in drilling', The bUSiness. of
oil-well drilling and production continues to be a technically challenging
and innovative field .
Once th e well is drill ed a nd lined with casing, oil can begin to flow. This
is th e end oft he process for the oil-well dri ller , but only the beginning of th e

 _ - ....... ... u

Figure 3-2. Platfonns in th e G

.
ulf of MeXlCO. CollJ1esy ARea Photogr aphy Collection.

j~umeYforthecrudeoil Man

ali to flow to the aurfa ca . y wells have natural pr es sure t hat allows the
wells, including many l;thout the need for a rti ficial lift.(fig. 3.5 ). Other
t~e surfs,ce. Pumps canabee~ wells, require artificial lift to bring the oil to
lin the 011 out of the well (~ aced at the top of the we ll a nd suc tion taken to
"g. 3-6 ).

'\l~ lJ

IItAN SPORTING

Figu re 3-3 . Top: Oil may be tra pped in en annctine. or upward bulge of rock laye rs.
Within the form a ti on , the oil lies in tiny space s between grains of porous rock. Center:O il may gather a t efault. a place whe re rock layers crack a nd slip past one an .
other. Nonporou s rock sto ps the oil flow from porous rock. Bottom : One of th e
hardest places to find oil is in 8 stratigraphic trap. Here, t he porous layers bearing
oil ta pe r off under nonporo us layers of rock. Courtesy She ll Oil.

PROC E S SI N G AN D T RANS PO RT ING

The fir st step in t he refining ope ra tion is cal led prim ary processing a nd is
done as soon as t he oil lea ves th e well . This usually consists of gas aepa rati.on and dewate ri ng. A n u mb er of different crude oils have la rge volu mes of
dIssolved gases in solution. Th ese gases ca n be removed by reducing the

66

OIL EXPLO RATION

AND T H~; REFINING PROCt.: ~:i

g
Figure 3-4. Offshore drilling can be done by directional drilli.n from la nd or from

both find and floating rigs and platfonns. Courte sy Sh ell Oil.

pressure of the crude oil afte r it leaves the wellhead. The gas a~d the oil are

Figure 3-5. Wells flowin g und er thei r own pressure must be topped with a "Cbrtetmas tre e"-consisting of gau ges and valves-to control the flow of oil. Courtesy

watering process simply separates the crude Ol~ ~m wa~r t hat may have
intruded into the well strata. In many cases this 18 done simply by sto ring
the crude and allowing the water to separate.
After th e initial processing, the oil must travel from the oil field to the
refinery for furt her processing. Onshore. this is accomplished via pipeline
(fig. 3.7).Offshore. crude oilcan be removed from the field in tw o ways : bya
pipeline laid along the ocean floor or by tanker. Tankers load the crude oil
fromfloating buoys or spread moori ngs, rather than directly fr om the drill ing platform.

Shell Oil.

separated, and then both are sent on for ~her proce esm g. The de-

CRUDE OIL
n many'instances, th e type and qu ality of the crude oil will determine the
o p'rOducta that can be form ed in the refining process . Crude oils vary
w e.t to sour in hydrogen su lfide content , fr om heavy to light in
m yellow to black in color .These variables are not only chardtli i1~eld and depth where the crude originated, but a lso of the

r 'i fall into three classific ations : as phalt- base, paraf

aae: ~ It-ba se crudes contain little p a ra ffin and are
en and oxygen . They are u sed for m akin g gaaoal at's n-ba ee crudes are high in paraffin wax
fUels} lube oils, and kerose ne . Mixed base

Figurt! 3-6. Man y wells requi re artificial lift to bring the oil to the surface. Courtesy

Shell Oil.

58

OiL t:XPLORATION

AND THE REFI NING PROCESS

RE ~'IN ING

59

R Ef'I NIN G
Many of t h e 1?~ge8t and most heavily traveled sea routes are those over
which crude oil is transported to be refin~d. T~e economics of scale are such
th at VLCCs a nd UL~C?s are very efficient 10. moving vast qua nt ities of
rud e oil fr om the drilling area s to th e refinenes.
c Up on arrival at the refinery, the cru de oil is pump ed from the vessel as
ickly as possible and placed in storage. The cargo pump s on the vessel
~~Bcharge the oil from the ~ner:ted cargo ta nks and push it to a tank farm
ashore via a ne twork of ~)Ipehne~ . At some tenninals, ehoreeide booster
ump s assi st the vessel "...t h the discharge oft he cru de oil car go. Shoreside
pnd vessel person nel work close ly together in an effort to move the cargo ef~cientlY an d to eliminate pollution.
Afte r t he ca rgo has left the tank vessel, it ente rs th e maze of pipelin es at
refin ery (fig 3-8 ).10 t he fir st ste p, cru de oil may be stored for a period to
allow wa ter in t h e oil to se pa rate out an d be drawn oft prior to refining.
Eve n if t hi s was done at the drilling platform , the ~rocess may still be re.
peated here to better remove the water from t he oil.
Many different methods are u sed in t he refining of crud e oll~ some of
which a re qu ite complicated . Th ey vary wit h the type and quality of the

.,
Figure 37 . The Alaska Pipeline s tre tches from the N orth Slope (inside the Ar ctic
Circle) to the port of Valdez . Courtesy AReO Ph otograph y Collecti on .

crudes have some amoun ts of both paraffin wax a nd aspha lt in the m and
can be refined into virt ually all products, but of cou rse, in lesser
amounts.
Due to the wide va riety of sources of crude oils and their varying qu alities, the American Petroleum Institute has devised a qu ality scale for petroleum produ cts . Known 8S the API scale, it is based on the refined level of
the cargo and its specific gravity. Th is is a value t hat can be ca lcu la ted by a
pet~oleum chemist. Th e sca le runs fr om 0 to 100 degrees with most cargoes
falhngbetween 8 and 70 degrees, Th e API gravity or many crude oils is between 25 and 35 degrees. Th ey are not at t he bottom of the sca le even
though crude oil is unrefined, du e to the nat u ral presence of the lighter hydrocarbons extracted in th e refining pro cess .
Another variable in cru de oil is its s wee t ness. This obviousl y is not
sugar s we.et ness , but refer s to t h e presence or a bsence of hyd rogen s ulfide
~H2S), w.hlch has a distinctive rotten- egg odor an d ca n be toxic if breathed
'"dsufficl"entdoses. Crude oil with a hi gh con tent of h ydrogen sulfide is can'
ered sour" crude ,w hil e 01'I WIt
ith a low content of H S is con siid ere d
..Slsweet"
2
crude.

Ym
"

...
'-..:~
~
r~ .

....

-. ~

tJ.:.-.c ,

'I

'. 1

]
. ~'
... ~

",

J ..; 111
.

..- ;:

.- t
. _--- - _ ':.-- __ - .

. '. 1 -

I .. - ...., _ _
_...

r;.- '

_~_~~~
' j' ........-.1

~ -~{
.J

:1 " "

!.L

..

,.:,,'

.'~~:~~

"'''11111

_:".... ... -

11 , 1 , ..

:- r "

J
'

I'

""

'.

lItll

..
,4It

_, '.....

el it begins its journey throu gh the

Figure 3-8. Once th e cargo has left the tank vees e r, Chevron Corporation.
, ,
maze of pipelines
t hat mak e up a re finery
I
. ~ . Courtesy

rode oil. ~ new products are required. it ma y be necessa ry to

crefining methods to meet t h
crealf!Ile'li
, CAe nee de.Refini
8 e mmg I S accompli sh ed th

number of different operations, but basically the cru de oil is broke~Ollgh l

then built back up into other products, and finall y blended into h dlllltti.,

ucts found in the marketplace. All of this requires a lot of che l~ e PrOd.
,
t
tn 8try
and

some very sophisticated eqwpmen .

Fra cti on ation

The initial process in refining crude oil is fra cti onation. Th is inv I
0 vcsth
breaking down of the ern de 01'I'moo Iita componen t parts (fig. 3-9),
As e
crude oil is broken down, products such as kerosene, ga soline fuel "I the
many others arc tak,en out o,ft?e ~ixtur~. ~~ctionation is dompl~~d~d
distilling the c~d~ Oil. The distl.lIahon ~Jt JS hke ~ la rge boiler or teake:'
tJe. The eru.de oil Is h~8ted until the vanous :achon s begin to "boil oft:'
These fractions vaponze and then condense hi gher up i n the distill r .
tower (fig. 3-10). Because the different products h a ve va rying hoitin;:
condensing temperatures, the tower effe cti vel y separates ou t most oftb
components from the crude oil.
e
The part of the crude oil that does not vaporize in t he di stillation unit
called "resi.duum ."This mixture can be used for fu el oil , or it can befurther
processed mtc other products. In some refineries , a second distillation

REFI NING

61

tower may be pre sent. in whi ch the at mospheric preaaur e has been reduced
to nearl y a vacuum . In this tower. th e residuum can bevaporized furt her at
a lower tempe~ature ~ 80 that it will not break down che mically. Thus, more
of t he erode 011fraction s ca n be dr awn ofT th rough the vacuu m distiller.
Cracki ng
A second operation in the refin ing pr ocess is the breaking down of gas oil
called "cracking." Cr ackin g is classified as either thermal (if a distjllation
tower is used to break down t he oil mixture ) or catalytic (if a catalys t is
used ). A catalyst is a s ubstance that assists in the breaking down ofthe gas
oil without itselfexperie ncing any chemical changes.The catalyst may be a
fluid wh ich is pumped into a chamber to mix with the oil, or it may be a
solid which the oil passes over . Following us e, the catalyst is cleane d by
buming. This rem oves t he waste carbon from the surface of the catalyst
and also heats the catalyst for further use .
There are ca ses wh ere t he residuum cannot be broken down by either
th e distillation tower or the catalytic cracker. In these cases, the residuum
is sent on for further processing to the "coker."The coker unit processes the
resi duum into a cokelike product. whic h can be either a liquid or a solid.
Th e coke is created from t he intense heating of the residuum in the coke
fur nace .

Uquid lracllonon tray

Figure 39. In the refinin

It" into
different chemical
g process, crude oil is first broken down , then "bUl . the
mark etplace. Cou,,::pounds, and finally blend ed into the pr oducts we see In
y ARCa Photography Collection .

Figure 3-10. The initial process in refininj{ crude oil is c~lled fractionabon. The.distillation unit is similar to a large teakettle. The crude I S heated until the various
fracttona begin to boil off. Courtesy Shell Oil.

OIL t:XI-'I.(lHAlll.m ,mL' , ....

BUILDING PRODUCTS
Once the crude oil is broken down into its ~omp~n~nt parte t hrough the dis.'
ki
recess chemist s begm building- t h ose productsn
tdJatlOnorcrac mg prcceee.
. .
f
d
"'.
. d etnal sociew - Th e Butlding 0 pro ucta OCCurs in ...
sa ry to run an m u
.
I
. ti
d
,,,any
. Iu dimg .....forming
ways , me
,..' alkylation . po ymenza Ion . ba n. hYdrogena.
tion . Many refin eri es use a variety of th ese process es to uild th eir prod.
ucts. while others may utilize only one or tw o processes .

Reforming
Reforming is the process of rearranging hyd~ocarbo~ comp~)Unds in the
presence of heat and a catalyst without ch angmg their chenucal composi.
tion . The total number of hydro gen and ca r bon atoms in the moleCUle are
not changed, but some bonds are broken and ne w bond.s are fonned. This
process all ows refin eries to upgrade th e octane of gaso.lme components as
well aa to build aromatic hydroc arbons. These a romatics are th e basis for
many plastics, explosive s, and ot he r hydrocarbon p roducts.

Alkylation
Alkylation is the proce ss of taking s mall hydrocarbo n compounds and
building them into larger one s. Different molecul es can be combined to create products su ch as high- octane ga soline or aviation fu el. The alkylation
unit places the hydroc arbon and alky la te catalyst in a furnace to allow
them to mix together. The catalyst assi sts in t he bu il din g of the complex
hydrocarbon molecule s desired .

Polymerization
Polymerization is very similar to alkylation except that the molecules built
together are all ofthe sam e type. The process al s o in volves t a king smaller
molecules and building larger ones. In both the polyme ri zat ion an d the
alkylatlo.n ~roce ss . heat and a catalyst are u sed to s peed up the process and
make building conditions less severe.

Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation takes the free hydrogen molecules rel ea sed wh en hydrocarbons are broken down and mixes them with unstable hydroca rbon com'
pounds . In thi sway, t he compounds that are being crea t ed ca n fill their
.
ne.cessary hydrogen bonds and become more stable This a llows th e ereation
of compla x h yd
b on structures that will not
' decompose or breek
d
rocar
own as ':aadil y as the unstable hydrocarbons Further bl ending of these
com~~:u ~Ilows the creation of a variety ofhy'drocarbon-ba sed prod uc.t8.
hYdrocarb~n t~~e are other methods of building, mixing. a nd rearr8ngtn~
hydrocarbo s~ e four processes mentioned form the largest percen ta ge 0
n reetmenta. In some cases, due to the hydrogen s ulfide con-

REVIEW

63

.""C' .

te
nt of th e cr ude oil, it mud.st be "sweete ned" befor"... ,...... slDgcan beet
W
eglD
This process vanes ~ccor 109 ~ th e a mount of hydrogen sulfide in th~
cru de oil a n d t he desired sulfur m the end product.

BLE NDI NG
Once the chemistry of building t he corr ect hydrocarbon compoun ds is complete , th e components a re read y to be assembled into the various products
the refin ery produces . These pr oducts vary by location,quality of erode oil.
t ime of t he year. and market dem a nds. A variety of producUl based on gasolin e stocks can be created for different sectors of a market. Gasoline can be
regul ar, h igh-octane. unleaded, summer- or winter-bl end , or a combination of these with dete rgent added. Other products such as lube oils,
greases, waxes, and a va rie ty ofeo lvente and other petroleum products are
blended in the refinery to serve th e needs of the marketplace.
Ofte n t he blending process creates products that are hazardous , flammab le, toxic, or corrosi ve. Th ese products must be contained in ta nks or
sto rage cylinders that all ow for app ropriate separation a nd reactivity precauti ons . In some cases, the prod ucts may react with the steel on the inside
of the vessel's tanks or a shore tank . If t his is the case , stai nless steel or
ot he r lined tanks and pip elines are used to move th ese products .
On ce the ble ndi ng and tes t ing a re complete , products may be moved
away from t he refi nery in a va rie ty of ways, including tankers, pipelines,
tank railca rs. or tank trucks. All modes of tra nsport requi re special attenti on t o the h aza rds and dangers of moving petroleum products . Such hazar ds in volve not only the obviou s environmental hazard s, but many other
dan gers as well .

REVI EW
1. Wh at are three broad classifications of crude oil?
2. Wh at is meant by a sou r crude oil?
3. Wh at is t he fir s t step in th e refinin g process ?
4. Define t he followi ng te rms:
Distillation
Cracking
Reforming
Alkyl ation
Polymeri zation
5. What is the purpose of blending?

CHAPTER 4

Cargo Piping Systems

T
-,e
e,

I-

Bottompiping (if 80 equipped)

Ded: piping

'",c.

Pumproom piping (if 80 equipped )

I:::J

i"

I:::J

I:::J

~
c,

";;;"

"

"
II

OJ

I;::

f------<l
/

'Direct Piping System

'"

c,

/'

c~aracterized by one or more main lines ori-

. sel'Ylce a certain number of t anks referred to as a

is a simplified view or a direct pipin g aysvessel.

l~ _

. 's

I.
2.

BOTTOM PIPING

i"
I

argo pipingsystems are an integral part,of ~ny tank vessel. The pipe.

lines provide the path for the flow of liquid to an d from the cargo
tanks. Thepersonin-charge(PIC)ofthe cargo oper ation mu st have a thorough working knowledge of the piping system to avo id the possibility of
spilJs or contaminations, Newly assign ed personnel should familiarize
themselves with the system by carefully tracing out the piping prior to assuming a cargo watch. Cargo piping systems can be cla ssified in a num ber
of ways. Oneapproach is by location of the piping in the vessel:

~on from the cargo tanks to the pumproom.

~ ~

".~

H,-1)

"-

"

bedesigned to simulta neously handle 8 wide srr

'Tank ve del, thO number of cargo systems or groups. Parcel ta n'kY "
e
b
f
'
.~
'!ll- - erell designed with the gre ate s~ num er 0 segregat IOn s as Been 0
I"n
I suchYae th e S eo bulk America with twen ty-one cargo sys tem, .
..aMebas' on

BELUIOUTH

bi

d fthe piping in each cargo tank ge ne ra lly ha s a flared she

0

.
Ib
'"
ellmouth found
~ the after end ofeach tank through which th e ca rgo tanks ? re loaded and
di h
e two such opemnga known a
d The cargo tanks generallyhihav
Be arge .
h d'~ in di
S
Vis main and stripping bellmouths, W rc Iller In rm ens ron and in 10Ca.
Ion as measured in distance from the bottom of the ta nk. The stripping
bellmouth is smaller and is placed closer to the tank bot tom to facilitaw
draining at the end of the discharge. The bellm outh is d esign ed to mini.
mizevortexing,a whirlpool effect that occurs as t he ca rgo le vel approaches
the stripping stage in a tank .

e uter en

ferred to as a belJmouth. FIgure 4-2 Illustrates a typica

~
--<>0-<]

c,

1>--0<>-

00
N

~ I I>-<><>

BRANCH PIPING

bellmouth connects to athwartship piping kn own a s branch piping . As

shown in figure 4-1, the branch piping conn ects the center a nd wing tanks
, >::~ti~e, \f\o re.-and-aft main line. For example, the forw ardmost ca rgo ta nksP.Qrt &riter, and starboard, commonly referred to as "1 ac ross"-are

l!l
--<>0-<]

c,

I-->
c,

1>--0<>-

00

f--oo-o
Bev eled lor welding
to suction pipe

<><>0-

I>-<><>
0-

00
~

-0<>-<]

[>--<><>-

Radial ribs prevent

vortex lormation
and set bell to proper
height

c,
~

lil

[ [!)
Bonom p!atill9

preeent8 the end of the bottom piping in

Curing.

LY

~i-

"

[>--<>0>

-J;Ri
G

CARGO PH'I NO SYSTEMS

connected to th e sta rboard main through the bran ch line. Many new
f!lE'l!l arE'equipped with two bellmouths that operate through a 8ingle ::.:
a!l seen In figure 4 1.
Loop (Ri n g Main )
Another type of bottom piping system commonly se~n on barges and cer,
tern d edicated ..........0 carriers is a loop or nng mam. Fi gure 4-3 iIIustr.t
~..
. . . I h
ea
toop system in which the piping ":lnsln a conunuous eire e t roughout the
bottom ofthe vessel. interconnecting the cargo tanks an ~ pumps. A loopar,
rangement is s uitable on vessels where cargo se grega tio n ill not a critical
factor such 88 cru de-oil carriers .
In Iaet, some large r-crude-oil vessels are designed wit h minimal bottom
piping in the cargo tanks. Th is a rrangement is common ly referred to as a
free-flow vessel. Cargo flows through the bottom ofth.e t~n k s via remotely
cont rolled sluice gates in the bulkheads . As t he vessel IS dIsch arged and de.
velops a tri m by th e ste rn, cargo is directed to the bellmouths located in the
aftermost ta nk. Only a short run of bottom piping is therefore needed to
connect th e hellmouths in the after cargo ta nk to t he pumproom. This significantly reduces cons t ruction costs by elim inating a major portio n of the
large diam eter piping th at wou ld otherwi se be necessary.

Piping Details
The dimen sion of t he piping is usually dictated by the size an d capacity of
the eargo pum ps as well as the anticipated loading ra te s of t he vessel.
Coastal tankships and ba rges generally have ca rgo piping ra ngin g from10
to 14 inches in dia meter, whe reas the piping on large crude-oil carrie rs can
reach 24 to 36 inches in diameter. The proper support and anchoring of the
bottom cargo piping can be seen on the vessel under con struction in figure
4-4. The cargo piping is us ua lly constructed of steel or equivalent material
(carbon steel) although vessels carrying certain p arcel s may require the
use of special material suc h as stainless steel. The schedule of th e piping
(thickness of th e pipe wall) va ries wit h the service in whi ch it is employed-cargo, inert gas , or va por . Federal regulation stipulates that cargo
piping must be tested eve ry yea r hydrostatically and a record of such tests
must be main tained on board .
. Cargo piping sections are connected t h roug h the u se of bolted flanges or
slip-on (Dresser ) couplings. Bolted flan ges (fig. 4-5 ) a re employed to connect successive lengths of cargo piping; how ev er they do n ot afford the degree of flexibility necessary to handle the bending st resses of t he vessel or
the thermal variances of the pipe . Slip-on couplings. on the ot her hand (fig.
4-6). provide a leakfree method of connecting piping without the need for
flanges . These couplings accommodate cha nges in te mperature as well as
~he bending of the vessel (te ns ion and compression forces) that occurs dur~
mg cargo operations and at sea. Som e ope ra tors h ave experienced problem:;
I

Figure 44 . Large-diameter bottom cargo pipingin one vessel un der construction.

Courtesy Jeremy Nichols.

'"

--

II .

--~. ~: " .
p-

............- ....
.
.
:I'
. . . - ,-

z: :',

'. -

.-.
- -- .;
..,;-~='-'- -

'- ., . . .: ,

Figure 45. Cargo piping secticne connected through the use of bolted flanges.
CoUrtesy International Marin e Consultants (lMC).

CARGO PIPING SYSTEMS

10

wIth ,dip-on couplings (fig. 47) due t? excessive mov ement of t he piping
and dt't.t,noration of the gasket matenal cau,sed by t~e cargo. Anot her ap.
proach to welded piping connections is t he tn.staliatlOn ~r loop s or bend s
that allow the piping to expand a nd contract without causing undue s t rai n
or possible fractures .

DE CK PIPING
The above-deck piping generally consists of one or more d isch a rge mains
eonnecung the cargo pumps to the athwarts~p's ma nifold piping. The
cargo manifold is the bitter end of the on-deck piping th at forms the inte r.
face between the vessel and the shore facility. The manifold is generally located amidships and equipped with valves and blanks. It is considered
sound practice to always close the manifold val ves wh en there is no active
transferofcargo. Securing the vessel piping in this manner is a pr ecauties.
ary measure against the possibility of cargo movement (gravitation) when
the transfer has ceased. The end of the manifold piping is fla nged to pennit
~nnection to the shore facility via flexible cargo hoses or mecha nica l loadmg arms.

Dre sser Style Pipe Couplings

'Oresser" style couplings are widely used lor connecting piping on board company vessels
because they provide the fleltibility necessary to withstand stresses caused by Bltpansion and
ecetracnon during temperature changes. vesselmotion in a seaway. andvessel vibralion.These
ereesareabsorbed without damage to the pipe or leakage at thejoint so long as the Dresser
couphngs are property lilted and well maintained.
Unlorlunately, Oil spills have occurred on board company vessels in the pastdue10 Dresser
couplings rupturing or separating

Many of thesespills happened because nearbypiping was notpropertysUPpOrted.allowing

e~ssive

motion at the coupling.

Dresser, style couplings will not maintain an oiltight seal or holdpipesections together it
pressunzae Without the pipe being clamped or secured on EACH SIDE of thecoupling.
T.herelore,neverpressurize the line it the pipe is nol secured andfirmly su~orted on both
siCkls 01 the flexible seal The mas ter should be advised of any repairs requiring the. removal. 01
in.hne supports so that ~pprOPriate precautions can be taken. Dresser couplings Will alsofall
~ thepipe is not straight, so always align the pipe properly when lilting newcouplings.
Oil spllls are extremely dangerous and cosily, and everyettortshould be made .to ensure :~~
[hey do nol occur on your vessel. Since Dresser style couplingsare the"w~ak Ilnl( In the . .
Proper Inslellallon, support, and maintenance ol lhesecouplings Is essential to sate operations.

con. neeted t h rough t he u se of Blip-on type

ing
u sections
yin
temeuonal Ma rin e Cons ultants UMC).

Fi~re 4-7. An important messa ge from one fleet operator concerning Dresser couphng. . Ccurtesy Chevron Shtppmg
. .
Compa ny, LLC .

CARGO PI PING SYSTEM S

6

Flange s
Manifold fla nge s are u su ally const~cted in accor~ance with a national
d rd to ensure a s mooth operation when m a k m g the co nnection be
s~n
ath' vessel and the facility . I n t he United States , t he Ame ri can N .
ween
hi ' h th
.~_."
a.
tional Standards In !lti t u te (ANSI ) p u I S ~s e criteria lor standardized
flanges including suc h items as the following:

I.

2.
3.

4.

5.
6.
7.

Inside diametRr rn
Outside diameter tOD)
Bolt circle diameter (BCD)
Number of bolt holes
Thickness of the flange face
Raised- or rtueb -fece fla nge
Material of ecnetrccnon

Another recognized source dealing with sta n d a r dization of fl anges and

manifolds on vessels is Recommendations for Oil Tanker .Uanifolds and
Associated Equipment from the Oil Companies Internatio n a l Marine Fo-

e
Tightening a bolt cilcls
perway to lighlen up a ring is to take the slackup evenly \hen u
TNl ~ing baCk and 'onh as shown in the draWing Don't OV8foo'lI R~n:~ilduaIy
.~e~n" can be eaSilycracked by tIghtening the boltCilCle UI'leVllI"tf' ee lhal .
eser
pressure on the wleoch can stnp the boltthreadsor puI out....: a~ ....lhal a It1Ie
flce SS
u'" s,""

Figure 4-8. The correct procedure

for tightening a bolt circle. Courtesy Chevron

Shipping CompanY, LL C .

rum IOCIMFI.

Wh en connections are made using bo lted flange s , t he following require-

ments m ust be met:

1.

2.

Suitable gas ket material must be used in the j oin ts a n d coup lings to make
a lea k-free seal . It is not advisable to double up on gaskets or to reuse
them. Gaskets are gene rally constructed of a fiber or n eoprene mate rial;
however , Teflon may be used with certain cargoes .
When ANS I flanges are employed, a bolt must be pl aced in every other
hole at a min imum, and in no case should less than four bolts be used in
the connection. Be aware that company policy usually specifies that a bolt

be ins talled in every h ole.

3.
4.
5.

When usin g non-ANSI flan ges , a bolt must be placed in ev ery hole.
For permanently connecte d flanges , a bolt m ust be placed in every hole.
Each nut and bolt sho uld be u niformly tightened to distribute the load and
ensure a leak-free se al. Any bolt ex hi biting signs of strain, elongati on, OT
deterioration should be rem oved fr om se rvice.

The proper sequence of tightening a typical bolt con nection is shown in

go, ii-B. When it's necessary to install a blank (b li n d fl ange ) on t he manifoll:1
ct.1ons can be found in figure 49 .

Couplings
.
~ f 8ecunng.the
.
h lll~
hose ormechanica1loading ann ~ t e neet
of quick-connect couplings . The t ypical qUlck<OJl

Blind lIange
There is a right way and a wrong way \0 put a blind flange on a cargo nser. The
hlwrong voay
produces damaged lingers and dented toes , This IS unnecessary, Do It Itle rig way.
1. Stick a boltthrough in a bottom oil-center hole.
_
lh n nge
2 Plc!I up the lIange with bo\h hands and hang Iton the boll usmg anyhols l"notebeadroPped

sien a nuton the bolt. The lIange Is now completelyundercontrol and can Th , ....
3RI
I motf..center hole, as

ate the Ilange and stick a boll through in the other bot0
catch the gas ket.
Putgasket In ctece
fll
"".
nsert remainder01 bolts and tighten
. 0

4, bolls Will

Figure" 9
Illa't
Ill.

I' d flang e (blank) on a cargo

-a. The correct method of in stalli n g a b 10

old. Courtesy Chevron Shipping Compan y, LLC.

Figure 4-10. Manifold coMedions typically are bolted or the y employ quickCOllDect

1 Herea ralchel Col Coupling in studded

. configuration ISbolted to an eKlstlD9 ASA
hose flange lor a cne-nrne permanent
installation.The coupling is Itl enready to
be jOined at any lime to a matchll'l9 flanged
tees . manifold, or pipe 01comparable

2.The actualconnectIOn 1$ a~ by
lacing the
Coupling k) a matching
ASA !lange . No cntlCal alignment ol bolt
holesor gasket it recessers

e-l

diameter.

couplings.

couplings in use today are hydraulic clamps a n d ro tati ng locking cams

(Cam-Locks). Regardless orthe type of quick -conn ect cou pling employed , it
must be acceptable to the commandant of th e USCG. Fi gure 4-10 ill ustrates a bolted connection and a qui ck-connect coupling.
Th~ ~anufacturer'8 step-by-step sequence of connection u sing Cam Locks IS illustrated in figure 4.11.
Reducers
Foraituations where the
l'
. ~ Id
the flan
th
veeae e manito flange differs in dimen si o n fr om
vessels:: on m:~ar~o hose or.steel ann, a reducer must be ins t alled . Tank
Y
enablecoJection
for this purpos e (fig. 4 .1 2 ), to
thal;is being COnnected to th re facl,hty. Figure 4-13 illustra tes a r educer
Ifthe flanges ofth,
'1 veesel a cargo manifold.
. .
vesaa and hose d
t I'
1
Piece III frequently used to k
0 n~ a ign properly, then a epoo
~ort~ectionofflangedPiP:~:t~~~conne.c~lOn possible. A s pool pi e ce is a
Icfnerl'
to the
manifold. Re mOva ble spool
be Utilized
as an adapter or a n exten .
.
. It IS necessary to provide a
. .pieces and blanks a re a lso u s eful
Itlvecarj"oes.
POSItive means of segregation betwee n

~~e;~~~~~zes of~~duce~s

3. A simple movement with the special Col

wrench secures each ratchet cam with a
wedging action, while compres sing the
buillln aring.

4. The resultant connection is positiveand

leakprool. it is impOSSible,to loosen the
cams which are automaticallyratchet
locked,except by use 01 the Col wrench.

F'
.
. Ily employed a t th e cargo
'K'Ure 4-11. On e sty le of q uick-con nect couplin g typlca
manifold (Ca m. Lock ). Courtesy MMC Inter national Corp.

77
Crmll'iOYPTS

. a cargo transfer it is freq uen tl y necessary to ere

p unng
.
vSS over syste ms
re sev eral ways to mterconnect ca rgo ayetema on a to k
I
.
There a
I
h
"
n veeee t. One
ch common y seen at t e ma Olfold 18 the Ulle of a t e .
IIPPr1l a
d
hi h .
f h .
mporary pipe
called a runarou n w IC IS pre a n cated pipe (fi g. 4-14 ) designed to
_ nneel two or mor e cargo sys te
inter....
. rn!J at the manifold . It I' S usua II y attached (bolted ) to the offs ho re m anifold whe n it is necessary to inte rconf
e cargo systems . A number of factor s may necessita te th
neet th
.
h fl l .
euseo a
oov"r includmg t e o owin g :
cros""
<.

I.

2.
3.
4.

Limited nu mber of loading/discha rge hoses or a rms to conduct the

transfer
Convenience when loading a single grade of cargo
Expeditin g a cargo tr an sfer
Reroutin g t he cargo opera tion when a problem exists

A second method of interconn ect ing cargo sys te ms at the manifold is

the use of permanently in stalled piping referred to as a "mixma ster" Figure 4-15 illustrates the fixed piping of the mixmaete r running across the
top of the manifold pipin g.
Figure 4-12. Most tank vessels carry a wide array ofdifTerent size reducers . Courtesy International Marine Consultants ClMC).

Fj

gure 4-14. Cargo systems inte rconnected at the manifold t hrough the use ofa
runaround(te mporary piping). Courtesy International Marine Consultants (IMC).

CAR{lO PIPING SYSn; MS

. I A number of material s are used for th e inn t b

S~08t commo n being Buna-N (nit rile) in oil s:~~.. eaord av~bb~r
e tC
tehe r t
I
'
.. nc\ 1v ttcnm
liDS' . and hig er empera ure se rvice. For st rength ,
rJlst1C
d
\
' evera ayers of
jlliI rste rreinforcem ent an ste e me sh (helix) lypi cally Surr ound the tube
pOl~e bose. The cove r serv es as the outer protective layer for the lube and
oft '01 cement for the hose . Covers are genera lly made of n
d
rei or
h
hvei
eopre ne ue
a its res,' ,tance to weat er, p yeicel abuse
. (abrasion)' an d pe I roIeum .
to
hose ha s both advantages and disad vantages: it is ru d b I
Rubber
, u
,es aa hi
hig h flow rate , but il is einflexia in weight; a s moot h t u b e pr oviides
he 'l' d it has good temperat ure resistance, but limited chemical reeia

cllerJIlchn

~;~

ce.
tanThe
.
' or swaged (crimped colend fittmgs
0 Lth e h os~ a re etith
. er b U1il tom
lar)steel nipples that are equipped with welded carbon steel flan ges,
C o m p osite Hose
Compositehose is lig ht, flexible , a nd resi stant to most chemical cargoes . It
. constructed of numerou s layers of polyp rop ylen e films and fabrics with
~:mer an~ outer5spira D wi re helixes. Compo site hose is suita ble for chemi-

cal and oil service.

Figure 4-15 , Cargo systems interconnei:ted at th e manifold through the use of.
mtxmeste r (permanent piping). Courtesy Mark J ones.

Reinlorcement-mult,ple
biaswrappedplies
01polyester reinlorcemenl

A third crossover u ses a flexib le hose, usually called e jumper, to interconnect cargo systems at t he manifold on the vessel. The PI C mu st exercise
ext re me caution wh en using a crossover between cargo systems, given the
increa sed ri sk of contami nation . T o protect against the possibility ofleakage, crossovers a re typica lly equip ped with blanks , removable spool pieces
(pipe sections) , or double valves for segregation.

CARGO HOSES
Flexible cargo hoses a re frequently em ploye d to m ake the connection between the fixed piping on the vessel and the shor e fac ility. Ba rges gener
ally carry a number of cargo ho se s on board wherea s t ankship a utilize
ho ses provided by the shore facility . The mo st common h ose t ypes used for
transferring cargo are rubber, composite, and st a in less steel.

Rubber Hose

Rubber hose consists of three basic components: tube, r einforcement, ann'

TU 8
cover (fig, 4-16). The PIC should check the suitability guides from th e
r
.
trans'
utacturere in order to match the correct hose type to the cargoess those
" specially constructed ?ose s 8 U~ hat 8 of
d Sorne -&,argoe8 require
porte..
tifed tn cp 81 e trig -temperature service and with certatn ype

Helixwrre-c-anows hose
10 be Used lo r sucnon

Cover-provides protettion
against external abuse

F;gu 4
h
Courtesy Apollo Intema. re -16. Conatruction ofa typical rubber cargo ose.
honal Corp.

----.0---------

CAtlUO t'1t'INU ::lnl'n.:MS

CARGO TRAN SFER

Stainless Steel Ho s e
Stai nless-steel hose is compose d of a stainless-steel corrugated t
ered by a si ngle or doubl e stainless-ste el bra id. Stainless-stet!! h ll~~ CQ~.
- 1resistance
OSC III II '
ab le in situations where chemica
an d h iIg h er tem per ature
lltt.
be encountered.
1Jla}

81

-n ing or s u p porttng the hose asse mbly , Figure 419 is a guid f

when II .. manufa ct urer 1' 11u st r eung
- some 0 f t h e d oa an d don'ts whene rom
k
ne use
"" worx? h Ith ca rgo h oses .
IOg ;e ves sel is usu a.I1Yequipped with a chafing rail in the vicinity ofthe
manifold to preven t kmk ln ~ or d amage to ho ses . The hose all!!embly shou ld

Markings
Cargo hoses should ha ve th e following ma rkings:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Name of the product for which the hose may be used

For oil produ cts , the words "OIL SERVI CE~
For hazardous ma teri al s, the words "HAZMAT SERVICE-8EE LIST"
Maximu m allowable working pressure (MAWP)

Vessels usually ma inta in a written record or the da te of manufact

latest test date. tes t pressure, a nd burstin g pressure for th e hoses ca:
on board. Ca rgo hoses a re required to b~ tested annuall y to one and ODe
half times the maximum allowable working pre ssure.
Figure 417 . Prop er support of a cargo hose requires the use of slings or saddles.
Courtesy Apollo In te rn a tional Corp .

CARGO TRANSFER
During cargo tr ansfer , t he import ance of visually checking the hose canna
be overstated as operators have experie nced problems ranging Ircmdetenorati on of the hose lining (tube) to complete failu re . Although cargohoses
are ruggedly constructed, they st ill repr esent th e weak link in a cargo
t ransfer. The person in charge of the transfer mu st keep a watchful eye00
the hose, the connections, and in part icular the vessel moorings.Themoor
ings must be properly tend ed during th e cargo transfer to keep the vessel
in positi on alongside the facility , Failure to monitor the condition of the
lines could result in unaccepta ble surging of t he vessel or movement offthe
dock, which could place undue st rai n on t he hoses and connections, Accord
ing to federal regul ation, th e car go hoses and stee l arms should be long
enough to allow the vessel to move to th e limits of its moorings without
placing a strain on th e hose, arm, or tran sfer piping system. Several factors
should be considered when determining th e n um ber of lengthS of cargo
hose to be connected. The PI C should accoun t for th e ra nge of the n-de m
locality, th e anticipated change in fre eboard of th e vesse l, wind and c~
ren t condiItione
at the facility, a nd vess el t ra ffic. The use 0f exceSSI\'f
bl bl
lengths of cargo hose is discouraged as th ere is a n increased risk ofa Ig.
, . '
sen'
of hose getting pinched between the vessel and dock' thi s could have d
'
lth sa .
OUB consequences. The cargo hoses must be prop erly supported WI
rg
dlea or straps to prevent kinking or dam age to th e hose and its coup ~~
(figures 4-17 and 4-18), The use ofa single rope sling is not recomlI1en

Figure 4.18 . Flexibl e hos es sho uld be supported by belt slings, saddles, or bridles,
Courtesy Chevro n Shi pping ,

GARno PIP ING SYSTEMS

Correct

rrccrrect

Never use hole unsuppor1ed

Protect aga ,nSI sharpedgesdoclo:. edge. ship', ~ard ralr. etc

Never IJS& hose unsuppotled

oreucw hose

83

rial . Addit ionall y, t her e sho~ld he no gouges, cu18,or slas hes that penete
the Iir st la yer of h ose rcmforcement.
traU'
l\l e chani cal Lo adinK AnnR
Modern ahore faciliti es that accommodate lar ge veeeels a nd h ave high
ca rgo transfer rate s frequently URe mechanical loadi ng a nna, which are
steel pipe s that te le scope to ma ke t he connection with th e vess el manifold
(figures 4-20 a nd 4-21 ). These are o~n referred to as "ch ickeans."
The a rms a re controll ed hydrauhcall y and em ploy swivel jcinte which
enable th em to follow the movement of the vessel at th e bert h . Alth ough
steel arms a re ca~able of handling greater pressures an d flow rate s th an
hoses. th e perllon -lO-ch a rge shou ld be awa re of'severa l concerns with their
use. Mech anical loadin g arms have a limited opera ting envelope, which
mean s they a re much le ss forgiving than cargo hoses whe n the vesse l hegins to surge or drift at t he dock . Th e PIC should take th is into account
when spott ing t he vessel and pr operly te nd the moorin gs to ens ure the ve sBel stays in position at the berth . ~f ost mecha nical loading a nna employ
some fonn of quick -connect coupling such as hydr auli cclamp s or Cam-Locka
when connecti ng to the manifold . As in th e case of cargo hoses. it is imperative that s uitable gasket material or a -rin gs be installed in the connect ion
to maintain a leak-fr ee seal. In t he Unite d St ates. mechanical loading

Alway s suppo rt hose near COUpling

Acceptable

Never use hose unsuppor1ed

Never oyerb8nd nose

CARGOTRANSFER

~
Support hose with slings
whe re appropriale

Support hose w ith Slil19s

10hang between doCkand Ship

Nevel support hose w ith single rope

Figure 4-19. Hoae handling guide from one manufacturer . Courtesy Uni-chem
Hose Corp .

be drained at the end ofa cargo transfer prior to its removal from the m~ni'
fold. A number of methods are u sed to drain the hoses , including graVlty,
vacuum pump, or blowing the lin e clear with a su itable gas under presllUl'f
y
Th e per son-in-charge is required to in spect the hose pri or to use for h
unrepaired loose cover s, kinks , bulges, soft spots, or othe r defects W nawould permit the discharge of oil or h a zardous ca rgo throu gh th e hOlle m

:.0

Figure 4-20. Mechanical loadi ng a nna (chickBans) used to ms ke the connection between the vessel an d the facility. Courtesy Mar garet Meehan.

..

' '' '' ~ m

1'lt"I NG

85

mu st me et t he de si gn , fabrication, ma terial and in

.
" ." u,'remen1s contained in ANSI B 3 1 3 E a" h' mech 8~ctl 'lon and tee t. req
.
.
"
...
... a ntea oadin
tn t is con8t rucl~d In a ccor da nce Wit h this etanda rd mu st ha ve
g arm
tha 's certificatIOn permane ntl y marked on the a nn
a ma nufac_
ture r
.'
A h
d
or record ed else
.... in t he Fa cilit y. tt e en ofacargotra ns ferthe rem t he
.
where
ff h
'
U II
a means
to dr ain or close 0 t e a r m pnor to breaking the connection.

Loadi n" Il rops

The cargo pipin~ on deck is oonn{'Cled ~ the bottom piping through vertical

lines called loading drops.!hese d~op lines are used when loading the vessel
shore. On vessel s eq uipped Witha pumproom, the drops route the cargo
direct1~ to th e ~ttom pip m g and the tanks. Loading the vessel through
these hnes permits th e operator to bypass the pumproom entire ly It '
sideredsafe pr~ctice ~ avoid loading through the pumproom whe~ a ~h:~
exi8tB, thereby Isolating th e ves~el cargo pumps from the loading pressure.
The person-in-charge s~ould venf~ the status ofthe pumproomvalves prior
to comm~ncing t,he loading op~rallon. Each cargo system or group is generally servtced by its own drop line; however , some highly segregated vessels
such as those with in -tank pumps may have a drop for each ta nk.
(roDl

P U M P R O OM PIP ING

Figure 4-21 Mech . II di

.
emce 08 ng anna have a limited a bility to follow the movement of the vessel at th berth Th
th'
'.
e
. e PIC muet therefore keep a close watchon
moonng linea, CourWsy Margaret Meehan.

The pumproom is a comp lex compa rt ment that is th e heart of the discharge
operation on a ta nk vessel. It conta ins the necessary piping and pumping
equipment to deli ver t he ca rgo to the shore facility. The pumproom is a
comparatively small compartment usu ally located at the after end of the
cargo section of the vessel. The aft locati on of the pump room takes advantage of the tendency of the vesse l to trim by th e stern during a discharge. It
is also close to t he engine room. Locating the cargo pumps a t the low point
in the system enables the pumps to operate in a head condition , which results in a mor e efficient discha rge operation. Th e proximity of th is space to
the engin e room is also convenient when connect ing t he pump to a drive
unit. Due tothe complexity of the pipin g in thi s space, th e per son-in-charge
must carefully trace t he lines to become well-versed on th e proper lin eup of
the system . Figure 4-22 is a sim ple pumproom sketch showing the bottom
piping from the tanks directing cargo to the suction side of the pu mps.
From the cargo pumps, the vertical discharge lines deliver t he cargo to
the man ifold and on ward to the shore facilit y. Most pumprooms a re also
equipped wit h cros sovers that permit t he cargo systems to be interconnected on the s uction and discharge side of th e pumps. To prevent th e
poS,sibility of contamination through th e crossovers, it is advisable to
m81ntaindouble-valve segrega tion or install blanks bet ween th e systems.
Another function built into the des ign of the pumproom is th e a bility to

BASIC VALVE TYP ES

--- -- --,
I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I

,,"'"

_1-

Chod<
vefve

Pumproo m
drop

Reltef
valve

Main

cargo
",mp

~er

Pump
suction

Bulkhead

b1ock

1
1

I
I,

From

",,.
tanks

- - I-

Rising or non rising stem. \Vhen the stem moves up and down85a functi.on
of operating th e valve , it is classified as rising stem. In a nonrising stem

valve, the gate or disk rid es up and downon th e spindle through the useof
a reverse thread .
Throttling or nonthrottli ng. A valve is ccnaidered throttli ng when it is
2.
suitable for controlling liquid flow, meaning it can be operated in a partially open position. Nont hrottHng valves are not designed to control flow
and should only be u sed in a fully open or fully dose d position. Operators
should bear in mind th at t here is a risk or ja mming when using a
nonthrottling val ve in a partiall y opened position.
3. Ma nual or moto r-operated . If th e valve wheel is physically controlledby
th e operator it is a manual valve. In automated cargo systems,the valves
are freq uently operated through th e use orhydraulicor pneumaticmotors

\-

Valves are the devices in stalled at various points in th e cargo system th at

enable the operator to control the flow of liquid through the piping. The
rson_in-charge sh oul d h a ve.a n under standing ofthe worki ng principles
ped limitations of the valves m the carg o sys te m.
an Valves can be ca tegorized in t he followin g ways:
1.

1 ~

I
I
I

B A S I C VALVE TYPES
Main deo:

DIscharge

1
Riser

To manIfOld

I
I
I
I
I
I

baUll8l. The ca rgo pumps us uall y h ave a connec tion to th

.
UlltCon rion in t he hull ca lle d a sea chest. The pipin g tha t
e sea Vl8 a
nelra
.
id f t h
connects the sea
pe t to the suction 8 1 e 0
e ca rgo pumps is commonly called t
chell
.~ in the case of. the crossovers
mentioned
ea rl ier ' one can expect
he sea
pC l""
1
.
to
d OU ble sea-Buctlon
va
ves
se
parat
in
g
the
ca
rgo
eyete
f
1rood
11 . . id
m rom the sea
" lIVOl'd . serious po utton
. '
.
hm el e nt, care sh ould be exerci
... .S9 d Wh en ta kmg
o seawater ~alla8t usmg t e ca~go pum ps a nd lines. Commit cha pte r 11
en di CUS~lIon of proper b all est tn g procedure s.
ror a 18
d

pumproom

I
I

87

- ---

Figure 4-22. Simplified drawin go f th e cargo lines

.
. 8 pu mp room.
In

connected to the stem.

Local or rem ote ac tu ation. Local control mean s the operator is at the valve
and controls it dir ectly. When the valve is located some distance fromthe
operator such as at th e botto m of a cargo ta nk, it is then necessary to install a rea ch rod for remote actuation. A reach-rod asse mbly is a series of
steel rods coupled to connect the ste m ofthe valve in the ta nk to a valveoperating stan d on deck (fig. 4-23).

Personnel must exerc ise care wh en operating a valve remote ly wit h a

reach-rod assemb ly . If it b ecomes n ecessary to u se wh eel wrenches or ot~er
1ve
*}>ersuaders," the operator m ust gu a rd against the a pplication ofexcess
torque to the va lve. This cou ld sh ea r t h e pins in the reach -rod couplin gs, resultmg i n an tn
' cperative
. valve.

n R.~ I \j

a';;:=::~Qt-L
==H':'=":~Bet
Thru st washe r

Tension pin
Relalner

Bushing
W aShBf

Indk:8lof Plate ::n~l:;~m=::: Hex head scraw

Indicator nul
Lockn ul

r,..;--

Slem
Gland

Pack ing

Bu Shing
~

Deck plating

Figure 423. A valve ope rating stand on deck permits remote actuation (via 8 reach
rod) of th e valve locate d in the bottom piping of the vessel . Courtesy Haywar d Man.
ufacturing.

v I\ I, vt; ", YI' E S

89

Gate Valve
rts of a typical ri sin g lite m gate val ve a re shown in figur e 4-24
keypll
f h
\
. h

.
'I'h e lin at the top 0 t e va v~ 18 t e operating mechan ism called the
Start gee \ which is ope rated either ma nually or by a motor The 8 'dwh ,
h n h .
.
cem cr
!Jan
. the rotating 8 a t a t IS connecte d to a circular gate for disk ,
d
Th
kl
'nd le IS
~ pl . h moves up and own .
e pee m g a nd gland ass embly makes a Iiqle
"".h ight seal where t he st.e m exits the to p of the bonnet. The bonnet is th e
t
uld- r housing that is typically bol ted to the bod y of t he valve. When the
uppe . fully opened, the gate r etra cts in to th e bonnet a nd out ofthe path of
valv~ ls 'd The body of the va lve is t he flan ged POrtion installed in the pip ethe
.
h li id n
W hi
bod y of the val ve is a set of
. liqu!
c hrDugh which t e rq u r OW B. It In t he
bn vee r efe rred to a s guide ri ? s.wh ich keep the ~~te a ligne d when moving
groo d down. When the valve IS 10 the closed posu tcn, t he operating ga te or
uPka~ wedged firmly into the seat.
dis IS
\
h . '
Gate valves are a popu ar c oice In c? rgo systems w:ven t he ir- d ur ability
d the fact that they offer t he least resistance to nowm th e open position.
~her types of valves common ly fo.un d in car~o se rvice include butterfly ,
globe. plug, and ball valves. Following a re vano us type s of valves installed
on tank vessels .

Comparison of Valve Types

The following listings s how s om e ofthe a d va ntages and di sadvantages as sociated with each type of valve sh own in figures 4-25 t h rough 429.

Wh"' ~

til

Yokesleeve-

GATE VALVE

Advantages
Simple design
Gland - -

Packing

Figure 4-24. The key pam of 8 rising stem gate valve. Courtesy U.S. C08st Guard.

Durable

Less prone to obstructions

Unrestricted flow across open valve
Suitable for local and remote actuation
Suitable for bidirectiona l flow

Disadvantages
Not easily automated
Prone to jamming
High cost
Numerous turns
Nonthrottling

Figur e 425. Nunrieing stem gate valve.

Courtesy William E. William s Valve Corporati on.

90

CARGO PIPING SYSTE MS

S PEC IAL VALVES

91
DlTITER"'I .Y VALVE
PLUG VALVE

Adl'afltngf'S

M vantalles
Sifllple and com pact design
Quick acti ng
V SII prone to obstruction s
BallY to automate
Dur a ble
Suitable for bidirect ion al flow

Quick acting valve

Simple and compact deaign
Less expensive
Easy to automate
Di$adt'aTltageB

Less durable
Prone to obstructions
Prone to leaking
Prone to improper sea ting
Nonthrottling

Disadvantage s
Nonthrottling

Figure 4-26. Butterfl y valv. . Cout1tt

Valve Man ufact ure ra As SOCia tion.
1

GW BE VAL VE

SPEC IAL VALVES

Thi s section de s cribes valves that serve a uni que function in the cargo
syste m of a tank ves sel.

Adt'ontages

Precise throttling
Flow control

Durable
Directional flow through valve
Disad vantages
Prone to obstructions
Prone to improper seating
Numerous tu rns
Not eas ily automated
High cost
Pre ssur e drop across open valve
Greater resistance to flow

Figure 429. Plug valve.

Figure 4-27 . Globe va lve. Courtesy Dixon

Valve and Coupling Company.

Check Va lve
The chec k valve is de signed to pennit liquid flow in only one direction. It is
typi call y found on the di sch arge side ofthe ca rgo pump a nd in the inert gas
delivery lin e on deck to preven t return flow. The check valve opens when
the disch arge pre ss ur e from the cargo pump or inert gas fan lifts the operating di sk in the valve, thereby allowi ng flow (fig. 4-30 ).
The chec k valve is de signed to operate automatically either un der a
weight (lift check) or spring load <swing check ) when the cargo pump or
inert ga s fan stops. The weight or tension of a spring on the disk causes
the valve to seat, thereby prevent ing ret urn flow. Experience has shown
that check valves a re prone to leak ing, pa r ticularly when ins talled in a
hostile environment. For example, the corrosive na ture of in ert gas ca n
result in a ch eck valve deteriora ti ng to the point th at it rem ains stuck in

BALL VALVE

Ad va ntages
Quick-a cting
Simple a nd compact design
Easy to a utomate
Suita ble for bidirecti onal flow

Disad vant ages

Nonthrottling
c urttsy

Fi gure 4-28. Ball valve . 0 .

William E. Willi am s Valve Corporation.

Figure4-30. Aswing check valve is typicallyinstalled on the discharge sideof~ cargo

Pump to prevent ret urn flow. Courtesy William E. WilliamsValveCorporatIOn.

93

SPECIAL VALVES
92

CARGO PIPING SYSTEMS

the open posit ion. A similar s ituation ca~ occur when ha nd ling viscou s or
high_l.('m pera ture pour-point cargoes which are ca pa ble of gumming up a
check va lve to the point t hat it sticks open.

Reli ef Val ve
The reliefvalve is also found on the discharge sid e ora cargo pump; it Protects the piping system from the effects o~ over-pressuriza tion. Relil'f
valves are spring loaded and operate a utoma tica lly wh en a pres et preS8ure
is reached in the discha rge line of the pump (fig. 4-31).
When the relief valve opens, th e cargo is returned to th e suction side of
the pump through a short recircul at ion line . prevent ing an y further
buildup cfpressure. The operation and sett ing ofthe r elief va lves should be
checked to ensure the cargo system is properly protec ted .
Pre lisure.Va cuum (pV) Relief Va lve
The pressure-vacuum relief valve is s pecially design ed to provide struc,
tu ral protection of the cargo tanks from the effects of over- or under_
pressurization of the tank atmosphere. The val ve contains two operating
disks (pressure and vacuum I that are held in th e normal ly closed position
by a weight or the tension of a spring. The valves a re design ed to open (lift)
at a preset pressure or vacuum in the tank. When th e press ure disk opens,
the atmos phere in the cargo tank escapes , relieving th e excess pressure via

Pressurevacuum valve

Vent pipe
Top covel

Vacuum
valve
Vacuum
valve

sea,

vavebocly

Pressure valve seal

Pressure valve

Figure 4-32. Pressure -vacuum relief valves provide st ructural protection of the
cargo tanka. Courtesy Pennea Mari time Prot ection .

Figure 4-31. A reliehalve ia typically inSlalled on th e discharge aide of the cargo

pump to protect the eyetem from overpreeeurieatinn.

a flame screen and louver ed vent on th e body of t he va lve. Co nve rsely ,

when the vacuum di sk lifts , a ir rushes into the t ank through the same
opening to break the vacuum. Figure 4-32 illustrates across-sectional vi ew
of a typical PV re lief valve.
Pressure-va cu um relief valves are usually install ed on s tan d pipes con nected to ea ch tank h a t ch or on a central vent main when designed to pro~t ;:roup of.cargo ta nks. Figure 4-33 ill ust ra tes th e typical locations of
ab~ th va lves In th e ca rg o system. In the closed positi on , these valves e n e e cargo tank(s) to rema in seale d, t he re by m inim izi ng loss of cargo
through va
As . pon. za tiIOn as we ll as los s of inert gas pressure.
an y mechanical device. ro utine inspection and m a int ena nce of
l'V ve WIth
ves is .
.
t()rs eb' ld imperative to e ns ure proper protection of t he vessel. Operaou chec k PV va lves for the following;

BLANKS

9.
PV valv es

Deck iaolaling valllll

/

=><

"

,S_

/~

,-

Tank isol aling

==:,==;;r====#=;] valva

Valves operate freel~ .

Valve aeata and sealmg eurfacea are dea n and ti ght .
Flame I!creena ar e not fouled or holed.
Springs or weight.a are in good repair.

valv es mu st be set to lift (ope rate) before t he cargo la nk

he at
Th
reac ee Ita
'(l1Um design pr es su re or vac uum. e pressure and vacuum r eli f
ro aJI
nonnall y indica te d on the body orthe valve a nd
d d . u~h ~ttingsar",
h
I 0 _1 - f setti
r e m t e mt
e
vesse
.
IW Ie settings vary ccneide
anua
l
for
rt gas m
.
era bly from one
e
I to th e next , h owever so me typical values are as follow, vesse
.
Th e

IG ma,n /

.0

P rt"8 8 U N' R

Cargo tank PV valves

PV valve

<,

Mast vent

!]

::
t

pV

valves

elie{

1.5 psi
2.0 psi

Vacuum lUlie{
-Q .5 psi

- 1.0 psi

r
MaSI

tiser

Bypass
varve

BLANKS
A blank is a de vice that is gen erall y inserted at one of various locations in
thecargo pip in g system to pro vide a positive means of segregation between
cargoes. Several s lyl es of blanks a re in use, t he most common being a spectacleblank tfig-4 -3 4). I n m os t cases, a blank represen ts e physical bre ak in
the piping ; th erefore. any le a k a ge is unable to continue past thi s device
and simply leaks out ofthe line . A spectacle blank consists oftwo disks-an
open (flow) and a solid (no-flow) disk- th at genera lly swing on a pivot
point. The status of the bl ank is clea rly indica ted by th e visible disk (refer
again to figure 4-34 .)

MaSI

/ l ise r
Deckl&OIa tlng varve

~ rna":=/=;C==;r===~i='il

4-34. One type of blanking devi ce (spectacle blank ) commonly found in the
Figure 4-33. Three applications of PV valves.

~Ylltem ora vesse l. Courtesy Stacey Valve Co., Inc.

CARGO PIP ING SYSTE MS

96

REVlEW

97

Caution should be exerc ised when swinging a bla nk; the se ai...
..,pie
gui de lines should be followed;
I.

2.
J
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Verify that the piping is not under pressure (no ac tive cargo tra nsfer)
Prio r to swi nging the blank, d.rsin. ~e piping on bo t ~ s ides of the blll.nk.
Ensure the pipeline in quesnon I S Isolated by d OSing the apPI'QPri8~
valves.
Do not stand in a position that could res ult in contact with th" cargo.
Cari'fully swing the disk out of the lin e and inspect al l f1 a ng" Or mating
surfaces.
Inspect the blank for corrosion and physical damage.
Inspect the D. ring or gasket material prior to installing the disk in the
line.
Check the disk for proper alignment in the pipeline and secure th e blank.
Ins pect the blank for any leakage after it is in s talled.

One dra wback to the use of blanks in the piping system is access forop.
eration. Blanks require local operation, therefore th ey a re not user.
friendly when insta lled in such locations as the bottom pip ing of th e vessel.
Blanki ng devices are often found at the manifold on deck, with a mix.
mas ter , and at crossovers in th e pumproom where access is not a problem.
An alte rnative to inserting a blank in the line is the use ofa rem ovable
spool piece, a section of pipe wit h steel blanks on the ends of t he pipin g. Removing the spool piece provides the ultimate assurance a gai nst an y risk of
conta minatio n th rough th e pip ing. Simple blanking devic es, however , of.
fer reli able protection wit hout the la bor involved with a spool piece.

REVIEW
1. What are two common design s for botto m cargo piping found on modern tank vessels?
2. What is the name given to the bitter end of pip in g located in the bot.
tom of each cargo tank?
3. 'Yhat is meant by a ' free-flew" design , as applied to a large crude carrier?

4. Nonflanged cargo piping is connected through the use of what device?

Why is it used?
5. If the cargo manifold flange on the vessel differs in dimen sion from the
ca~g? hose flange , what device is em ployed?
6. If it IS necessary to cross over cargo syste ms at the manifold on deck,
what methods are employed?

7.
8.

9.
10.

. r to 8 cargo transfer, the hOlle must be visuall .

rnothe typica I caus es fior rejectIon
"
of a cargo hoa ?YInRpected
Wh
. What
a ulre
r~ d rna rki ngs on a hose?
e.
at are the reqWhat ill th e purpose of a PV valve on a cargo tank? List t h .
h Id h k h
d '
.
e ltemllthat
a n operator II ou c ec w en con ucnng an inspection of the PV
valves.
..
.
Whyare spectac~e blan ks utIh zed m th e cargopiping ofa tank vessel?
L.IS t th e pr eca utIons
that should be follOwed whenever 0 ne 8wmgs
.
.

a.
blank in th e p~p ehne .
Prior to breakin~ the cargo hose co~n~'Ction at the end of a transfe r,
what are th e typical methods of drainin g the line?

CHA PTER 5

Venting Sys te ms and

Vapor Control Op er a tions

he method employed to vent the atmosp~ere of a cargo ta nk on a vessel

is an issue that has plagued the tanker industry for man y years. The
earliest app roaches, although simple and foolproof, pr esented serious concerns regarding fire safety, health, and a ir quality.
The initial methods of cargo tank venting in volved open vent ing
th rough a tank top or hatch at the deck line . During loadi ng a nd balla sting
operatio ns, tank atmospheres typically exited through a n ullage opening
in the hatch near deck level. This hatch se rved a dual pu rpose: first , as the
primary venting port and second, as th e ga uging point for the cargo tank.
Industry studies revealed that exiting cargo vap ors te nded to settle and accumulate around the vessel in sufficient concentrations to pose signi ficant
fire and health risks. Figure 5-1 shows the traditional a pproach of openventing through the tank hatch, and figure 5-2 illu strat es the resultant vapor plume developed during a typical loading oper ation.

Figure 5-1. Traditional open venting of a cargotank through the ullageopening.

Shown here, the vent is equipped with a flame screen.

.-- - - -

.- - - -

Wind

.- - - -

.- - - +- Ullageopeflll'lg

CONTROLLED VENTING SY STE MS

Over the past twenty-five yea rs, the widespread installation of inert gas
systems on ta nkers has led to dramatic improvements in cargo tank
venting, now referred to as contro lled venting sys te ms . Th e deck distribution pipin g (t he fG main and br an ch lines ) used to supply inert gas to the
cargo ta nks a lso serves as th e vent system during cargo loading. Through
the use of th is vent piping, cargo tank atmospheres are directed ~~ofl.
where the prevailing winds at the berth can dilute and disperse th e eXlttng
vapors, thereby reducing the risks to the vessel and personnel. Controlled

Cargolank

... _ Tank coaming

(lG)

_ _ _ _ _ __

~ll__

loading operation.
5-2. Vapor plume developed above the deck duri
unng a
Richard Beadon and Eric Ma.

CONTR OLLE D VENT ING SYSTEMS

101

Hlghveloc lty vent val v9 S

Dk IS0l8 110" valve

~

"

ent inl{ systems ~re ca~ gorized ,in two ways: mast riser venting and
" . h_velocity venting. Fi gu re 5-3 Illust r ates th ree Contro lled venti ng a rhlg e ments in use on modern ta nke rs.
rlll1g

Tank isola ting

." ,=",=,,====~Ii=
l'il valve
.

Mallt Risers
Mast or king-po ~t vents ~~ysically direct the exit ing cargo vapors well
above th e deck vra hard prpmg bef~re releasing it to the at mosphere . The
use ora ta ll ~ent.stack can ~ seen m figure 5-4 . Contro lled venti ng ofthe
cargo tanks m .t~l s m a~e rl s ve'! effectlV~. Howev~r, when certain meteorological cORdlll.ORS exist (low wind and high humidity), vapo r accum ulation is st ill poSSible.

IGmal ri /
A

PV valve

::

<.

Decll. isoIaMg valve

iJ

./
~ ,c.===;;====;r==!!~:!J

...."

/nser

lorna,"/"

Bypass
valve

High-Velocity Vents (l1VV)

Another approach in contro~led vent~ng syste ms is the use ofhigh-velocity
vent valve s. Tw o typ es of high-velocity vent valves are in common use today: bullet val ves (fig. 5-5) and high jets (fig. 56 ).
High-velocit y ve nt valves operate off shorte r standpipes (6g.5-7) and
project the exiting vapors aloft. These device s work on a deadweight principle, pre vent ing t he releas e of the cargo tank atmosphere until a predetermined tank pr essure is reached. According to the manufacturers of these

PV valve

Venlmain
Deck isolating valve

-,

-,

/
~~"';="=/
";'="====~=;l

L BypaSS
valve

:::U,:
i~3. ?,~trolle? venting arrangementa. Individual cargo tank vente
g hlgh.veloclty vents (HWs) and sta ndpipes . B. Common venting us'
. p
A.

y.

Ing a Bingle mam IIG . .

HVV
plpmg) and venti ng through on e or more mast risers or

I. C. Common venu
I '
cspher th
h
ng emp oymg a separate vent main which vents to still
e roug one or more maet risers or HWs.

Figure 5-4. Vent stack method of controlled ventin g. Courtesy International Merine Consultants HMC).

10 2

VENT ING SYSTEMS AND VAPOR CONT ROL OPERATI ONS

Mar1m H,-Jet MK III
Operation under d,tferent cond,tions

Pressure diSkcheck lilt tIlIndl e essem bly

onlYlor KSPA3/KSPA-4 model

1
High-velocity VEll1hng
during loading or ballas ting

/-

1,

Hlgh elocity pressure

(j)
1 rellel al...e (KSPAj

;1
,7

.1

I.
~

,,
I

" .S - -,'

Pressure d'sk check lilt hand le 8SSlImtlly

only l or KL PH.a.rKLPH-8 model

2
Preuure valve
bf ealhing

--

, ' ....._
,,,
,,

Vacuum reliel yatve

w'th QilS'I9f!il1gOOYtr
aod flame scrgell
(KS PV)

@Stud bo/lIflUl
@Gasket

Figure 5.6. High- velocity vent ...alve (Martin Hi-Jet ). Artw ork by Rich ard Beadon

and Eric Me. Courtesy Martin Co mpa ny.

KLPH (KSPA + KSPV + KSpn

Figure 5-5. Cutaway view ofa high .velocity pressure-vacuum re lief valve, eleoreferred to as a bull et valve. Courtesy lan -Conr ad Bergan, Inc.

devices, a minimum exit velocity of30 meters per second is achieved when
the valves open, ensuring that the vapors rea ch a cons iderable height
above the vessel.
The type of venting system an owner elects to in stall on a vessel depends on numerous factors, including the following:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

Regulatory requirements
Vessel trade
Types of cargo transported
Health concern s
Venting capacity
Experience factor
Convenience/ease of operation
Ease of maintenance

~igure 5.7. High-v elocity ve nt va lve on standpipe (bulle t va lve 1. Courtesy Interna banal

Manne
. Ccn sul tan ta (lM C).

104

Venting systems vary cons iderably from one vessel to the nextfore, th e PI C s hould ca refu lly t race out the piping arrangement
the~.
milinr with th e pr oper lin eup a nd usc of the sys te m.
an b<! fa.
In addit ion to providing imp roved venting of cargo ta nks dun I
ing, th is piping a lso plays a n important r ole in va rio us operation~g Oll~.
a ted with t he pr ope r use of t he vessel's inert gas system. For exasSOci.
s uitable supply and vent ing arrangements are cri t ical when it is necamp]e,
to repl a ce ca rgo tank a t mospheres.
ellsary
. Operat! ons in volvin g com plete rep l ace m~ n t of a car~o tank atmo sphere
include pnma ry merung. purgmg; gas-freeing, and re merting Adela '] d
discussion of gas rep lacement methods can be found in chapter 15 ~I"

..
Gas Systems.

105

VAP OR CONTRO L SYST EM COM PONENTS

VENT ING SYSTEMS AND VAPOR CONTROL OPERATI ONS

' nett

TABLE 5 1
EP~

m illllio n Facto" i n Pou nd.. Per 1,000 Ga Uon.. of Lt quld

Emi SSIOn
S ourt:t'

Ga lloli ne
crude oil
-.4

P
JKeros.ene
Di8tilla te oil no . 2
Residual oil no . 6

Looding Op eralion s
Ships
1.8
0 .61
0 .5
0 .00 5
0 .005
0 .00004

Bartles
3. 4
1.0
1.2
0.0 13
0.0 12
0.OO9

Tanker
Balla sti ng
0 .'
1.2

unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown

~8Y U.S. Environmenta l Protection Agency

VAPOR C ONT ROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

DEVELOPMENT OF VAPOR CONTRO L SYSTE MS

In recen t years, various states and localities became concerned about the
affect th a t cargo vapors have on air quality, and this led to the development
of va por control systems. The uncontrolled release of hydrocar bon vapors
from ta nk vessels du rin g cargo load ing contributes to the overall quantity
of volat ile orga nic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, a precursor tothe
formati on of ozone pollution. In fact, the prob lem beca me serious enoughto
prompt th e implementation of rul es limiting emissions during such operalions as loading, ballasting, purging, a nd gas-freeing of cargo tanks.
At present, th ese rul es a pply to vessels hand ling crud e oil, gasoline,
gasoline blends, and ben zene cargoes . The list of "regu lated" cargoes, as
they are known , can vary from slate to state a nd in some cases even differ
within a local a ir-qua lity district. Vessel operators shou ld inquire as tothe
local requirements prior to arri val a t the facility. Th e numb er ofcargoes reo
quiring the use of a vapor control system is expe cted to expand as moredetailed information becomes available about th e effects of th ese substances
on the environment.
The quantity ofVOCs emitted during loading and ball asting operations
was documented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agen cy in 1985, as
shown in table 5-1.
Vapor control ayetems represent the next stage in th e evolution ofca.rgo
tank venting designs. The basis ofthe system is a closed loading operation.
All vents to atmosphere and deck openings to the cargo tanks arc secure~
and remain so for the entire transfer. By means of a network of vapor co
lection piping connected to the manifold on deck, the vapor s from each ~
on the vessel are directed ashore for processing. The facility ha s theop~?n
of destroying or recovering the vapors. The vapors involved are th ose I:~
placed by the incoming cargo during loading operations as well as those r
leased due to cargo vaporization .

The U.S. Coast Guard developed and pu.bUshed regulations (Title 46 crn
m in. th e design, ennstr-uctmn , and operation ofvapor control
Part 39) govelank vessels operating in U.S. waters. However, it
..ts notth e
~~~
l '
.. ili
CoastGuard but th e indi vidual sla tes th at enact regu au one requmng e
useof these systems.

Va por Control Piping

The collection of vapors is accomplished through perman.ently instal led
deck piping us ually consis ting ofa common mam , bra nch h~es . ~nd vapor
manifold. On ta nkers fitted wit h a n inert gas syste m, mod!ficat1o~ of the
IGdistribution piping permi ts its use for vapor contro l whll.e loading (fig.
5-8).When a ta nke r is equipped with a n IG/vapor control mem, the~ must
be a means of isolati ng the IG supply. The deck isolating valve required underexisting IG regulations satisfies thi s requirement.
. .
.
.
or manifold located as
The vapor control piping
terminates 10 a vap
.,
Id
T
I
I
the vessel
.
close as pra ctical to th e cargo mani to . 0 c ear y d'stinguish
1
.
.
f
.
.
t b painted with red/yelvapor connection , th e last mete r 0 plpmg mu s " e
.
9
low/red band s and lab eled with the word ' va por, as seen 10 ,figure 5- .
Asan additional safeguard agains t possible cross-connectlOn of a cargo
hose to the vapor manifold, a special Ilenge is employed. Th e ve~se~vtPor
connection flange is equipped with a O.5-inch st ud at least one me ong,
projecting outward from top dead center on th e flan ge face.The vapor~an
ifold must also be fitted with a manually operat ed isola tion valve that grvea
. ' t .
clearindication of the valve's status.
If a ship is carrying incomp atible cargoes, it is imper ati ve to m.am 810
. of the cargo vapors for quality
. assuran ce I' easoos and. 10 hi
some
e eganon
Thnces for safety. On a tanker with 0 singl e vapor control main , t 18 IS

VAro n CONTROl. SYST EM COMPON Io:NTS

107

Ii ilhH I

1
!

- l I b - . (#.)

~
s

,~
e
<

9~

,,

~
~
~

iJ

~
>

;;0

a
,
j

"j
i.

o ,
e

@'

"

;Ii

:.:. ~

'j
i.

a E

'.
, e

.s a
] ,~

,e =
,,

.,

! ~

..

", 0>
~~

.~

<:

"

'i~

~ ~
".

t:

.~

a
.=

.-

,.

~
0

,~

!~
i~

~~

,~

.~

~~

.,

.~

i'j

to"
01 .'::
is E
.

Figure 5-9. The va por manifold is clea rly ma rked to avoid confusion or possible
cross_connection. Th e vapo r hose is requ ired to have th e sa me coloring and
!Iteociling as th e vessel vapor ma nifold. Courtesy ~I ark J ones.

usually accomplished by closing valves or installing blanks in the appropriate branch lin es. Other ta nk ers (such as chemi cal carrie rs and certain
product carriers) a re fit ted with ded ica ted vapor contro l systems for individual cargo tanks or tank gro ups .
To furth er guard against contamin ation of dissimil ar cargoes, drai ns
must be provided for removal of liquid condensate from the vapor control
pipingresulting from ( 1) liq uid carryover while loading du e to mists in the
vapor st ream , ( 2 ) conde nsation in th e piping due to temperatur e changes,
/31cargo ta nk overfill, or (4) ca rgo sloshi ng at sea.

Vapor Co ntrol Hose

The hose used for transferring vap or s mu st he electrica lly continuous and
constructe d of material tha t is resistant to kinking and abr a sion . The hose
asse.mbly should be pr ovid ed with prop er support to prevent excessive
strain, kinking, or collapse of the hose.
The vapor hose mu st also meet the following minimum strengt h criteria:

rz!ie

Design bursting pressure

Maxim um allowable working pressure

Vacuum (without collapsing/constri cting)

25 psi
5 psi

- 2 psi

VENTIN G SYSn:MS AND VAPOR CONT ROL OPERATIONS

108

CLOS En GAUGING

;gned to opera te over

. has be n
b the entire la nk depth . CIus e d ga uging
de,
....del'
used forI a fnum

'

h e r dof yea rs'as

. part of th e IG regu I auone.
It origiated as a r eBU t ot
e nee to mam. tam atmosphere cant roI an d a positive
..
.
n
" . pressure .d unng cargo opera ttc na, Consequent!y, th ere ar e a number
d
of dosed gaugtng systems on the market, details of which can be found in
chapter 6 .

Vapor

I:
L

j 'solation valv~
I

-1 meter

'
c-

109

- - _

Red ba nd
Yellow bafld
Red band

0.1 m
0.8 m
0.1 rn

Detailel vessel ma nifold end 01 vapor control piping

H igh LevelJOverfiH Alar ms

One of many conce rns associat:ed with a dosed loading operation is the risk
f cargo tank overfill. Overfilhng a cargo tank while toppi
...... mg eIf can r es u1 t
O
in structural dama ge to the vessel ; also , cargo may be sent into the vapor
control syste m. The most common cause of a spill while loading is overfilling, and the most common causes of overfilling are the following:

1.

Human erro r-fatigue. inattentiveness, mexperienee, leckofcommunicaticn , etc .

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Vapor

Do"

Ship

Vapor control hose

Figure 5-10. Th e vapo r manifold (top ) must be fitted with a manually operattd is0lation valve t hat gives a d ear indica tion of th e valve's stat us. The vapor control
hose (bottom) mu st be colored a nd ste nciled 8S shown . Courtesy Richard BeadOll
and Mark Huber.

.n.0
Th e color a nd marking at each en d of the hose should be similan
respects to the vessel va por manifold (fig. 5-10>. As part of the declaration
ofinapection {DOn checkoff, the hose sh ould be in spected far cuts ,tesrs,or
defects that may render it ineffectiv e.

CLOSED GAUGING
Il taf\\l.ers

In an effort to achieve 8 va por -ti gh t de ck a nd leak-fr ee transfer, ~ yslt[ll

e ngag e d in va por control must be eq u ippe d with a clo se d ga ugIng e

~l echani cal failure

Malfunctioning tank valves
Faul ty gauging system
Improper lineup
Cargo gravitation
Faulty alarms

To protect a ga in st such a n occurrence, a larms ind icating both high

level and overfill conditions mu st be fitt ed on vesse ls equipped for vapor
control. Each a larm must be des ign ed to provide a udible and visual warningw hen th e cargo level re a ches predet ermined sett ings. The se alarms are
required to be intrinsically safe and totally independent of each other. The
alarm system must be equipped ...vith a te st feature to permit checki ng
prior to the ca rgo t ransfer and to give warning in the event of a power c r circuit failure.
The h igh -le vel a larm is set to activate when the liqui d level is between
95 percent of t a nk capacity and th e setting of the overfill alarm. The secondary overfill a la rm must be set to provide am ple wa rning for t he personin-charge to shu t down loading before the ca rgo tan k overflows.
Both a la rm s sho uld be cle arly in dicate d in black lett ering on a white
background as follows: High Level Alarm a nd Tank Overfill Alarm. .
Additional opt ion s a re availa ble to protect th e vessel struc t ure against
d?ma ge from t ank overfill . One option is t he use ofa s pill valve o~ rupture
d~sk on ea ch ca rgo ta nk . The se devices genera lly are set to relieve at ~
higher pressure than the tank PV va lve but certainly less tha n the maxi rn~m design working pressure of th e tank. For vessels in ocea~ or coastWiSe service, provision mus t be ma de to prevent a ccidental opening due to
cargo sloshing .

Il O

VENTINO SYSTEMS AND VAPOR CONTROL OP~'

""RATi ONS

A seco nd op tio n is to install an overfill control 9 8te

ge nerally found on tank barges , th e overfill 8c 080 r:
t~ ' In th is /Iy
nected to the shore fa cility. When an overfill occurs ~~ e VCs/l el ar: 1(:rn,
n
ca lly sh uts down th e loading operation a t least si~t e sYstem B Ut(lllltll .
ta nk is pressed up to capacity.
y seconds bt'fore ~~

Vessel Pressure-Vacuum (PV) P r o ' ec "Ion

Another con sequence ofclosed loading operations is th
' ,
d
"
f
e POS8IbJ!"t
or un er-pressunzatlon a 8 cargo tank. Since t he adve t f ' I Yof o\~
tern s on tankers, numerous ca se s of cargo tan k rupt u reOs ~ Inert gas 8)'~
been B!tributed to closed operations (fig . 5-11 ). As a re8ult.~heCOllap8e ha\~
operating procedures and a tte nt ion to detail during ca rgo
ne~ror llafe
not be overstated.
operabons can
Som e of the potential causes of cargo tank overd
izetiIon are ( Ll
un er -pre811 Ur.
I~a
I ! excessi
excessively hi~h loading r ate , (2) m al fu nctrionin
Sized PV devices, (3) vapor lin e const ric t ion , (4) im pro
g or under.
pe r vapor 8ystelll

UUHiIl ..oW VAPOR PR.~" HUR.~ PROTI:CTION

111

5) excellllive withdraw al of va pors or ca rgo, (6) ex pansion or con'"eUP' t

,0 lind (7) ca r go slosh ing.
I,
,
or car '
.
1lI'acUOl"lrotect
against the foreg?m g, the rcgulations l!tipulate t hat the eyefo P Id be ca pable ofh a ndhng vapor 8 at 1.25times the maxi mu m load teTil shO u rthe vellflel. Tank vessell!a re u sually fitted with one or more of
ingrate o . g pressu re -va cu u m relief devices: individual tank PV va lves
the fol1.0W\~ val ve (if fit te d ), and liquid-filled PV breaker .
'
,
enastf'lse rtpolnt.8
at w'hiI Ch th e se devi
evtcee re I'rev e excess pressure or vacu u m
'fhe ~ell within t he followin g r a n ges :
JhOuld 18
maximum dellign workinlC preeeure
1.0 psi <. pressur e relief

<0'

lIetting of IIpi\l valv e/rupture disk

-0.5 psi > vacuum relief > maximum design vacuum

The bar graph sh own in figure 5- 12 furth er illustrates the normal ope rfng pressu res and settings for PV reliefdevice s in a va por cont rol syste m,
a I It is important to realize that PV val ves , like any mech anical device .
canfail when ne eded m os t . Therefor e , routine in~ pection a nd maintenance
areessential to en sure p ro pe r st ructural protection ofthe vessel. As part of
the regulations, each n ewl y installed PV va lve must ha ve a means of
checking that the valve operate s freely and does not remain in the open p0sition. For more details conc ernin g the function of PV va lves, consul t chapter 4.

HIGH /LOW VAPOR PRE SSURE PROTECTION

Vapor control systems must be eq ui p pe d wi th a pressure se nsing device
that permi ts the per s on-in -ch a r ge to monitor the d eck pres sure in the vessel, High- and low-pres s u r e alarms must gi ve both a ud ible a nd visual
warning when a n ex t reme condition exi sts. The a la rm se t ti ngs a r e a s fol lows:
High pressure a larm _

Figure. 5-11. On the ve81lel shown here, a ca rgo tank was overp res8urized whenthe
~IC faded to open the appropriate branch lin e valve and the PV valve was inopera'
uve. Numerous underdeck framing member s were fra ctured and th e entire deck
above the cargo tank was deformed upw ard in to a pro nounced dome. CourtesyLl.
Comdr. Douglas B. Cam eron, U.S. COBBt Guard .

not more than 90 percent of the lowest

pressu re relief valve sett ing
Inerted ta nker

_ not less than 4 in . wg

(100 mm w g) 0.144 psi

l-cw preseure alann [

Noninerted tanker _ lowes t vacu um
relief va lve setti ng

AND VAPOR CONT ROL OPERA TI ONS

E" S
VENTINGSYST."

li Z

OP~;IlAT IONS

112"

11 3

mulBling" ca rgo Buch aa jet fuel or ae sottne. the initial loading

1tic accl~ b e lim ited to minimi ze the development of a static electrical
U
raW tlhO
c Expe ri en ce has shown that" agitation , .splallhing, and pipeline friccltllrg , l'bute to charge se pa r at ion In cert ain low-conductivity cargoes.
t;On contu r it.is con sid er ed safe pr act ice to limit the velocity to each ta nk to
Asa res t , I second u ntil a sufficient cushion ill achieved . A table of flow
ter
1 l1\c
perpondin g to a lin ea r velocity of 1 meter per second th roug h verit CIl C0
ra . 7: ;pip in g a nd also additional guidance concerning the han dh ngof
ous~lze CU m ul a t ing ca rgoes ca n be found in chapter 2.

"8U

995 " Tank test head

".
PV brilr. pressure sel DOin t

PV valve pressure se lpo lnl

HIgh-p ress ure a larm

stat iC aC

Fi nal Ga u gi n t(
trol regula ti ons prohibit th e opening of a cargo tank to at.moVapor c;n . g active ca rgo transfer, The intent of th is requirement IS to
sphere un~em vapor-tigh t throughout the operation. In fact, it ehould be
keeplly
th unnece
e eye
to open a tank to atmosphere during loading if a ll re. .
lOla d
qUIre equ ip me nt-is fu nct ioning properly.

Low -press ure alarm

55' ''''

:""':t-';;'c'~' PV valve vacuum se tpoi nt

'Ft-"~'~
7" PV bril r. vac uum

set pcmt

Vapo r piping pressure

ecc when loading one system

~ -56

(In of H~O)
System pressure and

Figure5-12. Bar graph illustrating the normal operating pressures a nd settingsfor

preesure-vacuurn relief devices in a vapor control syste m.

1'0 14-- -+-- t--I- -t- i - t;j

OPERATIONS
This section addresses a number of th e operational concerns th at a PIC
must keep in mind during a closed load in g ope ration .

Loading Rates
One critical element that affects th e overall sa fety and success of VB~r
control operations is the determination of max im um allowable loadmg
rates. The regulations specify that cargo loading ra tes m ust tak e into BCcount the preeeure drop through the vapor piping system as well 88 the
venting capacity of the pressure relief valves on the tan k. A graph reflecti?g t~e cargo loading rate versu s the pressure drop for a typical in 8talla
tion 18 shown in figure 5-13.

The maximum allowable loading r ate must be determine d and clearl~

unde~d by both vessel and terminal personnel prior t o commenccm~n
ofloadmg. While loading, the vessel PIC sh ou ld clo s el y m onito r t he loa.d,n~
rates and

AAAk p

repure to prevent damage to the system .

dol+--+--!- +-+ -t--ti l i t

i is 1-l-- -l--i- -+- t-----r- I I l":;
i

selpOint bar graph

Wh

en

loadlOg

1,400

2,800 4,200

5,600

84 00 9.800 11,200 12,600 14,000

7.000 . , te (bblsllir)

Ov erall regulated cargo load ing ra

le lank) to en vapo r heade r
ssm Pr essure drop is lrom no . 1 ce nle r tan k (mos t rsmo
d 55% hydrocafbOnvapor,
I
0145% Inert gas an
I . Pressure drop Is lor a rn xtur e
vapo r ma in.
2. All port vapor header IS larthestlrom the

,
. beween cargo loading rates and the
Figure 5-13. This gra ph sh ows the relab on8hlPh
et remote cargo tank. Regulapre811ure
drop through t h e vapor pi'ping from
. t e rna t the pressure drop th rou gh
,.
. that ca rgo loa di109 ra es ta ke IOtaaCC'Oun
.
Ivee on th e
10nllllpeCify
ttv of h
sscre rehefva
. ,apaclty 0 t e pre
t he vapor piping as well as the ven , 109
tank.

1/'

ANDVAPORCONTROL OPERATIONS
VENTINOSYSTEMS

'tted to open tanks for th e pu rpose of

veeeet p('r80n n('1n~ pernl! rntures provided th e following criter;ll'aug.
ternp
ng. 98mpling, and takmg
('
II are

'
,._

...
Af7l\ DEcL.AAAnoN
OF INS PECTION ADDENDUM
t{!!!!f
~OPllU __

et:

2
3.

5.

o active transfer to th e tank.

..
There,is n
tnve prell8ure i8 mai rrtained .
rted tank . a POSI
.
rn an IO~ ~ _..l k the vapor pre88ure ISreduce d to at mo spheri c Viath
In a nonlnton<:U tan
~
vapor systeJll
' ~ to be "c!osM gauged " by re gula ti on .
The cargo 18 not requr
..
,
a U metalh c equipment m trodu ce<tinto th
Ira , ta tic aC'("liffi uIa ti10 g carat>
'& - '
.
e
.
d .~
the v sel and. for noni nerted ve ssel s, II minim
umk IS bon t'U to
.
'
UJn
ti en "..riod h a s elapsed em ce loa d m g ceased .
thirty.m inult'rt'Iau I

-- ___._-- .- ...-----... _---- ....

._-_.-- ----_-_ __, _-. _---_ -

.-.
.,

~~ . - - - _

. . . - - ... -

Declaration of Inspection
vapor control . the declarat ion of inspeemcludeentries for critical aspects ofthe system. The Shell
tie.DDI in figure 5-14 illustrates th e required ent ries for
~ra Ions. Additionally, the use ofa sta nda rd che cklist (lig.
uaed in crude-oil-washing operation s should help
iehapa.
in~ to conduct

,::;
. e-ooo", _ _ _ '
. ...... _

Inerted Tank Vessels

-gulations are designed to complement existing ~
I
t
The vapor con ro .'"
_ I'.
.
te r. inerted vessels Despite th e num erous safegu ard s already
quu'6lnen lor
.
h
i'
~ t the nero to maintain proper atmosp ere contro lor vessel safety
)neul'C
. .
t I
.
,.h1ls neverbeengreeter. Prior to engaging m vap or con ro op er ati ons, ves.
pe1'6Onnei must test each cargo tank to verify that the oxygen content
notexceed B percent by volume. The oxygen meas urements should be
en atra pomt 1 meter below the tank top and at th e mid poin t of the ulsce rn each tank . Another concern involves facilities usin g a blower
t in the transport of the vapors . The use of such a blower by the
tit.)' could reduce the vessel deck pressu re below th e required
,whithm tum could ultimately re sult in air being drawn into the
PI ofthe vessel must be mindful of this possib ility and care,~ii~~r the deck pressure during closed oper ations to ensure th at the
tUB of 8 tank is not compromised.

.. "'llOI ...., - ~ ..p ( n - ...... N-.g Ol Dl..

' ~.'20 "" 46 CFR hJ,5. :lOana ........... tuo<
~ In:li<:ale<l.
- ' awylO_".. - ,

_ : : : : : : ; . .,. ... ""'" .. " ...... :l3 CFIl

""

.. ... -

.. ..

', .. . .. I0OI" ........ "' ..

M '

. .... _ _ _

.~

__

,... , "

'/011
-

. _

....... -

....... ... ..---. .....

' .. _

.. -

" ... . . I0OI. . .........

...................
"'.
..

....

_ .... _

___ _

1 ...' ...... "

...

.. _

- -_

... - - -

, __--._.. _ CItI I _

'""'111"

.. _

- . . 1' ... . . ... . \

1. ... "" .... . ... ... .. "" 1

,------ -._.. _--

__ _ _ ..._ _ ,.w- ................"'"

1oI.;IMIIt.. _

1ll1l

,~

,1_ _ ' _ _ _ ... _

...

. ....... ... _

..._

..not,

.. _ . _ .. _ _ ......,....,
_ _ OA"

SlJIS!OUIN I "-RSOf<.<OI.O<., ,,.1:

li_

..., ,...! OQtII'\u ro

Ligbtering

i O transfers occur in a locality where emission

~r8'8,~ generally handled through vapor bala~c'
~ bala cmg is a closed transfer between th e servtce
li tered (VTBL). The cargo vapors displaced
liquid cargo transfer are returned to the

-14.This addendum to the Declaration of Inspection lists the required ena mU8t be completed by the PICs when conducting a vapor control operartesy Shell Oil.

ONTROl OPERATING PROCEDURES

CHECKLIST-MARIN E VAPOR CONTROLOPERATING PROCEDURES

Pf8-l rensler conference requ lled by DOL completed

Terminal consulted rega rding d ropp ing the dec k P!'aMure.

If l enninal operates a va por line v acuu m aSSist. havi operating hm" s beln

delermlned'?
o C811.rfiC8la of lnspectiof'l 0 1 Cei1.lficate of Com pl iante ef'ldorsed
All oillrans!e f proced u res co mpl l6d wllh

Manifold Sop en _lo ading operalions commef'lCtld

LO A OINGlTR A NSFER OPERATI ON S

C:J
C:J
C:J
C:J
C:J
c:::::J
c::=::J
c:::::J
c:::::J
c:::::J
c:::::J
c:::::J

IflltJBl load lng rat es observed .

cafQOlVapDr connectIOns checked and found &8hsfaetory

LiQuidlV apDr flow chec ked a nd found sahs1aClOIY

. i s oorr recommendations Obse rved regald,ng stenc aceum~atOf oils

Malti mum allo wable load,ng rates nof u ceed Bd

Vapor pressure on deck monllored

Load,ng rat es

POST TR A NSFER CH ECKS

o

I~~~"t~a rd checklist similar

t

preV, ntin

to those used

In crude-o il-

g wmeceeearv
mi18 h ape. Cou rtesy
OJ

finished lo ading and gauge o ut . (N Ole: 10 v esse l to maintain poSlllVe

deck pre ssu re .

Cargo hos es drai ned , disconnected. and cargo system valves shut .

Vapor ma nifo ld sh ut a nd vapor hose discon nected

o

c::=::J
c:::::J
c:::::J
c::=::J

adiusled as necessary tor topping-off.

All appl icab le regulations per1ainlflll to Inet! Gas syst ems compiled wlIh.

Bra nch lin e v alv e st atus on 10 vessel cl'leclled and sati sfactory

otO plant run up

and deck pr ess ura topped ~ If necessary.

CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ

VENTING SYSTEMS AN n VAPOR CONTRO L OPE llAT IONS

1"

119
CHECKLIST-MARINE VAPOR CONTROL OPERATING PRoceOURES

CRmCAL FAULTS INVOLVING V....POR CONTROL SYSTEMS

VIflO' hOse conslnctSltOliapse&'ll:inkl or da maged In a ny way w hich
f~ ~ inttfectrv

Vapor bal an cing r equ ires car.eful coordina tion bet ween the PICs of
ex penence with va por b a 1ancm
. g h 8 S revealed
eSCh vesse l. To. dafte,tavessel
:
some intere st mg ac .
1.

link l)VIl101 ,I ' lm IS l~

HogflltW-' ala"""lnIl0'1&11,11 alarmIlutt.

o

TIf\Il ov8INI cootrol {ll.lIO-srn,tdownj inoperanV8

'Inoper ll lVl gaugonQ sysllm.

MechaniC&l fI~~' 01 bfar.::h lin6"Vapor manifold valva

HiQ!Vlow vapor pressure conditiOn

lnoper...... PN fl he! v.fves.

3.

. 1nItMICY to mainlain!allnen 8'Ml o~gen by volume In cargo tanks

. 1nItloWY 10 mali'll' '''' positive d eck Pf8SSLf'8Ihro ug ho ul l ra nsf e r.
Faulty line-I.Q 01 \tl8 vapor coIIect(M'l system.

Cargo pumping rates are "tical when conduct,o, a c,oeed uIgh teri ng operation. The PICs must diSCUSSand carefully monito th
.
throughout the t ransfer .
r e pumpmg raws
e
.
n

Given the ~olatile nature oft he cargo,vessels have experienced dramatic

increa ses 10 deck pressure due to vapor growth reaultin fro
.
.. I d '
.
g m cargo
pumplOg (a gJtabon an lO<Teasmgambientwmperatures {vaporizationl.
In some instances , vessels have reached a high deck pressure condition
necessita ting a shutdown oft he lighlering operation, as ventingoffthe excess pressure to atmosphere is no longer an option.
To en sure th e safety of the lightering operation. it is important to verify
that each vessel is properly inerted prior to commencement of the transfer. Each vessel mu st check th e oxygen content ofthe cargo tanu following th e guidelines mentioned earlier in th is chapter. A measured value of
8 percent Oll)'gen or less by volume is considered acceptable and it is the respon9ibility of both PI Cs to monitor the level throughout lightering.

ALWAYSCOHSlA.T COMPANY POlICIES AND 0 1. TR ..... SFEA PROCED URES f OIl

'OUI'VESSEL

Figure 5-15 (ro nt.)

VTBL via a vapor connection. When inerted vessels engage in 8 dosed

~ightering operation several additional requirements must be met includingthe following:
1

3.

The service veeeel must ha ve a means to inert the vapor transfer bOM
prior to commencement of the lightering operation.
The semce
. vessel must have an oxygen analyzer fitted within 3 meters~
the vesselvapor connection .The analyzer mu st hav e a suita ble connedlon
fora calibration gas to enable the testing of the in strument .
Theservicevessel must have a visual and audible alarm that soundswhen
the Oxygen content in the vapor system exceeds 8 percent by voIUJTIl', . J
1eu
The service"esse I sh 0 uld be
be equipped
emu
. d tor loca
with an oxygen mica
whirl' the cargotransfer is controlled (i.e., cargo control room orondeck)~
electrical InSU
. 1eung
flange or a length of nonconducttvs
. hoae lO ust d
tailed.bet ween t he vessel vapor connection on the service
. vesselao

L.

Maintenance
The vent ing and vapor control syste m of the vessel requires periodic in specti on an d maintenance. Consult the manufacturer's manual for t he recommended interv a ls a nd det a ils ofthe se rvi ce. If no gui da nce exists. cre ate
a preve nt ive m aintenance (P M ) sche du le for the vessel ba sed on operator
experience with t he ins talled sy stem . Critical a reas requiring a tte ntion in
the vent system ge ne rally include t he followi ng:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.

Low point drain s (liquid condensat t>lcargo)

Flame screens/arresters tfouli ng/holee )
Car go accumula tion (polymeriza tion/solid residue/scale)
PV reli ef devices (see chapte r 41
High-velocity ven ts (smooth operation of high jetslbullet valveel
Vent valve seating surfaces (gummed up with residuewdamage due to
chattering)
Stop valve s (branch lines/mast riser/vapor manifold)
Gauges/alarms (deck pressureJhigh-leveVoverlillJ

The increased complexity of cargo tank venting and vapor control eyeterns requires ongoing training and diligence on the part of the vessel P~C .
Sound tanker practice dictates that everyone involved in the operation
should fully understand the proper use of these systems and carefully
check the lineup before commencing a transfer. There is no room for com-

EMS AND VAPOR CONT ROL O P ERAT ION S

VENTINOS YST

120

d essing as serious damage can quickly result to

placency or ~eC'Onl t:~I.ty environment, and cargo. Remember, the" 'Ih,
,
envi
8 of
vesse I. pereonnc ' teenbe to
strive for a safe. e fficl
Icient. un d envlr
onme 0la
the PIC shouldalways
n lly
sound cargo transfer.

C H AP T E R 6

REVIEW

Cargo Measurement and Calculation

1. List the advantages of a controlled venting system over trad itional

open venting of cargo tanks.

.
2. What are the typical methods of controlled venting employed on a
tan k vessel?
3. What is the principle of operation of a high-velocity venting device?
4. What are the most common types of HVV found on board today?
5. What is the manufacturer's stated exit velocity from these devices?
6. What fire protection, if any, is afforded by the use of these devices?
7. Whenloading a vessel using a contro lled ven ting system, is it still possible to experience vapor accumulatio n aro un d t he deck and SUperstructure?
8. What causes physical liquid carry over through the venting system?
9. Whyis it important to check low-point drains in the vent/vapor control
piping?
10. What types ofcargo must be loaded with out venting to a tmosp he re today? Where?
11. Describe the typical piping configuration for a closed load ing system
(vapor control!on each ofthe following vessels: crude oil, clean oil, and
parcel carrier.
12. Sketch the vessel vapor manifold showing a ll req uired deta ils.
13. Why is it imperative to check th e integri ty of the PV relie f de vices?
14. What is a pressure drop calculationlloading rate curve?
15. What additional entries must be completed on th e DOl for a va por control operation?
16. When conducting a closed lightering oper ation wha t is method typically employed?
'
17. What is t~e purpose of an insulating flang e? Where is it found ?
18. betek an tnerted vessel conducts a closed load oxygen readings must
la.denat what locations in the cargo tanks? What oxygen readin g is
~nsl er
acceptable?
[;18 h minimum et
gth . .
wn I
ren
criteria for a vapor hose
e on UClI
a
closed
10 di
.
.
filled .
b
a ngoperatlOnacargotankisoverl

Ii

a confro.n ting the vessel and the che cks that mu st be

''/;1''<l?'i.8p.mlOg operations.

JO HN O'CONNO R

he various parties wh o have an a ct ive interest in the way oil is quantified have standardized cargo measurement over the past several
decades. Those who wish to familiarize themselves furthe r with th e th eoretical an d practical aspects of cargo measurement can refer to cha pte r 17,
-Marine Measure ment ," in the Manual of Petroleum Measurement Sta ndards publi sh ed by the American Petroleum Institute . Thi s publi cation
has severa l sections, the most pertin en t being section 2, "Meas urement of
CargoesOn Board T ank Vessels ." This a nd othe r rela ted publi cations ha ve
been formal ized during many years of discussion an d technical critique to
arrive at what can be con sid er ed standa rd methods to gauge an d sam ple
petroleum a nd other liquid ca rgoes.

THE PURPOSE OF CARGO MEASUREMENT

The purpose of a ta nk vessel is to transport bulk liqu id cargo, which ea rns
revenue for the vessel's owners . In or der to prope rly care for an d h andl e the
cargo whil e it is being load ed, ca rried, a nd discharged, accura te me as~r~.
ment of th e ca rg o is important to determine qu an tity and quality. Thi.sls
accomplis hed by ph ysical gaugi ng, te mperature measurement, s~mp~tng,
and calcula tio n of the quantities in eac h cargo t ank, th e vessel pipelines
and slop tanks . Speci al cir cums t a nces may require measurement of cargo
. .
in ballast tanks, void sp a ces , or the vessel's fuel tanks ,
To understand the signi fica nce of a ccurate mea surement, It IS .neces
eery to have a clear picture of how the cargo on board the vessel IS
chased and sold. In many instances, the charterer of th~ veaee nas
arranged to purchase the cargo from a supplier at the load.in~n)o
quantity (or volume) of ca rgo is supplied to the vessel from l!h~ e torag
l8.nks. The volume of cargo that is delivered from one o 'mer tio

J22

CARGO MEASURt;M ~NT ANI> CALCULATI ON

.'
on documen ts such us a bill ofla ding or a certifica te of
tanks I~ h.8le
[ume ofcarga tha t t he cha rterer ha s purch a l;ed . As qUa.n.
hde votu
,
Thlslst
~
h
v<'''"e'
II ) .
.
t
rt.of th e mea surem ent process lor t e BhoreBide ' _
nwnnel are no pa
b
~n lt
IX'
( It ately the ma stcrJa cccpts the cargo on card the vessel w' '
the crew k" ,m, dge of whether th e volu me as liste d is re pTesenla t,. Itll
e
ve l um e of ca rg.v<' of
ne direct I now
J
pplied . Th e cre w ca n mea sure t hee vo
~actuawume~
hlai ned in the vessel's tanks , a nd th e t wo volum es can t en be compared. If
y confi
they are cJce" , the mast er could be reasonabl
if
f dent that
' .the volu me
listed on the hill of lad ing and/or th e cern rea te 0 qu a ntity I II accuraU:!.
ShouJd there be a la rge discrepancy between t he two volumes , the master
has the right to have the cargo on the vessel m~as.ured a second time to
k sure that all potential errors have been eh m mated. If the volume
~i~ ;annot be reconciled, then the ma st er will usuall y sign the bill of lad~
ing unde r protest, noting the discrepancy and any steps taken to aCCOUnt
for the difference .

PARTIES INVOLVED
The following list ide ntifies all the parties involved in carg o t ransfer and
measurement :
Th e t'essel owner is an individual or corporation that holds title to t he
vessel.
The uessei operator may be the vessel owner, although in most cases,
th e ope rator is a differe nt party contracted or employed by the owner to
conduct day-to-day ope rations of the vessel.
A charterer is an individ ual or corporation that employs the ves sel for
one or more voyages to ca rry ca rgo.
The supplier is t he party providing t he ca rgo, which is normally s tored
at a terminal or in a nother ve ssel.
The receiver is th e party tha t acce pts the cargo. The vehicle used to accept
or receive th e ca rgo could be the vessel , a storage tank or tanks, or t he metered pipeline receipt that is provided after cargo pas ses t hrough a pi peline.
A terminal is a ehoreeide facility capable of sto ri n g, rec ei ving , a nd/o r
supplying cargo.
An inspection com pa ny is a third party employed equally by the s u p plie r
and the receiver to measure the cargo. Measurement will routinely cons ist of
~olume measurement of the ca rgo and sampling, followed by analysi s at the
ins pection company laboratory to determine the cargo quality .

TERMS OF SAL E
10 most:ci rcumstances, someone other than the vessel owner or operator
has title to t he petroleum that is transported on a tank vessel. In mo st

123

.,' wnc d by the cha rtere r. Th e chll rt~'rer tukes posllesllion of

h 0 1 III 0
d
f
h '
Cjl~r8. t e h e point of CUllttJ y t r a ns er , w ten n~nnal l~ illth e interface behe 011 fit t
I1linal' s ca rgo hose an d t he vessels mamfold flange .
ttl'it'en thc .t cr arc the t h r ee mo s t com mon to rm a uee d In
i the sale and pur .
folloWlng
of oil ca r go:
chllse
on boa rd (F .O. B. ):, Under these terms, risk PSSIlt'Ii to the buyer [reFr::er ) at th e F.O.B. point . which is normally th e loading port. The buyer
re~rchaRe8 th e qua ntity as Illlte.d on th e bill of ladinKand actepta any risk
P
during t. he voyage . Quah. ty ofthe cargo
o f l~
. under F,Q,B. termsis ba&ed
n the quahty of th e cargo 10 the suppher's shore tank or tankA.
insurance, freight tC.1, F.): Usually the C.1.F. term is followedby the
2 name of t he discha rge port or
cost to the buyer includes
. porta . The C.I.F.
.
_ (cost ) of the quantity of cargo as hsted on the bill of lading, plus
the pn ....
.
nee a nd the freight payme nt . In C&--'>eS where th e buyer procures his
tneure
own insur an ce, the terms of sale would then be cost and freight tC.&F.).
Th uality of the cargo in both C.l.F . and C.& F. cases is based upon the
u:l~y ofthe cargo in the su pplier's shore ta nk or tanka.
bel iLoered: When ca rgo is purch ased or sold on delivered terms the cargo
3 o....mer , who would be called th e su pplier in this arrangement , agrees to be
nsated by the receiver (buye r) baaed upon the volume of cargo that
~mpe
8 "'_d
in the receiver' s shoreside tanks. Quality ofthe cargois deter~me
~~
.
mined by the vessel's composite sample, ae found when the vessel arnves
at the discharge port.

ci:t,

These d iffere nt terms allow suppliers an~ receivers.to limit their e x~

hility
as in each set of terms, t h e ri sk or los s IS acce pted at a difsure or Ira
1
,
ferent point.

MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
Typical cargo m easurement e q u ipment ca rried on board a tank vessel coneiete of the followin g:
Opentank gau gin g tapes
Gauging bobs
Water indicating paste
Product indicating paste
Thermometers
Clolled tank gauging devices
Temperature probes
Sample bottles
Sample bottle container assembly

TA NK ST ltllCl'U IU: ANIJ

CARGO MEAS UREMt:NT AND CALC ULATION

~U:A SUR~:~U:NT

124
Reslr icted

0,,00

Uc:III,cr~el

- - - - - -- - - - - - ---

TANK ST HUCTUIl E A NIl M EASUREMENT

' r- -

- --

I
t- -

- - --

125

------

ff-

Figure 6-1. Gauging methods on 8 tank vessel are typically cla ssifi ed 8S open,re.
stricted, orrJosed, based on th e amount of atmosphere released from a tank dUring
the process. Copyright C International Mari time Organization (11\10), London.

hi gs ea n affect th e meeau remant of cargo--the st ruct ure of each

Man)'
t 10 (including t he locat ion of th e gaul{ing point ) internal framing
o ta n k
.
'
,arit
dea dri se, tum ofthe bilge , and cargo pipelines. Prior to under mbt.'rs,
.
1
r
me . s ny ga ugmg or sa mp mg o a cargo, t he PIC should become familiar
Is.luntghe actual physical struc t u re ofthe cargo ta nk s. in formati on may b.
\Vl.th. d from t he vessel'as drrawmgs
awi
or pIan s, from a ta nk erran gem eot.d tobt~nne and from crewmembers wit h a worki ng knowledge of th e vessel.
eeamdi h
tl ~ Coromon w nns use In t e ~easu re me nt process include th e following;
Calibrati on tables (ullage I tnnage) a re ta~l es developed by recognized
. dustry methods t hat represent t he vclumes in each tank according to the
~ id (inn age) or empty s pace (ullage) measured in the tank. The tables
~~::ntered with linea: me~surements (for exa mple, feet , inches , mete rs,
meters ) to obtam cahbrated volumes such as gallons, barrels cubic
~~n t,
'
meters, or cubic feet.

Based upon th e \ '1'8 81'1'8 design a nd regulat ory require me nts , gauging
of the cargo tank s will be classified as open (ope n to t he atmosphere), reo
stricted, or closed 8 8 seen in figure 6-1.
Cargoes that are not requir ed to be in erted or ca rried u nder a nitrogen
blanket are loaded into tanks that are open to the at mos phe re an d t here.
fore at atmospheric pressure. Cargoes that require inerting are introduced
into tanka that are maintai ned at a positive pressu re slig htly hi gher t han
atmospheric pressure. Under mast conditions, t he se t anks s hould not be
opened to the atmosphere. Sh ould it become ne cessary to open a n inerted
cargo tank , follow indus try- recommended safe ty pr ecaution s and mai ntai n
a positive pressure (see cha pte r 15 for further informat ion ). Tank vessels
that routin ely carry inerted ca rgoes or load at te rminals wi t h res trictions on
the emission of cargo va pors are fitted with closed measure men t devices.
These devices permit ga ugi ng, temper a ture reading, a nd sam pling of the
tanka to be accomplish ed without the rel ease of atmosphere or loss of
pressure .

rc

Many lank vessel s are equipped with st a ndpipes and vapor cont rol

val~es (fig. 6-21that permit the operator to gauge ea ch t ank w it h a portable

some tape (fig. 6-3l. Portable tapes are typically u sed when topping 01T
carg~ lanka to compare readings with the permanently in stalled closed
:ugmg~system. C~rgo surveyors (gaugers) frequently use portable sonic
hera to gauge out a vessel at the completion ofloadingor prior to the dis'
c arge. of cargo.
any loyp6s of closed gauging systems are found on modem tank vessels.
s 8--4 and 6-5 show two wpee-eelectric resistance a n d radar.

Figure 6-2. A vapor control valve per ~its introduction of a s pecia lly deBlglled gauging tape. Courtesy MMC
International Corp.

Figure 63. Ullagee can be taken without leaking vapor using a specially designed gauging tape in conjunction with
the vapor control valve shown: in figure
6-2.Theae tape s can also meaeur
perature and the oiVwate..r in
Courtesy MMC lntemation I

Figu n> 6-4. The Mel ri tap e level ~enao r ia

an -t'Il'('l ric tape meas ure" that ha ngs
from to p 10 bott om in a ta nk. Two wirl'll
cu r of th e sensor to p ca rry an electric
r1'si" tan ce signal th a t is directl y proport ional to t he ta n k ul/al{e. When t he
sensor is s u bmerged in a liqui d. t he
wt'igh t of the liq uid comp re sees th e sen sor and ca uses a short circuit in the submt'r'gt'd portio n of t he he lix win di ngs,
thus changing th e t'ler t rica l resistance,
A cha nge in ullage of 1 me te r causes a
corresponding change of 1 mete r in t he
length of uns horted resista nce helix and
a n elect ric reeieten ce cha nge of 100
ohms. An ulla ge read ou t is disp layed 10ralJy at th e ta nk top a nd remotely in the
cargo eontrol room. Cou rtesy Metri tape.

To br8alheIl8qU illl~e ,

Base sl rip

Sealed

outer jackel

AeSlslaoe:e
unlho<tecl

he...

liquid surface

6-5a. Radar ullaging systems such as thi s Saab TankRa dar measure ullages
Figure ring radar waves off th e surface of the liquid in a tank . Such systems are in-

by ~~n safe and extremely accurate (+I-5mm). Courtesy Saab Marine Electronics.
trinS1(l:l11y
Radar

-;;"-;;,..."'::::::'~_...,.,.

teanermuer

Ullage

Detail of Metritape sensor.

Second protective layer
Moisture barrier layer
\

Keystrip
Resistance element with
controlled tension and
placement and low
temperature coeuctent
Slable electrical
side insulation

Figure 65b. Tra nsmit t er

unit for th e Seab T a nk Radar. The radar tr an smitter mea sure s th e ta n k
ullage; with s pecific d at a
stored in a permanent mem ory,the computer can cel cu lite the tank volume . Thi s
system also monitors cargo
temperature and inert ga s
P aeure, which, along with
he tank ullage , are avails all a direct readout at
ntrol console or termiC urteey Saeb Marine
aiell.

~"g

Antenna
feeder

Cleaning
hatch

Decksocket
(yard suPPly)

128

TANK ST RUCTUlU: ANn MEAHUHEM~; N T

CARGO MEASUREMENT AND CALCU LAT IO N

- hi's the distance from the tank bot to m an dlor dat

Reference hell! I
.
.~
ra bliehed referen ce point
or mar k (s ee firgure 6 -6 I.
plate to t h e e8 ....,r. I " heig ht is the di. sta nce t h a t 18
- e ct ua I' Y me s au d
Observed re,erence
bli h d f
re
from th e ta nk botto m or datum plate to the ~staf " e h" h" he nce point.
,
_ t (gauging painO is the poin t rom W tc t e referen
Re, eren Cf' pa m
1 st
ce
height is determined a nd from wh ic~ the u1 age monges.a re. taken. His.
torical ly, most tank vesse ls US~ the nm of the ulla ge openmg In t he hatch
th e referen ce point for ga ug1ng the tan k (fig. 6-6 ).
.
8S Ullage (also referred to 88 "outage") i,B t he measured dI8~n~e from the
~
uid tc the reference
sunaee
0fth e IiIq....
. point.
. . In ot he r words. It 18 the me. .
sure ment of free space abov e th e hq,:,d In a.tank.(fig. 6 -6 ).
.
In nage (also referred to as "di p" or sounding" ! I S th e measured distance
from the surface of the liquid to a fixed datum plate or to the tank bottom

h
,
In addition to th ese measurement terms, t ere a re vo umetri c terms
th at ar e als o important to und er st and . Th ese te rms in clude the follow.
ing:
Total obsen'f' d volume (TOV) is th e total measu red volume of all petroleum liquids, sediment , water in suspens ion, an d free water at th e observed temperature.
Grossobsen!f!dvolu me (GOy) is the total measured volume of all petroleum liquids, sediment , and water in sus pens ion, excluding free wate r at
the observed temperature.
Free water frw) ia the volume of water present in a container that is not
in suspension in the contained liquid.
Gross standard volume (GSV) is the tot al volume of a ll petroleum liquids, sediment , and water in suspension , excluding free wa ter, corrected
by the appropriate volume correction factor for the observed temper ature
and API gravity, relative density, or density to a standa rd temper atur e
such as 60F or 15C.
Total calculated volume (Te V) is the total volume of a ll pet roleum liqwds eediment, and water in suspension, corrected by the a ppro priate voliim co
ion factor for the observed temperature and API gravi ty,
I bv ensity, or density to a standard temperature such as GOF or
I f'r:.ee. water measured at the observed temperature .
....:;;<M~l.:::
volumt' (NSV) is the total volume of all petroleum liquids,
<hmen water in suspension, and free water, correct ed by the
alum correction factor for the observed temperature and
la i e ensity, or density to a standard temperature such as

129

_ , Iudes water , oil , slops, oil rCtlidue, oilJwllt~r emulaion I d

d
"', a u ge , an
tity In
ent
lilll
.
.
o maining on board
he!lth
- ve ase I
ne
dI (ROB)
- l del>cn
i
,, _ e matt'rial remaini ng 10
void spaces, an or prp e mea aner dillchAr"c. The quantit
tallks,
. I d
il I
"
I Yrema in board m e u es wate r, 01 , s ops , oil residue OilJwAte
I ing on
di
t
,
r emu s um s,
sludge, and ee rmen .

(fig_ 6-6)_

Reference point

RerOl"enat point

Ullage

Bob
ro t

liquid level

i
Innage gauge

Ullage gauge

Note: The datum plate may actually be me shlp'S bottom, a striking ciete. or
another polnl Irom which the retereoce height Is measured

anual tank gauging. From Manual of Petroleum Measuremt'nt Stan~

Edition, July 1990 , "Mea su rement of Cargoes on Board Tank Vessels.
curtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

130

CARGO MF.AS UR Io:M ENT AN I>CALCULATION

M EA SUR E M E N T PROCEDURE S
Prior to th e start of a ny ~ ell 8u rem ent p ro~ed ur.e . it is pr ude,nt to refer
the vessel's tank calibrati on tabl es. T he calibration or s t ra pPing tah l ( to
nerated whe n t he vess el is bUilt. Thea a8
'h eY a re somet imes called) a re gebe
eta.
bles
will be se pa rated in to anum err 0of eecti
sectIO ns, .one se ctl on for each lank
Th e table will Jist th e l oca t i o~ ofthe reference ~tnt ~or e ac h tank as well a~
the total ga uge heigh t. Th e sim plest form of ca libration t abl e assumes th
mem he~s or pipe
. IIDes . Th e ship.
at
th e tank is a cube wit h no in tema I ,rrammg
yard specialis t who generates t he tables does so s imply by calculating th
tot al volume of the tan k. then di viding t hat figu re by the n u mber o r fee~
and inches bet ween the gauging point and the tank bottom .l\.teasurementa

ar e normally shown to the nea rest quarter-inch. although th ere are ta bles
{or larger vessels that may be broken down into increments of One-eighth
inch.
For accura te measurement to ta ke place. it is important to have what is
termed repea tability during th e measurement process. Repeatab ility is
th e ability to ta ke multiple ullage or innage measurements over time and
get th e same value. It is recommended that each measurement be done
twice within a short period of time. To illustra te : a tank hold s 30,000 bar.
rels when full , a nd the distance betw een the ga uge point and the tank bottom is 50 feet. The total volume of th e ta nk di vided by th e gauging distan ce
would equal the number of barreIs per foot, or in this case, 600. To extrapolate, each inch would equate to 50 barrels a nd each qua rter-inch would account {or 12.5 barrels. Some calibration tables ta ke certain aspects ofthe
tank's shape into account such as the turn of th e bilge. the volu me of space
occupied by any cargo or ba llast Jines th at run through the tanks, and in.
te rnal fra ming members.
After reviewing th e calibration tables to determine th e referen ce point
and height , gauging of th e tanks can commence. Prior to taking each set or
measurements , th e ga ugi ng equipment should be checked for wear. Handheld gau ging ta pes (fig. 67 ) should be checke d for kink s and excessive
wear at the clip th at holds the ga ugi ng bob to the tape.
Cup-ca se thermometers (fig. 6 8) should be chec ke d to make sure that
the thermom eter glass has not been cracke d a nd that the mercury in the
gl88S has not separate d."Standa rd" or lab -approved thermomete rs can be
obtained that are cert ified by ind ependent labora tories to rea d te mperatures within a small tolerance (usu ally 0 .5) over a defined ra nge, for exa pie, 50 to 110 Fahrenheit. If a standar d thermomet e r is carried on
oard it should be USed only to check th e readings of th e working the~.
mom~tef! If a standard thermometer is not availabl e then the vessel s
er ture device should be checked against the petroleum inspec~or's
the8t ~~ routinely calibrated in a laboratory se tting a nd cert ified

M EA SU lt E M ~; NT "HOCE IlUlt~:S

131

.....nic temperature probe, whet her a lIingl, de"

.
I
_
tee or IOcorpointo a tape d~vice , should a so be checke d BRamsl a flta ndard therrfl ted
when available.
IUOI11C.teTto proceedi ng onto th e deck of the vessel to bezin th
Prior
.
h
"'.
e mea sure_
hst of t e vessel should he checked. 1 the ves I h
ts, t he trim a nd
en
I
t
h
PI
C
.
b
hi
.
lieaftBS
p1. . eabletrimor 1St,
e
canco rr ect lt ~s lftmgca rgofore and
or
tlC
no
d larboard . If movement of th e cargo IS n ot possible it maybe

An e 1ect ,....

~~8

~~

-g.--.--t9f-

lonaga
..pe

Ullage
" pe

t,
~

~~
t-

i.-~

,t-:
t-

t-~

;-

E-

' 0'

lt

~t".

f-

Innage bob

Plaln

E~ensi on

outage bob

ullage

bob

TypIcal gauging

Deepgrooved
ullage
bob

tapes and bobs

r....
~.
~

Typical water galJgebars

of Pe
6 7. Several types of bobs connected to han dheId t e pee. FromManual fC
..
J
1
1990
~Mea8 u rem e n t 0
areasurement Standards, First Edition , u Y
,
.
P t 1' .._
.
Bqa rd Tank Vessel s ." Repnnted
courtesy 0f the American e rv. ,, 1,lU 1

.,

MEA.<;UHE MENT

...... "lJREMENT AND CALCULATION

CAROO)',1"""-'

132

(th e vessel's fuel oil or ballast. In an y event, it Rhollld

e~sa ryto shift some 0

II amount of trim or list could grea tly affect l'
k
'"
be note d that even
1-"a sma
t d from th e measur ements ta en.

l'I\(J( 'EllU ln: ~

ll-_

133

e
id . h I
cAI'<M
_ volumes ca cure
I trnportent factors to consi er 18 t e ocation of t L
One
I
.
'"
. of the
. t moe
Ideally
the gauging point
s h ouId b e centered directly

:~~~~:;;~~r_point ~f the tank. Having th e gaugin~ point situated in

this location negates any adverse effects of t~e vessel s tom or list . The
following diagrams i1Iu8tr~te ~he effect of tom on t he me a surement of
cargo when the gauging point I S locat ed at the after end of th e tank (fig.
(a) Ullage measuremeot WIth
the vessel in an even keel cond ItIOn

6-91.

r
i

ASTM
thermomeler

Corrosion-

(b) Ullage meas urement With the vessellnmmeo by t/'Ie stem

resistant
meta'
Closure
(manufacturers
design varies)

1'.. "

2tlO-mi
minimum

capacity

I.

di
":

.................
Cupcase

In

1" t:.'/a"

~minimum
2.~
Flushing case

thennometer
e I
a-8. Typical
nk F
M
mp oyed when measuring the tem peratur" of
anualofp, r 1
o .iii rom
urem cerc e rc eum Mcasurement Standard s. First Edition,
......to 0 I ersce
ene PlItrol
' e cn BoardTank Vessels." Reprinted courlee)'
ilium nstltute.

FIgure 6-9. The effect of vessel trim is evident on the observed (ullage] measurement ofcargo in a tank. Courtesy John Hanus and John O'Connor .

In figure 6-9a . t he liquid level of th e cargo rem ains a constant distance

from the tank top wh en the vessel is on a n even keel. Th e ulla ge mea surement would yield the sa me results rega rd less of th e location of the gauging
point on th e tank.
Figure 6-9b shows the vessel t rimmed by the ste m . Note how th e distance between th e liquid level of t he ca rgo and th e ta nk to p changes. Al though the volume of ca rgo in th e tank is th e sa me as in figur e 6-9a, the
mea9urement from the referen ce point (ga uge point) to th e surface of th e
cargo has changed .
t . To corre~t or a dj ust the ullage mea surements, it is necessary to a~ply
mcorrections when the ve ssel is not on an even keel. These corrections
?Ormallyfound in the vessel's calibration or strapping tables. The core Ionsthemselves can take various form s with the two most common be.
'
C?rrectlOn applied to the measured (obs erved ) ullage or a volume
bon applied to the volume measured with the uncorrected ullage. In
ti:insta nce, the calibration or stra pping tables may provide a correca corresponds to each foot or meter of trim, and interpolation is

PRE LO A DIN G I NSPECT I ON AN\) M E A.<';U \{ E M~: N T

1:\5

CARGO MEASUREMENT AND CALCU LATION

13'

-souired. In the second instance, a volume, give n in barrels or cub,

,'.
) d I
e llle_
ters. ill provided to apply to the tabu ate vo ume .

EQUIPME N T USE
There ill often a debate about th e equip~ent to be us~d in th.1'm t'a1lUrernen t
process. namely. whether to w:'e t he eqUIpmen t t h a t 18. came~ on hoa rd the
vessel or the equipment provided by th e petroleu m m sp ect ron compan
The crew should keep in mind th at the in sp ecti on comp any is paid by t{
cargo owner, or by both the su pplie r and receiver, to gauge a nd lIam pll' the
cargo. Inspect ion companies a re routin~ly a udited ~ dete~ine compl~
ante with industry procedures and to verify th at equipment 18 maintained
in good condition and calibrated on a regul ar basis. All t he equi pm>nt
needed to conduct and complete th e ins pection mu st be in th e possession of
the inspector. Should a mea surement discrepancy arise , th e parties with
interest in the cargo will look to th e in spection com pany to clarify or reconcile t he difference . If the inspection company uses t he ves sel's equipment,
it hag util ized devices beyond its cont rol and cannot attest to th e mate rial
condition or accuracy of'those device s; its position is th er eby compr omised.
Ins pector s shou ld use their own equipment, and it would be pruden t for the
vessel's personnel to compa re the inspectors' equipmen t to t heir own. This
allows the vessel to establish a baseline comparison, whic h may be used afterthe conclusion of the gauging process to reconcile differences. Ali an exampl e, suppose that th e vessel has experienced an in -transit difference in
th e car go quant it ies between t he load and the discharge port . If the vessel's
load ed qu anti ty was determined using t h e vessel's ga ugi ng tape and
cup-case th erm ometer s, and the predischarge quantity wa s determin ed
using the inspector's ga ugi ng ta pe and temperature probe , the two different seta of equipment will yield differing volumes. As this sit ua t ion would
norm ally be uncovered jus t pri or to the start of the discharge oper ati on, it
would be best to delay th e sta rt of t he discharge and compare th e vessel's
equipment to th e inspector' s equipment. Th er e may be a situation where
the inspector's t ape differs from th e vessel' s tape by one-eighth inch.
'Possibly the vessel's cup-case thermomet er read s 3 lower t han th e tnspec~r's temperature probe. In any eve nt, it is best to reconcile discrepancies
mcargo measurement while the ca rgo is still in th e vessel's tanks .This aford!lliall interested parties a second opportunity to regau ge th e vessel.

ill loaded into a tank, it is nece ssary to determine t he contents

If

:This can be accompli shed by followin g certain pra ce-

fth carg o tank was wa shed artcr tilt' 11l8t cargo, II di\t'rmi nlltion
e
dIJres. 1 p1sd e as to t~e pre.sen ce of.an y w ate r tha t may he on t he b ot tom of
I1IIJst ~ .lflhe tank ISnot in e rted , It may ~ pO~lIlbl e to determ ine th is by a
th.ewn.
etion th ro ugh th e ull a ge opening In th e ha tch U II'
b . h
_llnllpe
tble to el h h
OKa ri g t
't'!SUl:U ht. lfi t is not POSSI e to s.lg t t e bottom ofthe ta nk through th is
j
/lll!lb1:
then another acce ss poin t ma.y need to be opened, such as the
openl :; Butterworth plate (tank cleaning opening). if l iquid is observed
Iiun!'
sho uld
the tBnk bottom, t hen attempts
. '
. be made to obta in. measure00
Prior to usin g the ga ugmg tape, It ISbe fit to place a coati ng of prodment. water .indicat ing paste on the s urfa ce of th e ga u..ing bob Th
or
' )1 h
I
h .
.
e
~ ctdicatingpaste
WI c ange co or w en to co,:,t act ~th petroleum or water
III
ding on the typ e of paste u sed ) and will Iacilitate reading the mealdepen nt once th e bob h a s be en withdrawn from the tank. If the liquid '
~uretlle
. h ale hh
. tape mu st be extended into t he
"
1 the gauglng
, t en t h e gauging
~wuntil the tip ofthe bob makes contact wit h the tank botto m. Once the
bob makes contact wit h the tank bo ttom, the total height up to th e refersnce point shoul~ be reco r~ ed ~n d compa re d wit h th e ta nk's total gauge
beight as listed to t he ca libratton tables for the vessel. Performi ng thi s
comparison will confirm the tank bottom was reach ed and th e ta pe or bob
\lillS not caught on one of the tank's internal framing members or some
otherobstruction on the tank bottom.The bob should beleft in this position
for several second s, with appropriate steps taken to ensure that the tape
and bob remain st ill. When t he bob is withdrawn from the tank, the petroleum/water measurement s ho uld be read to th e nearest one-eighth inch. in
practice a minimum of two mea surem ents sho uld be obtaine d from each
tank. lfthe two measurements coinc ide , t he n t he readings should be reoorded.Ifthe two measurements do not match, then a third and possibly a
fburt h measurem ent should be taken until consec utive readings provide
matching resul ts .
Should it be determined (from the visu al obs ervat ions) that th e liquid is
10 contact with all four bulkheads of the tank, trim corr ections can be ap el~d and t he vessel's calibration tables can provide the tank volume . Howr if the liquid s urface does not make contact with all bulkheads-for
lnple, ifthe liquid was containe d at the after end of t he tank and did not
the forward bulkhea d- a nd trim corrections were applied, it is poseit at the re sultant number wou ld indicate that there was less than zero
lu ein the tank . In this situatio n, t he volume in the tank can be calculiy using the wedge formul a . T he volume of t he liquid wed ge at the
eitd oft he tank can be determined from certain ph ysi cal dim en sion s
kcombined with the observed measurements from ga u ging. The
. ns required are tank length, tank width, distance between the
.c~(gauging point) a n d t he a fter bulkhead, a nd th e mea surement
glhd. It will be necessa r y to ensu re that all me asurem ents are in
ystem (eit her Engli sh or m etric), so conve rs ion of one or more

136

CARGO MF.ASUHEr.n;NT AND CALCUlAT ION

137

POSTLOAOl NG INSP ECTION ANU MF.MURt:Mt:NT

measuremen ts may be req u ired befo re calculations ca n begin . F

, provrided
or ea~Qr
u se 8 wedge fonnuht wor k sheet 18
e a t t h e end ofthiACh
includes instruct ion s on th e calculation process .
aptt'f. It
An oth er eit uattcn may ar-ise du ri ng the prel oa din g (OBQI
,
'
hi h
.
meQ8u
ment if th e le st ca rgo ca rried walls vrscouaor Ig pou r, pomt cat R: 0 ttth e peculi a r prop ert ies of t hese ca rgoe s, they r eq uire s pecialized hO. Ueto
, In
, orde r to rna ke t h em pumpa ble. wb
such 8S heatmg
,ylie n cargoes andlin..
h-"to

these are discharged, it is nonnal for the internal su rfaccs oflhe ta 8~C a.
coaled with It film fclingage)orthicker layer th at is most on en enco~ Ulbe
alo ng the bottom of the ta nk. Volume measureme nt in t his sitU'I~te~
. s add itional
..
. ua tion QUire
s te ps a nd some common sense. In a Alt
wh ~
thick, viscous ca rgo s uch as vacuum gas oil (VGO l is en coun tered , multi;~
measurements s hould be obtained to create a pr ofile of th e layer on tht
tank bottom . In some cases, th e layer on the bottom may be th icker at th
forward end of th e tank t han in the a~er section . As a rule of thumb ,
mort" measuremen ts th at can be ~btalOed and .a\eraged, th e more repn.
eentetive the calculat ed volu me Will be of what 15 ac t uaJlycontained int hf
tank. While not exact, th is meth od is currently the mos t practical.

th:

ter that was reint roduced to th e lank when loading th rough th e

ballast wa l or shore pipeli ne th at was used to disch Brgt> the ballaet. to th e
evesSl'
' a ballast line or a heat8af1l. I It may also be t h at t h e veese Ih aa a lea k In
terltll lt li . coil passing th rough the cargo lank. In a woret-cese situation .
iog/stell': be a br each of the tank-shell plating to a balla st tank or, in the
a
lhere
ingle-hull vessel , th e sea. Free wate r is measur ed using the fla me
caseo:~sed to determine th e OBQ prior to loading (fig. 6-10 ).
f1lC~e measurement of free water (.also referre~ to as wa~r ~uts. OT thiev. accomplish ed from the ga ugmg hatch With water -indicating paste

iog)

IS

Gauge lape

Gauge tape

Reference poinl

Waler

...."

POSTLOADING INSPE CTIO N

AND MEASUREMENT
<After the cargo has been loaded, the vessel ma y be trimmed to an even b el
(possible), and it should be placed in an upright position , eliminating list
a e measurements should be taken from t he refer e nce point to the surflt he liquid. Manual ullaging is accomplished by lowering the gsug
m
b intothe liquid until part of the bob is cover ed . The bob sh ould not be
Immersed, es a.reading cannot be obtained if th e e nti re bob is covered with
I
uging light (volatile) cargoes s uch as n aphtha , gaeoltne. and
nfa product-indicating paste on the bob will facilitate reedurement.-Once again a minimum of two readings shou ld beobe c& tank. For two readings that do not match, subsequent
nd readings should be taken until confiden ce in the readI certain situations, such as a lightering operati on in an
i't! may be in motion, slowing rolling from s ide to side,
BY, need to be taken several times until an average
i
In situations such as this, a notation should be
cu la on WOJ;k sheet that the vessel was observed to
f au 'ng, which might introduce errors into the
~ollntered after loading is the pr~s
ource of this water ma y be resld
bl'
ri p!!d out of the tank, or it may

Bob coaled
with paste

Wale l cut

Ullage

9. The measurement of free water using a bob coated with waterteo For accurate determination cffree water, it is important no to Ill.)'
aide at the bottom of the tank. From Manual of Petroleum.

~ First Edition , July 1990, uMeasurement o( Car

Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroll;'um In L1tu

pOSTLOAD ING INSPE CTI O N ANI) M~:A.."lUftEM~: NT

CAHOO MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION

13'

ap plied to the bob. The bob s hould be lowered

into the tank ,enllUrj
.
the bob reach es the tank bottom by chec kmg the ga uge height 1'hnKtliat
t he bob sho uld rest on the tank. bottom for severa l seconds befIOrelti
'. e tip. f>f
d raw n a nd th e measurement 18 read . There a re times when th
Il wllb.
not fully t um color a nd appears spec kled or spotty. (SpeckJ::~:tedoea
t races of water a re th e result of the water not settling out du to . SPOtty
cient time or possibly due to th e den sity oft he ce rgo.j A 8econ~ Insuffj.
ment can be attempted. leaving the bob t ip on t he bot to m fo rne~lIure.
period oftime to see if more of the paste changes color. Ifnot , the~ i~ 80nger
be reco r ded that traces of water were observe d u p to tha t point 8S hould
sured on the bob.
mea
The various cargo measuremen ts a re recorded on an ull age or
port t hat is sent to ell the parties involved wit h th e movem e nt F ' cargort.
.
. .
. 'gu r e 6-li
IS one such fonn that provides a detailed accou nting of the cargo I d
ce ededischarged at a particular terminal .
YESSfL ULUOE/SOUHOIHQ 10101 0
CAPACITY REPORT

_---- --- _. ---c

...

-- -- '-- ..,....... --'-

;:.. f----=::':=---i .:::.

--

..._-

___

....
~

~_ ...

"~

_ _. . - - . .. _

-e

,_

.. 0IC>0'0lI_

--........-

--

mp'fe cargo (ullage ) report that is completed after each cargotra ns,
fep.!!ft p'roVlW an accurate accounting of the cargo on th e vessel for 1111
itA movement . From Manual of Petroleu m MeaJluremrnl
art: January 1986, "Guidelines for Marin e Cargo Inspec
the American Petroleum Institute.

139

r to determin e the qu ality of th e IOllded ca r. .

I
1 di
1b
,1I am pell m Ul~t be
Inor de
, d which ar e a na yze m a a oratory. The qUlllity . f lh
'
di
e cergc te ea
Inc
.
t as the qu an t ity, a n In some cae ea even more I I
obla
nllrtan
'11
b
di
'I
'
I . n most cases
ilTl...vcsseI's crew W I not e tr eebly Involved
in the sampl'Ing process but
'
the
be taken to prevent pr o ems . Flf st unl es8 special
'

,p8 can
h Id
b 11
"
requirements
st
the inspector s ou not e a owed to obtain a ss m I r h
p eo t e cargo
eh
d,'cls, te,
h eargo tan k , or tan k s, h ave fini
'
until t e
r h U ntil ed loadin . Second ' th e mspector
OIlid know t~e contents 0 e.ac tank and whe re the liquid level of the
sl! 0 faUs withm the tank . ThIS may be accomplished by providing the in.
~arg tor with an ullag~ sheet o.f recorded measurements and an escort from
.pe< "ssel's crew. Third , the Inspecto r should properly label each sa 1
thev~
..
' ..
1 h
rnpie
tainer. Finally, a r etain sa m p e s ould be obtainad from th e inspecto
':~t can be sealed and re tained on boa rd in case qualit y differences a ' r
nse
dtne 'ng the voyage or a ft er 11.... com pleti
etlan.
u~all1ples mu s t ~ repres en ta ti ve ~fthe cargo load ed , a nd th er efore special sampling ~U1pment ~nd techniques o~ procedures have been developed. It is routlOe for the inspector to provid e his or her own equipment .
Samplecontainers are usually one-quart glass bottles that can be sealed
."ith a plastic cap or cor k (fig. 6-12 ).
Each bottle is held in an assembly that allows it to be lowered into the
tank to 8 predetennined level befo re the container is opened and the bottle
allowed to fill. There are several diffe re nt types of sa mples. A spot sample
i! 8sample that is taken at a specific loca t ion (depth ) in a tank. Uppe r, middle, and lower samples are spot samples take n at the midpoint ofthe upper
third, middle third. and low er third of t he ca rgo tank. A gra b or lin e sam ple
iss sample that is obtained at the header or manifold at a specific tim e during the load ing or disch arge operation . An all-l evel s sa m ple is obtained by
lowering a weighted, stoppered bottle or be ak er to a point 1 foot 10.3 meted
above eithe r t he tank bottom or the fre e water level, opening the container,
thenraisin g it at a ra te that allows it to emerge from the cargo with the container being about 75 percent full (maxim u m 85 percent). A running sample is obta ine d by lowe ri n g a weighted, unstoppered bottle or beaker to a
perm 1 foot <0.3 me ter) above ei t her the tank bottom or t he free wate r level;
theopen containe r is t hen rais ed at a rate t hat allows it to e merge from the
falio with the con tainer bein g about 75 pe rcen t full (maxi mu m 85 per. To obtain a com pos ite sa m ple in the la borat ory , t he sa mple is voluetncally blended from all t ank sam ples of the sa me cargo . according to
t volume contained in eac h tan k. The type of sa m ple to be t ak en is norI pecified by the ca rgo s u pplie r or receiver. a nd th e vessel's crew
iil note which type of s a m ple wa s pulled from each tank. Bottom or
amples are often r equested whe n initiall y loading a tank with a
li is sensitive to contamination. The t ank is loaded until a sa m ple
asonably t aken and the loading operat ion is normally sto pped
the results of the laboratory analysi s.
'0-

..

140

CARGO MEASVR~:ME NT AN D CALCULATION

CARGO CAl.cUI.ATlfJN

1l8g and free water measurements were ob18ined

141

e
Since u . bast
are kept ha nd y , or easy
at theretlead ing
it 18 .. if these measurements
.
PO,'
~rence
rt the gauging process. In this ,:",ay it will be immediete l

dl10ng inc ifthere has been an erro r 10 gauging, and follow-u Y :Oll~lble to

detl'rt'O pJished on the spot . It should be noted that in

p g u~~g
c~n
....
acCO fII
.
'
some cages,
n t8dis~
d
that
the
erro
r
In gaugmg occurred at the loading port A
o;lvere
d d
h
. ppropn' ate
e on 't he cargo.documents
'
ola 10 n8 should bedrecor
'
.
,as,thea
, e WI'II 88818t
nthe
"1'8 crew an mspector Wit reconciling any in-iran81it d'merencee.
~
"
vess"

COrk deta,'

POSTDIS CH ARGE I NSPECTIO N

AND MEAS UR EMENT

:.;r.:;:,, ~
Alle ma lNo rig

""
1-

t-quan weig hted

bonia catcher
(can be labocated

to fit any size bonia)

J?j.gure6-.12. One method of sa m pli ng th e ca rgo in a tank. Sampling is an important

function In the movement of ca rgo to mainta in quality assuran ce. From Manual of
Petroleum Measurement Sta nda rds. First Edi t ion. J uly 1990, "Measurement of
goes on Board Tank Vessels ." Repri nted courtesy of the America n Petroleum
10. itute.

Gauging the vessel.after discharge for R~B (cargo remaining on board) is

-: tar to the gaugmg for OBQ, although 10 some cases the inspectors will
SIIlll'
'h
Ilppearto beconduct1Og
a mue more thorough job.This may be attributed
to the fact that th e cargo owner wishe s to be infonned if aUcargo has been
discharged from the vessel. Any cargo that is left on the vessel win most
etrtain!y be part of a loss , a nd someone will suffer economically. Measuremants will most certainl y be taken from the reference point and , in many
ees , from a second or third loca t ion in the ta nk as well. These multi ple
m surements are an attempt to locate an d quantify the remaining cargo.
Insituations whe re the re is a substantial volume in one or more tanks. the
Inspector will a ttempt to retri eve a sample. The sample will be used to detemune the quality ofthe ROB, thus placing it in a category of either cargo,
lIlIdlment, or sludge.

CARGO CALCULATION
PREDISCHARGE INSPECTION
AND MEASUREMENT
ed to measure the cargo prior to th e dischar ge arc the
sed after loading. Prior to gauging, the inspector may ina gh weather that was encountered during the sea pasI!lrfill~tg'~ m8Y become useful at some later time if it is
a P.tiy ical loee of cargo occurred during the voyage,or t~8t
ae unteble volume of free water is found along With
:}l

Will wish to gauge the cargo tanks and then

is quence, the inspector can determine ~he
m ke the sampling procedures ea~ler.

Ihe vessel is "ga uged out" a nd all the necessary infonn ation is reeii the calculation of the cargo volume begins. The goal of thi s exercise
culete the volume/tonnage of cargo tr ansferred (loaded/discharged)
terminal. Cargo tonnage mu st also be determined to enabl e personerify that the vessel's st ability. dr aft . trim, and stresses are within
. .The cargo tonnage, often referred to 8S the cargo deadweight, is
ith the fuel, water, stores, and light-ship tonnages to arrive at
I displacement of the vessel.
sential that accurate readings be obtained for the following:
cargo(ullage/innagelwater cute)
f1l.,.of the cargo
cificgravity of the cargo

..

142

CARGO CALCU LAT ION

CARGO Mfo:ASUREMENT AND CALCULATION

For th e convenie nce of t he reader, t he most comm on un its of

mployed in th e indu st ry a re liste d below as well 8 S in th e eppe d~ell!lllil
n~~~

text .

Barrel .. 42 ga llons (U.S ,)

Cubic meier .. 6.2898 barrels

M{'tri c ton .. 1,000 kilograms " 2,204.6 pounds
Long ton .. 2,240 pounds

Obllerved fgrou) ba rrel " 42 gallons (a t th e observed tem pera t ur e)

Standard (net) barrel " 42 gal lons (at the s tandard tempera t ure 6<rF)

The first ste p in th e calcula tion is to correct th e v~ l ume ofcargo tee stan.

te mpe::

derd volume. Liquid cargoes expand and contract WIth changes in tern

ture: therefore. th e petroleum in dustry established a standard

to be used when calculating th e standard vol~me of cargo in a tank . In the

United States, the Amencan Petroleum Institute (API) set the standard

temperature a t 60cF US.6G); in countries that use the m et ric syste m, 15"e
(S9cFJ is the standard tempera ture.
The volume correction factor is foun d by entering t he AP I t ables with
the observed temperature a nd API gravity of the cargo. Using th e follOy,i ng
formula. the standard (net) volume ca n be determined by multiplying the
observed (gross) volum e by th e volume correcti on fa ctor.
Standard (net) volume", observed (gross) volume

What is th e standa rd (net) volu me and how man y long tons

.
tll'f In terminI' th e volum e correction factor by entering th e API table s
c
1. D:obllerved tempera tu re of 135 F and AP I gr avity of 14. ln this case
. . . ith th
correcti on facto r is 0.9707 (see table G.1 ).
the \'o~~t~pIY th e obs erve d (gr oss) volume (barrels) by th e volume correc2 tor to find the standard (net) volume .
tion fsc
PJt0DLf.!>I :

. the tank?

15.000 barrels )( 0.9707 z 14.560.5 barrels

E ter t he (volume-to -wei ght) conversion table with the API gravity
3 . n rgc to find t he a ppropria te conversion factor . In thi s case:
(If the ca
Long tons per b arrel

0.15186 or barrels per ton - 6.585 (see table 6-2 )

4 Eit her multiply the standard (ne t ) volume by th e long tons per barrel
or di~de t he st a ndard (n et) volume by t he barrel s per ton.
Standard (net ) velume x long tons per barrel _ long tons
14,5GO.5 xO.15186 = 2,211.2 long tons
Standard (net) volume I barrels per long tc n e long tons
14,560.5 / 6.585 .. 2,211.2 Iong tons

volume correcti on factor(VCY)

The tonnage in a tank is found by e nte ri ng the appropri a te conversion

table (a lso found in the API tables ) with the API gra vity of the ca rgo to dennine the stowage factor . There are two wa ys of find ing t he tonn age:
Standard (net) volume

143

long tons per barrel ", long tons

TABLE 6-1
Excerpt from API Table 6B-GenE'ralized Produclll
Volume Correction Factors for Gen eraliz ed Products
API Gravity at 60

Temp. ( F)
135.0
135.5
136.0

13.0
0.9709
0.9707
0.9705

13.5
0.9708
0.9706
0.9704

QF

14.0
0.9707
0.9705
0.9703

14.5
0.9705
0.9703
0.9701

ndard (net) volume I barrels per long ton '" long tons
TABLE 62
Excerpt from API Conversion Table 11
API Gra vit y

13.8
13.9
14.0
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

Long TOilS Per Barrel

0.15207
0.15196
0.16186
0.15175
0.15165
0.16154
0.15144

15.0
0.9704
0.9702
0.9700

CARGO M EAS URE ME NT AND CALCULATION

144

TABLE 63
Ellcerpt from API Con version Tab le

API Grat'ity
13.8

Barrels PI''' Long Ton

6.576

13.9
14.0
14.1
14,2
14.3
14.4

6.580
6.585
6.590
6.594
6.59 9
6.604

,,

if!
,,
,

-'

T. b! 6-1, 6-2. and 6-3 repri nted (XIU rU>By oflhe American Pl'tro leum Il\Stitu~
PrIm/tum MM8/H" rMlit Tobln - Vo/umt Corrtdion FactDnl, volume 2, 19110. '

CARGO PLANNI N G
Vessel personn el normally develop a det ai led pla n (prestow)ofthe uPoom.
ing load based on tentative orders and a nticip at ed cargo values receiVed
from th e owner/operato r and te rminal. Som e of t he factors considered
when drawing up th e cargo plan in clud e the following:
Num ber of gra des an d quan tity
Limiting draft Iseas cna lload line )
Vessel trim

Bending s tresses and shea r forces

Tank preparation (clean ing/pipeline flu shing/d rying )
argo segregation
argo compatibility
Re latory requirements
dlng'1pOrt and discharge port seq uence
um!!fir of cargo hose 9lanns
P.fg
r~o handling requirements

ing can be accomplished in a vari ety of ways. Modem tank

uently equipped with a cargo ca lculato r or a computer soft
that-contains the hydrostatic da ta an d characteri sticsorthe
(these deviceshas improved th e cargo plann ing process by
d..by saving time over the lab orious hand celcule'
fth-e cargo loading programs in use today ati." rem ut certain key information when perfonmnga
on 31erefore,the PIC should have a thorough.un
. process to avoid a ny cIarms
S ,Slllsl
c ellIetten
..
r f!e stowage of the vessel. As of this wn tl~g,
. usingrab !Jthe vessel computers with vane t
m r tUl;e, IG deck pressure, oxygen conten ,
ijj
t1y from the cargo system (fig. 6-13).

III

LOAD l, INl';S AN D ZO NE LIMITAT IO NH

CAllGO MEAS UHEMt: NT AN D CALC UI.NfI(I N

146

147

The reduction cf'crcw s lze a nd th e heighten ed compk'xity or

.
d II '
d
tlYIl!.{'rn
modern vC!'Iscl s ha s neccesuetc
. fi H' mcrease use of compuU'r.'l and, Hun
mated ca rgo systems IHI seen III rgu rcs 6- 14 a nd 6-15 .
.I UU).

LOAD LI N E S AN D ZON E LIMI T ATIO NS

The load line ora vessel (its "Plimlloll m ark" ) indicates t he maxi mu m
missible tonnage that ca n be load ed ba sed on th e zone (location ' per
world ) the vessel will pass th rou gh a nd t he season of the year. From the
ea rliest seafaring t ime s, attempts were made to e ns u re th e sa fety
the
sonnel a nd the vess el by imposing strict limits on the ca rgo ca rried pee.
voyage , thereby red ucing the ri sk s from overloading (fig. 6. 16 ).
each

07

Figure 6-15. Depend ing on t he vessel , the cargo operat ion may be controlled on
dKk, in the cargo cont rol room, or, as shown here, on the bridge. The insta llation
sbo\\'11 enables th e PI C to mon ito r cargo ta nk ull ages, tempera tures, stress, draft,
trim, and inert gas pressur e on a single screen. Cargo syste m valves can be operated bytouching a light pen to th e screen . Courtesy Seab Marine Electronics.

Figure 6-14. On automated veeaela. the cargo oper at ion is freq uently controlled
~om a console located in the cargo control room (CCR). Courtesy Shell intema -

tional Pet roleum .

Today, inte rnat ional sta ndards governing load lines have been implemented by th e maritime nations of th e world and incorporated into U.S.
rules. When a vessel is constructed, th e appropriate load line markings are
calculated and permanently etched on th e hull by an authorized classification society. In the United States, th e load lines are usually assigned by the
~erican Bureau of Shipping (fig. 6-17). Each mark corresponds to a given
duplacement, or the total tonnage of wate r displaced by the vessel. This
tonnage is exactly equa l to the weight of the loaded vessel. The various
~arks are identified as tropical, su mmer, winte r, and winter Nort h Atlanhe zones including sa lt water and fres hwater conditions. Due to the fact
t~lltsalt water is more buoyant t ha n fresh , allowance is made for the extra
linkage ofthe vesse l in fresh water this is kn own as th e freshwater allowsnce(
FWAl. ThiIS sys te m of ma r king
. ' permi.t s vessels to loa d more cargom
.
.
~glO~8 of predomin antly fair wea ther and duri ng seas ons when good
se~/r can be expected (refe r to t he load line zones and seasonal chart innear the end of this cha pte r).

..
LOAn LINES ANn ZONE LIMITAT IONS

CARGO M fo~ASUREM ENT AN D CALCULAT ION

148

3 In.

21',

10000ard ot
eemeeot

~~

These measurements
to be laken trom
center oiling 10
top 01eact\ line

l..+L3

uwer edge 01 hOtiZontal

irIt kl pass through \he

cen19f of nng

1~

l-

149

in.

TheCllfller 01 the ling is to be placed on each side 01 the vessel at the midl:Ie01 the I&ngthas
tlefrl.-.lhe load Une Regulations. The ling and lines are to be permanelltlymar1<ed. as by
cenler punch. chisel cut. Of bead 01 weld.
American Bureau 01 ShIpping
Tropical Fresh Water Allowance
Fresh w erer Allowance
F
Load line in Tropical ZOnes
T
Summer Load Une
S
Winlet l oad line
W
WNA Winler NOr1h AllanbC Loadu oe

AB

TF

Figure 6-16. American Bureau of S hip ping inspe ctors chec k a vessel's load line
marki nga. Courtesy American Bureau of Shipping .

For example, a tanker loading in Val dez, Ala ska , on Decem ber 1 (winter seas ona l zone ) would load to the win ter marks. In cont ras t , a vessel
loading on the sa me date in Rio d e Janeiro, Brazil (t ro pical zonel , would be
allowed to load to the t ropical marks .

Zone Allowance
When 8 vessel is loaded to the tropical marks in December, auch 88 th e ~lC'
ample at Rio de Janeiro. it cannot cro ss into the su mme r zone without Vl O'
~81ing. th~ I~w. In this instance, the vess el is not only governed by th e eone
In wbu:h it Ieloeded, but also by the zones through whi ch it tranaiUl. Jfthe
10 ded. passage of the vessel proceeds into the summer zone, then ita drall.
",,, .":~
ua,,,,, ot exceed the Bummer marks at any time while inside that z on~.
mJ'i. 1J<ick: is to load the maximum allowable tonnage without !>l'lllg
I i1eoa !b-e veeeel proceeds from one zone to the next. Allowance ean

..

Figure 6-17. Load line ma rkin gs for oceangoing veasels an placed amidships on
both sides of the hull. The American Bureau of Shipping ill authorized to assign
[Gad lines to vessels registered in th e United Stales and other countries. Courtesy
American Bureau of Shipping.

be made for the bum-offoffu el a nd ot he r con sum abl es while proceeding

to
,.

COlitrollmg zone, which is the zone that im poses th e greates t re strtcnon

on the loadin g of the vessel.

~e extra tonna ge a ve ssel may load beyond that pennitted by the conttolbng zone is known a s the zone allowance. Th e following example shows
hOWlod' _ .
A e~rmme zone allowance :
.
.
that t~anker loads at a terminal within the tropicnl zone . It IS est~mated
loadi e veeeel will enter the Bummer zone nine days after departll1g the
da ng port. The approximate burn-off of fuel at eea speed is 50 tons per
y 8lld Wste
r consumption is 10 tons per day.

CARGO TERMS

' 60

CARGO M EASUR~:M ENT AND CALCU LATION

How many tons can th e vessel be loa ded beyon d th e s um mer I0 8 dlr
hoe?
Zone allowance '" 9 day8 x 60 ton s/day = 540 tona

Note t hat a vessel sailing in the othe r d irection (from Bummer to

.
cal zone) would not require th is ca lcu la tio n d ue to th e fact th at .troPl.
loaded in the controlling zone.
It Wag

151

. . the difference bct ween t ho forward an d afte r drafts ofthe vee,,;:~culation of trim is closely link~d to the following terms:
,el.
'1 dinal centero(buoyancy (LeB) IS the cente r of volume ofthe unlPngl pou rt ion of a vessel's hull an d is the point through which it is a sed all upward (buoya nt ) torcea act. Th e LeB of the vesse l is found in
d~ r\\'atcr
~ .d tatic tables or curves of the vessel.
\lieJ;:n;':dinal cent er ofgra,l.Idr. ( ~CG I is the coun te rp art of LeB. or the
int in the hull through which It IS assumed all the down ward Igravita-

~nall forces act .

CARGO TERMS
Following is a re view of the key terms used in ca rgo ca lcula tion:
Dead weigh t is the total weight of ca rgo plu s crew , sto res , water f I
and ballast on board at 8 give n tim e. In t he tanke r ind ustry, deadwei~h~ei~
used as a rough mea sure of the cargo ca rrying capacity of a vessel.
. Disp lacement is the ~eight ofthe wa te r that is di spl aced by th e hull; it
18 exac~ly equal to t?e weight of th e vessel when floating freely. Thus the
term dl8placemen~ IS used to denote a ve ss~l's weight in ton s a t a given
draft . When t~e displac ement of t he ~es se ll s known, a number of important hydrostatic values can be determined by Insp ection eithe r from th e tao
blee or curves of the veaeel.
Light . hip is the displacement, or weight in tens , of a vessel minus
cargo, crew, stores, fuel, water, and ballast; in other words , it is th e wcight
of the empty vessel.
T ofU pe r inch im me rs ion (T P I) shows the number of to ns required to
sub~erge a veseel I inch amidships . The change in draft. on a vesse l is propcrttcnel to the amount of weight loaded or di scharged . Th e TPI varies with
the draft and shape of the vessel at the waterline. Th c values forTPI can be
found ~n .the hydrostatic tables or on the deadweight scale of th e vessel.
This Information is valuable when computing change s in mean draft
= d by the loading and discharging of weight. The following formul s is

Weight loaded (or discharged) I TPI = change in mean dran

E~PL : A veeeel with a mean draft. of 25' 00 " has a TP f of 150

nc . What will be t he new draft. after load in g 900 tons?

..
.
Trimming mom ent. Wh en a .we~ ght IS loa ded or discharged at a given
' 4"ce forward or aft of the uppmg cente r, a t rimming moment is eredis_-

,to<!.
Likewise, a mo ment I.S create dh
w en a

izh t on the vessel is shift ed

wetg
forward or aft . Moment s a r e expres sed in foot-tons and compute d using th e
following form ula :
Trimming moment

:=

weight (tons) )( distance (feet)

Trim arm or lever is the numerical (longit udinal) difference between

LCD and LeG. Th e position or LeB a nd LeG relative to each ot her determinee the amount of trim and wh ether it will be by the head or stem. The
LCD can be found by e ntering the hyd rostatic tables or curves supplied by the
naval architect with the displ acem ent of the vessel. LeG is determined by
first multiplying the LeG for eac h cargo tank by its tonnage to yield the longitudinal moments . The same calculation is mad e for fuel. water, stores, miscellaneous tanks, and light ship. Th e total momen ts (sum of the longitudinal
momenta) divided by the total displacement will give th e location of the LeG.
Once the 1G and LeB have been d etermined. numerically compare these
ralues to find th e trim ann or level'. Th e trim of the vessel can th en be found
using the following formula:
. .
displacement )(trim ann
Trim (inche s) =
MTl"

'!'ipping ('('nler or center o(flotation is best described as th.e hinge about

;~th a vessel rotates longitudinally. This hinge is not fixed lO.asingle poon but moves forward a nd aft with changes in draft. and tnm. .
M0r,nenl to change tri m 1 inch (MTO is used in conjunction with the
g momen t to de termine t he change in trim ofthe vesse l: MTl v~r
~th the dr aft of the ves sel a nd t he exac t va lues can be denved by m10 f
'
n rom the h ydrostatic tables.

1;lJinlin
B

Av eaael ha s a draft. of26' 00" forward and aft weasel is on a

h MTI a t t his draft. is 1,00 0 foot_tons.lf cargo Vi~1 10 1 0
e aft:. a distanc of 100 f et. wha t are t h n~w d

152

CA HGO TERM S

CARGO MEASUR EMENT AND CALCULATION

2S' 02"

Trimming moment = 100 tone x 100 feet

'" 10,000 foot -ton s

Chang~

in trim

2S' 07" ,. new draft aft

10,000 foot -tona

1,000 root -tens
'" 10" by th e ste m

25'00"

~
24 ' OT' '" new draft: forw a rd

25'00"
~
25' 05" = new dr aft aft

Note that the new dr afts we re determined by applying half th e change

in trim to arrive a t t he forwar d and after drafts. Due to shifting the weight

aft. th e cha nge in trim (5 inches) was added to the after drafland the same
amount was subtrac te d from the forward dr aft.
When a weight is loaded or disc harge d, a slightly differe nt problem is
encountered. Th e first ste p is to determin e the new mean draft producedby
th e changed disp lacement of the vessel. The chan ge in t rim can then be
computed and ap plied to th e new mean draft. to find the forward and after
dr afts .
EXAMPLE,The in it ia l draft of the vessel is 25 ' 00 " forward and aft. (even
k ee l) a n d the MT1 is 1,000 foot-tons . TPI at t hi s d raft is 50 tons/inch .
If 100 to ns a re loaded 100 feet a ft of t he tipping center, wh at a re the new

Fre8hu'al er a nd d ock water " ."o wan cell.: Freshwater is less buoyant
lt ....te r: therefore the load h ne regulations allow Ior
Ihi S b y aseign.
than sa"
I' ,
. the vessel a fre shwater m ark. The fr eshwater aUowancei s the number of
:~heS the draR will ch ange wh en moving from freshwater to salt wate r and
.
rsa. In many ports. the harbor water ma y he classified as brackish (
Vlte ve
. .. ) requtrmg
.. t hecalculation ofanewallowance
. tureofsaltandfresh water
~ the term dock-water allowance com es into pla y.
'
e~ock_water a llowance is the nu.mher of .inches a vessel may load below
'I marks in water ofa known s pecific gravity. To find this value, a sample
~;the water a longside the dock is obtaine~ and th~ specific gravity is measured with a simple h yd r om eter. The specific gravity offres b wate r is 1.000
and of salt water 1.02 5 . If the sample at the dock reveals a specific gravity
00.010, h ow ca n t he dock-water allowance be found?
First , the freshwate r a llowance should be found by refe rring to th e hy
drostatic tab les or vessel characteristics. In thi s case, the vessel has a
freshwate r al lowance of 10 " a nd th e specific gravity alongsi de is found to be
1.010.
Second. the d ock -w a ter a llowance ca n be dete rmined since it is already
known tha t at a specific gravity of 1.000 , th e allowance is 10' , and at a speMe gravity of 1.0 2 5 . it is ze ro. The value at the dock is 1.010 or 15125of the
way betw een the ze ro a n d 10 " allowance. Thus:
15
Dockwate r allowance : - dO"
25
: 6.0"

draf\a?

100 ton s
50 tons1inch

Increase in mean draft

:=

Z.

25'00"

Trimming moment

To eli mi nate confusion, vessel per son n el ofte n develop a ta ble of dockwater allowan ces based on t he d ifferen t speci fic gravities th at may be encounte re d.

L.ll2::25' 02"

153

:=

new mean dr aR

100 tons x l 00 feet

,. 10,000 foot -ton s

:=

Change in trim
:=

10 ,000 foot -ton s

1,000 foot .tone
10" by the stem

25' 02"

new draft forward

TABLE 6-4
Dock-woter Allowanet"ll
(Frcllhwoter AllowaDCt' 10")
Specifi c Gravity
1.000 (fresh )

AllowDnCt'
10"
8"

1.00S
1.010
1.015

0"

1.020

1.025 (s alt )

"
2

SUOf
J~""
SlJMW(R
lO'ot
..
WltfTVl
.....1..0 ..

_ ~-

~:-..-.":::.':.='

'

....

......

'" "Tt~

l ONE

CARGO MEASUREMENT ANU CoALV U ,"", ll V N

154

,
s a nd shear forces, One of the major conce
e
B en ding stress
' th e stress on til
f'b Ik liquid cargoes by tank vesse I 1S
safe transp~rt 0 uproblems are bending stresses and shear forces
i a conce n t ra tiion of weigh
,
The ,twodipomary
I b nding occu rs wh en t here
ere 1S

longitu
' 0 f t h e vesseI or near th a
icul inaI etion such a s in the 101id section
ar oca I ,
I d ' h
een
di gpoint(s)ofa vessel can be calcu ate wi t a cargo-loading
, ,
irn/
'
'
CO ,
Th e ben 10 am or by using a tradItIonal
to stress rorm, Additionally
gr
pute r pro
h h II d '
, ,
PIC should check the bending stres~es on t e u
unng a cargo opera 'on
by comparing the mean and midship draft~,
,
Sagging (fig, 6-18a) occurs wh,en there 1S a con cent r,atlOn of weight in
the midsection of the vessel, ~usmg the deck to be subjected to compression forces while at the sa m e time the keel 1S under tension.
Hoggi ng (fig, 6-18b ) occurs when there is a concentration of weighta
both ends of the ves sel, causing the deck to experience tensile forces while
the keel is under compression,
A well-conceived cargo plan should minimize t he bending stresses of
the vessel through proper distribution of the cargo and ballast Over the
length of the vessel. It is important to remember t h at sea conditions (fig,
6-19) can amplify these stresses, ultimately causing permanent damage to
par-trc

'--,

(a} Sag

(b) Hog

Figure 6- 18, Bendin

t
tion of weig ht at c g ~ resse~ (ho~ or sag) exerted on the hull due to a con-centr8
ertai n locations In th e vessel.

ct u r

e (fract ures ) and in the most ('x treme case IOKS ofthe
sel.s tru
\es t nlet
8 ral failure ).
'.
.
u
e occur when t wo forces act In OPpOSite dlre<:ti ons Ipar all el to
the-~e I (Il

\'e~Shellrrorc

s a t a bulkhead between an empty ball ast ta nk and a full

ch otherl s uch:eighl tgrnvitationaf a nd buoyant (upward) act ion expe-

ea
The r 5 1'de of the bulkhead causes a shear force.
~ tank
d on .eithe
rienC

vy weather generates t re mendoue

bending stresses on 8 tanker' s

166

CARGO M EASUREMENT AND CALCUlATION

REVIEW

157

LOAIJING TO FINAL DRAF T

Th cargo plan tpres tow) serves as a gu ide for the PI C dUri ng the a I
ego tran sfer . The ca rgo in form at ion
. use d In
d
lopm
g t h e prestowcll.al
eve
d
~:~ necessarily match th e values derived du ri ng t he act~al loading ope%~
tion . For exa m ple. wh en t h e ca r.go,tem pe rat u r e , API grevuy, or vol ume dif.

fer slightly from th e preetow, It 18 often n ecessa ry to make adjustments

during th e final sta ges of t he loading.ope ra t ion . At th e fina l st ages of the
loading opera tio n, it is common pra cti ce to check t he d ra~ marks frorn the

peri odic inte rvals and refer to th

1
.
h e vessel' lItanks at
. t h e total cargo on hoar d.
e ee Ibu tlon lui.
G' e ge t 1ta
bles to determine
!IIRe
h fi
d."
""ndt h e d iffere nce between t I II jgure a nd t he last tota l, di""d
e lh IS
l er
" ence by t he num. b er of ,
hou rs elaplled betw!'t.' n the ml;'lUIu r
Th
emerita . e result is t he I08dlll ~ or dl sc~ a rgmg ra te poe.r hour.
........[ne th e e lltlm a ted nme of oomphbo n. divid e the amount of
To dete, ..
n,n g to be loa de d or di18C h a rge d by the hourly rate to v; Id
. ,
~.e \-lIe num.
rema l
ber of hours remammg.

""'0

dock a n d com pa re them to the p reca lcu l.8t e d value.s . As di sc u s sed in cha p.

ter 8 it is recommended that t he loading opera t ion s hould end in slack

(part ially fuIll ta nkral, often cal led t~e "t ri m.tankts)," to accommodate any
last minute changes in cargo qua ntity or t n m .

LOADIN G AN D DI S CHAR GI N G RATES

Loading and dischargin g rat es vary conside rably with different vessels,
terminals, and cargoes. For exa mple, crude -oil ca rriers rou tinely load at
rates in excess of 100,000 barrels per h our at the Alyeska Terminal in
Valdez, Alaska, whil e a small product or parcel carrier mi gh t load at less
than 1,000 barrels per hour at a refinery.
Some of the factors that influence ca rgo transfer rates include the following:
Numberand capacityof cargo pumps
Pipelinedimensions (vessel and shore facility)
Temperature and viscosity of the cargo
Capacity of the venting or vapor control system
Ca pacity of the inert gaa syste m
Location of(distance from) and elevation of shore ta nks
Use of shore booster pumps
Experience of vessel personnel
Number of cargo tanks open
In order to determine wh en the cargo operation will fini sh , the PIC
Shoul calculate the loadingfdischarging rates at periodic in terval s. On
mo
ssels l it is a common practice to cal culate hourly rates to confirm
e oading rate baa not changed from the agreed value and to es timate
. e 0 ij"mpletion of the cargo operation (saili ng time). Th e loadar~
rates are typically expressed in barrels-per -hour, or cu~
t depending on th e vessel. To calculate a rate , the PIC
folloWing steps :

REVIEW
List th ree way s t~ at ca rgo m easu~em e nt is. c1~sifi~ .
L Wh t are calibratIOn tables? Wh at mform atton IS denved fromthe cal.
2
'
table of t h e vesse I'"
. ib arion
~:scribe
t h e difference between ullage. inn age , and water cute
3.
(t hievage ).
.
.
How can the t rim or list of a vessel influence the accuracy of cargo
l.
,
measurem ents .
.
.
5. What is the differen ce, be tw een ROB and OBQ? When 18 each apphed
in a cargo ca lculation .
.
?"
Wh .s cargo sa m pling n ecessa ry dunng a cargo tra nsfer" What 18 the
6. differen
yl ce between a bot tom samp1e an d ~ Ime samp.e.
I' .
What is the API gravit y of a ca rgo? What IS the relationship between
7. AP I gravity and s pecific gravit y? (Refer to chapter 2 .)
What is the difference between an observed (groealvolume and a stan8. dard (net) volume of ca rgo measu re? How does one convert from the
.
observed volume in the tank to a standar d volume?
9. What information is needed to determine th e volume correction factor
from the API tables? How is the standard volume converted to a
.
I ad
weight, na mely tons?
10. List t he maj or considerations when planning the cargo. oac.
I"
11. What is the freshwater a llowance of a vessel? ~~~ loading a veese 10
brackish wa te r, h ow is the al lowance determme ,
12. Define the following te rms:
LeG
Deadweight
TPI
Trim arm
D,i splace~ent
MTI
Trimming moment
Light ship
LCB
ld be taken into acl3. When planning a cargo load, wh at stresse~ shou d gging Where is
COunt? Explain the difference between hoggm g an sa
.
. ) ale s are detera shear force experienced on a tank vessel?
Explain how cargo transfer (loadingldi8chargl~g ~eck the rates?
mined. Why is it necessary for the PIC to frequen y c

C H A l' T E R 7

Cargo Pumps

5~

...

u.

>,"

"
,

II--t--H--H-t-+--t-+--H 5
~

H--+-H-H-~--I--l"

"~
,

The discharge ~f ca r go on a.mode m ta nk v~8sel is accomplished through

the useof a vanety of pum~mg systems . Thia ch?pter provides a review of
~o pump theory, operation, and troubleshootmg. The person-in-charge
ofthedischarge.operabon. m~8t ~ave a thorou gh working knowledge ofthe
operating prinClples and limitation s of ca rgo pumps. Operators sh ould conult the cargo t ransfer proc edures manual on the vessel 8S well 8S the
;umpmanufacture rs man~al8 fOT,specific gui da nce concerning pr oper operation of th e cargo pumping equipment onboard.
Thepurpose of the cargo pump is to impart energy to the liquid in order
to raiseits leve l from t he cargo tanks on the vessel to the shore tanks and.
etthesame time, to overcom e fric tion a nd flow losses while negotiating the
piping syste m. The type of ca rgo pumps installed on a particular vessel depends on a numb e r of factors including the following:
1. Degree of segregation desired between cargoes
2 Vessel tra de
3. Type of prime mover (drive unit)
Characteristics of the cargo (viscosity, specificgravity, corrosivity,and 80

..

forth )

5.
5

Reliabilityand ease of main tenance

Pumping capacity (volume of liquid moved per unit of time)

The cargo pumps are located eit he r aft of the cargo tanks in a formal
mpftrtmentcalled the pumproom or at the lowe st point (well or sump) in
c
F~~re 7-1 illustrates the typical location of the pumproom,
places It In close proximity to the engine room a nd takes advantage
ndency of the vessel to be trimmed by the stem. Depending on the
SOme vessels are also equipped with a forward pumproom.

:nk.

KINETiC PUMPS

161

7-2 illu stra tes a submerged pu mp located at th e after

d
figure tank in a well or sump.
en of
ach cargof he lle a pproaches has di at.inct advantages' th er e"
d
Ii .

rore.noc ne eCho t
' '"
I:08
. d for a ll a pp IC811008 .
sigPte sUIte.... d a8si Iied
1 8S kime tiic or poaiit itve-diIsplaceme nt or, ti
n.. rnpS are
"f . ' rene rc pumps
P"C" d into three grou ps: cont rt uJ':'al, vertical-turbine (deep II) d
. .
di 1
we ,an
iVIde
d
ar' rged . TYPCIl of posrttve- ISP acc me nt pumps inclu de reci
-.. Ipr oca tiing
5ubflle
(lobe ge a r, sc rew, a nd vane).

and rotary

.,

KI N E T I C P UMP S

,
,
,
.1, ,
,

e following section describes the va rio us applica~ion8 o~ cent rifugal

11>
the ca rgo sys tem of 8 ta nk vessel and explains th eir operation .
pumps In

Ce n t ri fu ga l Pumps
centrifugal pumps a re often referred to as th e main cargo pumps {MCPl,
. the fact that they discharge th e bulk of the cargo from the vessel.
~en pumps have a high-volume out put which makes th em wellsuited 8S
rneee
. size
. consridering their
. cargo pumps. Centrif
entrt uga I pumps a re small In
:~nut and have few moving parts, which generally equate s to greater

.,
.1

'I
I +I

Ii
-2 SUbmerged cargo pump located in a sump at the bottom of the cargo
Scott R. Bergeron.

162

CA HGO PUM PS

re liability lind lese maintenance, Another ad va nta ge seen wit h th o

pump is its adaptability ttl a vari ety of dri ve uni ts , le a ving t he OWlS ~Y P~{)f
ime 0of construe"Ion . Cent n""lUgnJ pump, nerWlth
man v options at th e nme
' by a steam t urbi' ne , a n e Iectrtc
' rno , or , a hy drau
d riven
ran l!tc moto r Or may
di ~
'
n. r pumproom, t h e d rtve
' Uhlts
" afC locBlf'8e]
engi ne. On vessels WIth
a n a....e
te .
the e ngi ne room and a re conn ected to t he liqui d en d orthe pUmp via a dd,lll
shaft extending th rough the bulkhead. A ga Sl igh t gla nd must be erna lonvf'
in the bulk head that separates t he pumproom from t he en gin e rOOm to Yt'd
ven t the movement of flammable ca rgo vapo rs or liquids bet wcl' ~~ .
spaces. Whe re the cargo pumps are located in ea ch tank, th e dri ve uni t .e
placed eit her on deck or i~mediately a~ove th e pump within th e ta nk. T~:
mai n drawback in t~e design of a cent~fugal p~mp 18 th e fa ct t ha t it is not
se lf-pri ming. Cent nfugal pumps require a continual flow of liq uid (Prim )
to pump . whic~ usually makes them un suitable for ~t~ ppi ng (dra ining):
cargo tank . This type of pump does not have the a bility to reprims itselr
wh en suction is lost un les s it is outfitted with a s pecial priming fea ture. To
facilitate stri pping th e cargo tanks and pipelines , m any vess els are
equipped with eithe r a positive-displacement pump or an ed ucto r.
In a ce nt ri fugal pump, the impeller is the main r ot ating e lement that
imparts e ne rgy by increasing th e velocity of the liquid a nd deliv eri ng the
ca rgo to th e s hore facility. Figure 7-3 is a cutaway view of a ce ntrifugal
pump showing th e location of t he im peller within the casing.
Cargo enters th e eye of th e im peUer a long the axis of rotation and is
thrown outward radially th rou gh use of t he swept-back vanes. At th is
point the cargo leaves th e impell e r va nes a t a h ig h velocity. Through the
design ofthe volute, energy in the liquid is converted from h igh- ve locity to
a combination of velocity and di scharge pressure. To assist in the conversion of energy, some centrifugal pumps are a lso e qui pped with diffuser
vanes within the casing. The pump impell ers ope r ate a t a hi gh speed (rpm)
capable of generating considerable heat if the pump is operated impropy. Oentrifugal pumps require a continual flow of ca rgo for pr oper cooln~ internallubricat.ion, and gland sealing. Op erating thi s typ e of pu mp in
e 1'tVERl. condition (insufficient prime) can result in overheating, lea ding
nll lh possibility of fire. In a normal di scharge oper a tion,
a
v a smooth delivery and produce little noi se or vibra tion.

K INETH..: PU M PS

163

ked in suc h a wa y a ll to step up th e energy in the liquid as it

ellerllilYst aCh eac h s tage orthe pump. The impelle r assembly is connected
glOavell,hroUg
.
rti I h ft ithi h '
rve un it on deck VIa a ve rca R a Wit In t ~ discha rge pipe. Thi s
edn
IOWrtgePlen
t ta kes a dvantage of the s peed and efficiency or a centrifuga l
.r<'

F'lgUre 73.Simple view orthe internals or a centrifugal pump showing the main rotatingelement (impeller). Courtesy Ingersoll Dresser Pump .

,.,rt

port

1 .,rt

Port
dgepwell pump

:3 slarboard

2 starboa rd

1 starboard

icallocation of the deepwell cargo pumps on a barge .

--

KI NETI C PUMP S

164

CARGO PUM PS

165

9.

Elec tric moto r

or hyd raulic motor

~
5.
6.
1.

. Hied ca rgo system

SullP I d need for botto m piping

Reduce

n be removed. for eervt.ce or re placement

from th e deck
Ptlmp C8
,

.
over on deck 18 acce esibl e for
pnJl\e
Jl\
. .

lIe rv\c e

_.. need for se parate 8tnppmg pu mps

aeduceu

Submerged Pumps

rged puIDPS usually refer

Out!et _

cargo lank dome

Discharge line

proIllP

Shaft

s_sedional VIew of a Frank Moho WRAMO) submerged pump.

shoWS ~~ssure hydra uli c flu id is de~ivered to a ?' 0t:ormounted directly

Mil h pmpeUer in t he tank. A s pecial concentnc pipe directs the high.
above t eh 'draul ic flui d throu gh the center pipe, and the low-pressure

P~SS~~8
through the mi ddle line. The outermost pipe serves as a
nwd:: which segregates t he hydraulic fluid from the cargo. 'Ibecergcts
eoffe

Uql,lid sur/ace

to hydraulically driven centrifugal cargo

Subtl1e located in eac h tank (fi g. 7-6), In modem construction, the 8hif\, toward
pl.ll1lpBcall powered deck machinery and automated cargo 8Y8t.etlUl has
b)'lir8~ o~ers to ins~ submerged pump s on their vessels. Figure 7-7

a:.

a the discharge line to the manifold on deck. When pumping is

dtli"~~ ~he di scharge line or pi pestack (refer to figure 7-8) can be

ro~P edby idling the pump, closing t he disch~rge valve , an d pressurizing

!'tnPpe fthe pipestack with ai r , nitrogen, or mert gas through a connec~e top d ck The cargo in the disch arge pipe is forced th rough a smalltlono n e .
.
'
h
h h
. . ,. th
diameter stripping (riser) Iin e di re ctly as ore, t ere y rmrummng e

I Cargolank2
port

Drop
Pump sump

Submerged
cargopump

Figure 7-5. Croee-eecttonal view of a deep well pump. Copyrig ht Inte rn ational
Maritime Organization OMOJ. London .

RUmpwhile minimizing its disadvantages. Figure 7-5 is a cross-sectional

pC a deepwell pump showing the main components.
e.impeller is either enclosed in a barrel (when it is used to pump more
k), or it is recessed in 8 Bump at the bottom of each tank . Most
an 0
eepwel umps are equipped with an automatic priming feature whi ch reo
au
t
cd for a separate stripping system. The a dvantages of a
ui ed yes el include the following:

I
I
I

J
ia"1'-+...

To group 3 Grou 2
Submerged
cargopump
cargo lank2
,tsrbollrd

nilold

I
I
I
L

I
' d with submerged
. 'A typical piping arrangement on a veeee squrppe
a h,cargo tank.

K INETlC

I'U~tI'S

167

Local capaCItyCOfllrol
CapaCItyCOfllrol valve
Cotlemam purging COflnecliOil

Cotlerdam purging pipe

Coflerda m concenl riC pipe
Hydraulic COnCenlric, - retcm pipe

Cargo oscharge PlPO

4 ::::ll

Cargo sl ripping pipe

---<Ipressure pipe
Hydrsu l ~

()isdlarging

Strlpping completed.
Purging started.

f\gure 7-8.The stages ofoperation ofa

Coflerdam
surrounding
t"ridraulic section

High-pressure
hydraulic meter

DL&tf\8nUing and

service without
lifting pump

. ec..lional view of a submerged pump shewing the major compora Moho AS.

Purging oornptete<l.

submerged pump.CourtesyFrankMohoAS.

quantity remaining on board (ROB) at th e end of the discharge . Efficient

stripping is particula rl y im portant when discha rging small parcels of
high-value cargo. The subme rged pu mp has a single-stage impeller
mounted hori zontally in a su m p at the bottom of the pump asse mbly.There
is nobottom pi ping in t his pum pi ng syste m; therefore each tank must be
equipped with its own pump. Th e pump speed is cont rolled through the use
of a hydraulic governor on deck or from a cargo control room. The drive
shaft has an antirotation al b rake which allows the discharge piping to also
eas the loading drop . Submerged pumps possess many ofthe sa me adtages 8S the deepwell pump; however, th e pump and motor assembly
t be repaired in the tan k. In th e event the pump is inoperative with
remaining in the tank, a por table submers ible pump is provided to
the cargo discharge .

Pump Operation
mpe typically operate in either a he ad or a lift c~ndition. The
m umping situation is the head condition in whIch the cargo
me physical height above the inletofthe pump. Wh~n operated
eail condition, cargo fills the casing of the pump by gravity, thereby

168

CARGO PUM PS

KINETI C P UMP S

169

--_.....FrlCliO," he; -f - - - "

_ _ !I'

,,,

,,,

,,
,

,,,
,,

"""'
"'.,.,"
Tota l

______--.'+
...
SlatlC suctio n

"'''

r""" "",
dIscha'gt

""

Figure 7-9. Cargo pump operating in a head condition in whi ch gravit

.
continuous pri me. Courtesy Richa rd Bea don.
y maIntains I

Figure 1-10. Cargo pump operating in a lift condition in which the liquid level is

belowthe inlet ofthe pump. Courtesy Richard Beadon.

Cavitation can be caused by a number offactors includingthe following:

maintain~ng an adequ~te ~rime. On inerted vesse ls, the positive deck pres~ ure re~w red to be maintained above th e ca rgo in t he tanks further assists
In kee~mg th~ pu mp prir.ned, p8rt~cularly when a pproaching th e stripping
s~ge In the dI8~~arge . Figure 79 illustra te s a typical gravity or static sue.
t ion he ad condition.
. In th e lift cond itio n , the cargo level is some physical dista nce belowthe
ml~t of th e pump. In a convent iona l pipeline vess el, th e pu mps begin toex~enence this condit ion wh en the cargo level fall s below the bottom piping
In th~ tank (fig. 710). Thi s makes it nece ssary for the pump to perform
work In an effort to draw the ca rgo up to the inl et .

CAVITATION
A centrifugal pump does not oper ate efficiently in th e lin condition and
may begin to exhibit signs of cavitation . Ca vitati on occurs when the pressure in the suction line fall s below the va por pr essure of th e cargo. resulting in the formation of vapor pockets in the liquid stream; th ese pockets
eventually reach th e inlet of the pump. This is fre quently referred to as
"gas aing" up the pump. When these pockets of vapor colla pse on th e impelIer vanes, they create undue noise and vibration in the pump. In the short
cavitation results in lower pump efficiency as evidenced by a poor
'sd ia rge tate . In the wor st case it can cause phy sical dam age. actual.ly
e
. me'liil urfaces and possibly contributing to bearing or fatigu e Failn pump. reaulting in a shorter service life .

Vortexing action around the bellm outh in the cargo tank . This typically
occurs with a low cargo level in the tank.The cargo begina to forman eddy
near the bellmouth which can admit IG and cargo vapors (atmosphere)
into the suction line of the pump.
2. Carg o characteristics that may contribute to the formation of vapor pockets in th e auction piping leading to the pump . For example, high vapor
pressure ca rgoes such as n aphtha are susceptible to pumping problema
due to vaporization of th e liquid in the suction line.
3. High temperature ofthe ca rgo, which increases ils tendency tovaporize.
4. Leaks or h oles in the suction pipin g allowing air into the line.

I.

Theoperator of a centrifugal pump must be mindful ofthe cause and effect of cavita tion, particularly when approaching the stri~pin.g s~g7 in th e
.discharge of a cargo tank. To minimize the effects of caVl~tlon, 1t ISc~m
m ti practice to partially open a cargo ta nk with ample gravity head tpn~e
)to main tain an a de quate flow to th e pump .The operator must decide
n it is unreasonable to continue dischargin g the cargo tank with .the
ti'ifugal pump or ri sk losin g suction. It is usually necessary. to switch
. . r d twedge)
~ the stripping pump or eductor to drain the remammg Iqu,t
.
tank. The point wh er e one mu st shift. to the next tank In the disquence will vary with differ ent pumpin g systems and ~pe~::r
ceo For example, whil e discharging a single-hull veeee Wl a

CAlm O PU MPS

con ven tio nal bottom piping system and after pum proom 11
mu st carefully monitor the perform an ce ofthe MCP when th'e Ie operatt,r
ge tti ng close to the tan k bottom. Even with a prim e tan k pa rtica,;Ro level is
th e MCP will cavi tate or lese s uct ion en ti re ly if a sufficient "81~ ropel\ed,
sp he re from the tank re ache s th e pump. Consi der how differen ~thofa.tlllo.
tion is on a dou ble-h ull tan k vessel with no botto m pip ing an d subeS1lua.
pumps located in a sum p in each tank . As the cargo level approR ~erged
~ottom of th e ta n k, th~ p,u m ~ con tin ues ,to,receive an adequate P;i~: ~he
til t he only ca rgo rema m mg In the tank IS In th e su mp. Anoth er be fi n.
t he doubl e-hull vessel is t he a bsence of framin g in the bottom ofl hne !tof
.
.
cargo
tank; th e smoot h mner
botto m does not Impede
the flow of liquideto
the
p u mp.
PRIME

Certain te lltale signs in d icate th at a centrifugal pump does not have an ad.
equate prime. The ea rlies t indica tions that a pump is sta rved of adequate
liqui d a re slight fluctu ations in the pump gauges (tachomete r and dis.
charge pressure ). If th e ope ra ting condi tio ns are no t changed , the gauge
flu ctuations become more errat ic and the pu mp generates noise and vibra.
tion. Unless a sati sfac tory flow to the pump is restored, it will lose suction,
overs pee d, a nd trip out. To resume pumping it will be necessary to opena
tank with s ufficient gravity hea d to r eprirn e the pu mp,
An ope ra to r ca n em ploy various techniques to red uce the cha nce crt he
main ca rgo pump losin g sucti on when no p rime tank is avai lab le.
When a pump fir st exhi bits s igns oflosing suct ion, it is common practice
to reduce th e pump spee d (rp m) and partially close (t hrottle) a discharge
valv e on the pump. Throttling th e discharge va lve reduces the velocity of
the liquid through th e pump, smooths out th e flow, a nd maintains a reasonable delivery. Another recomm endation is to shorten th e suction pipe
by ending the di scharge operation close to the pump, thereby minimizing
friction and flow losse s. Finally, the operator should ensure th at the suetion line to the pump is isolated by closing block va lves a nd crossovers,
thereby minimizing potential air leaks in th e system ,
CROSSOVERS

To expedite the discharge of the vessel, it is sometimes necessary to i the

over cargo pumps. When two centnfuga
'
I pumps are drawting from t er
same suction line, there is a possibility that one pump will receive a ~e a:f'
share ofthe flow than the other. This inequity is typically caused byt e I
fering lengths of suction piping feeding each pump. Operating !he .~u~:q
at different speeds can a lso result in an unequal sharing of the liqui Th ~
I ither case, the operator should keep a clos~ :-vatc,h on ~ach ~~~K~8t to
dis n,tpump (the one with the longest run of pi pm g) re typically
urnp
,
. .
.In dirca tion that a P
e~16it signs of overheating.
Overheating
IS one

...

KIN t:l'IC I' UMI'H

171

have adequate flow through the clllling for the speed at which it is
IUhe car go tank level has reached the POint where there is inopt'r/l~I~~'gravity
head to properly su ppor t the Opera tilJnof hoth pumps,
llic1e
llu
should
sh uht down the distan t pump and finish with one pu mp '
ratar
"',eope
y,gut"7 11 'Uustrates t ree pum ps connected on the suctionside th rough 8

doelll1~

crossover,
'tuation whe re two centrifugal pumps are delivering into the
I the s l
' k f
.
, herge lin e, there IS a ns 0 unequal sha ring of the load The
en diSC
I'
d
b
'
se.l1l
ith the greater de Ivery ten a ~ put a ack pressure on the distant
pIlJllP";. harge. The net effect of th ia back pressur e is equivalent to
pllJllP . 18Ca discharge valve, resulting in inadequate movement of liquid
.l. .... tthng
. I
h ti
' . ' h
uo>v
h the pump a nd. po~ntl a ove~ ea mg. ~ 10 t e previous case, the
througult f th is inequit y 18 overheatmgofthe distant pump. Pump manunet res enera lly recomm end that both pum ps be operated at the same
fad urersl
speed
so cloSely observ ed for a ny difference in te mperatu re.
S HORE BOOST ER PUMP

boo ster pu mp is em ployed whe n th e discharge head at the terminal

Ashore
' arises
,
.
at for the vessel's cargo pump. Th ire SI'I
uanon
wh en th e
IS too ~\s are loca ted at a considerable elevation above or distance from
shore el The shore booster pump operates in series with the vessel's
.
h
d I'
the vesse .
a dding ene rgy to the system and enabling t e cargo e Ivery
cargo pum P,
' .
h boo
th
I
to roceed at a re a son ab le ra te . Pnor to sta rt ing t ester, e ves~e
p
pa typ ically exhibit a high di scharge pressur e and a poor delivcargopurn
t:
~
t h uld
ery rate (velocity). During the pr et ransfer conrere nce, agreemen so.
be reached concerning a dva nce notifi cation of th e booster pump being
brought on lin e. It is common pra ct ice for th e vess el PIC to.sta nd by the
pump controls when the booster is sta rt ed. Th e sudden dro.pm the loa~ ~~
thevessel's cargo pump could ca use it to overa peed and tn p out. T~ a ~l
unnecessary sh utdowns or delay s, it is essential that good communicat ion
exist between the PI C of the vessel a nd the facility. Once the shore boostehr
,
lll b e a d rop to
. th e discharge
pressure on t e
pump is operatmg,
there will
I.
vessel and a corresponding in crea se in th e pumpmg rat e.
AUT01\lATIC PRIMING SYSTEMS

' IIy emp1oys a vari

The PIC of the cargo di scharge tYPICS
" ety of operational
'
n the
tech mques
'
. Iy d tacua
'
sed to maintain
such as those previous
lve nhvaia pnrne
1d 0age or
centrifugalpump. If performed incorrectly, expensive p yaica am
II POtential fire hazard can re sult.
I d ectal auto-

With these concerns in mind, manufacturers deve OP~h se a minimal

IDatic priming features for centrifugal pumps to e autco . a ystem virflow is always maintained. With certain pumps, t~e au 7-~~~I::trates one
t anyeliminales the need for stripping pumps. Figure
,I
, e
Of autopriming system found on cargo pu mps in marme aervic .

KINETIC PU MPS

173

-/ -- I
I
I
I
I
I

-POll sa; ; ;S!

Sea Suction
vll ives

I
I
I
I
I

~nll

GrOUP 3

Slraine r Pump
suction
Main ca rgo
pump 3

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
_1- --

--

Bulkhead
block

crcssovar
valves

Crossover
valves

Eng;ne room

L'"
c:onUolier

eoctcn

Main cargo

Bulkhead
blo< k

I
I
I

pump 2

Crossover
valves

Group 1

Strainer

Main cargo
pump 1

Pump

Bulkhead

suction

block

Sea suction
valves

--

--

Separat or lank

-~~

GfOUp 2

Slrnlner Pump

--

PUITI(l' oom

Starboard

sea chest

I
I
I
L

figutf! 7-12. One

type of autopriming syste m used with a ct'ntrifugal pump.

When th e pump begins to lose suction, a venturi activates a reo

eireulation line which returns liq ui d to the st raine r/recirculation tank on
the suction side of the pump. The pump is primed by the liquid in the
recirculation tank, and the cargo recir culate s until a norma l pumping con-

dition is restored. At the same tim e, gases in the recirculation tank and
pump casing are vented throu gh an ext raction line to the discharge side of
the pump. These devices m ake it possible to discharge th e cargo tanks
more completely without d amaging the pump. The y also protect the pump
from damage resulting from operator erro r such as closing a valve on the
8\1ction side of an operating pump. Th ere a re many designs of self-priming
~um~s on the market; therefore the operator should consult the manufec~ !!. man ual for a detailed description of the type and method of operaIi fthe one fou n d on the vessel.

Tro ubles hooting

. umping system the problems that typically arise are rela~d to lac~
or l ack of delivery. The operator must carefully monitor carg

.,
174

I>()SITlVI':- DI SI'I ..AC l';M ~;N T I'UM I>s AN\ll'; lll lL'T(lll.<;

pump pe rform an ce to detect e ither condition and lake correc tive

'
~argo pump manual s frequentl~ inclu~e a troubl eshoo ting 8ecliona~~lon.
ste t t he operator. If no such guide exrsts, the operator m ust local ae.
source of the p rob lem fro m experience with the system. T he most com the
so urce ef'pump ing probl e ms is improper alignment ef th e va lves in the mOil
ing system, 80 thi s is the simplest place to start . Th e operator should
th e s ta tue of th e va lves on the vessel for correctness, t hen conta ct th e sh
fa cili ty a nd ha ve t h': ffi verify t he ir ali~ment. ?~~e.r less-obviou8 cau8e;:~
pumping problems inclu de t he following possibilities:

2.

C
::k

lati on . When th e drop Iloadi n gj va lves fire left open or an autoFlrci~CII tve in the discharge line is frozen in the open position re~~~
.
' .
'
III ula
tion oecurB. If th e pump III equipped WIth an automatic priming
Clre
the recirculation valve may be frozen In the open poaition. permit.Ylltern,
. h return ofcargo to t hee sucti
eucuon side of the pump. Where fitted, cargo
ung t e
relief valves should also be checked to ensure they fire in the norpump
't.
1I dOlled p ORI IOn .
Y
a>' hanical fail ure. A worn or damage d pump, an excessively worn impelMt c
ki
l d-' I
..
o, .
h n rauore. lea ng g an ....sea s, or a bad dn ve unit may cause
ler. ea

problems.

SUCTION SIDE

1.

2.

3.

4.

S.

6.

175

CARGO PU M PS

Air or vapor bound pump. This condition generall y OCCUI"ll at eta rt_up due
to improper pri ming of the pump . Centrifugal pump s must be initially
primed by opening a vent at the top of the rasi ng to bleed ofT any gilt
tra pped in th e pump. The casing and impeller mu st be filled with liquid at
start-up or the pump will not operate.
Clogged strainer. When a foreign obstruction becomes lodged in the
strai ner, it restri cts the flow ofliquid to the pump, which results in a loss of
suction. It is the n necessary to clean the strainer by closing the appropri_
ate valves to isolate it, draining the cargo from the unit, a nd removing the
access cover. The strainer is generally composed of cylindri cally 8haped
mesh designed to pr event foreign objects in the liquid flowfrom damaging
the internals of th e pump .
Cavitation. This results from air leaks or vaporization of the cargo in the
suction line of th e pump. Refer to th e earlier discussion of cavitati on in
this chapter.
Insufficient g ravity head. The pump ceases to operate due to a lowcargo
level in the tank.
Cargo characteristics. The viscosity or specific gravity of the cargo may be
grea ter th an the pum p is designed to handle. Pumping problems can also
occur when the te mperature of a heated cargo is permi tted to cool to its
pour point . In th e worst case scenario, t he cargo actually begins to solidify
in th e tanks .
Mechanical failure. Mechanical pr oblems inclu ding a worn or damaged
pump casing, en excessively worn impeller , bea rin g failu re, leaking
gland w's eals, or a bad dri ve uni t may cause discharge pr oblems.

P UMP CO!'oliROLS AND GAUGES

pu mps in marine service have variable spee d control. This alo

Mostc arg eater to alter the s peed of the pump ba sed up on changing opIO..... s.thec~~~i tions. The pump spee d is changed e ither by local control of
er8t1n~
nit or thr ou gh use of a controller from a r emote location. For
the dn~e the spee d ofa d ee pwell pump on a barge is typically a djusted by
elsm~ 1', the s peed of t he d ri ve unit on deck. On tank vessels equipped
changlngu,o mated cargo control system, the pump speed is remotely adwith an a
.
Th
.
d ng an a ir cont ro ller , rheostat, or hydr auli c controlle r. I' perf
h
'
.
Juste uet
e cargo pump is monito re d through use 0 t I' 10 1\owmg
formant e of 'h
gauges:
I.

2.
3

..

Tachometer (pump rpm)

Discharge pre ssure (discha rge side of th e pump)
.
Compound gau ge (displayin g vacuum and pressure on the suction line )
Man ifold pre ssure (pressure at the vessel's rai\)

The accuracy of the se gauge r e a d outs is vital to an operstor when mak.ingdeeiaiona

. .
.
. opera tion
The gauges and .controls
concerning
t h I' pumping
1
'.
arephysically loca ted a t t he pu m p or in a convenie nt central locatlon such
88 the top of the pumpr oom or ca rgo control room . The eme.rge~cy sfh uht.
. ge ne ra 1\y 1oca te d a t the midpoint
0 t I'
down controlfor the cargo pumps IS
.
vessel in the vicinity of the m anifold . All personnel in volved m the cargo
operation sho ul d be a war e of t he location a n d operation of the e mergency
ahutdown for the pumps.

DISCHARGE SIDE
1.

Escessioe dis charge pre ssure. Thi a may occur at a terminal with an exceeslve discharge head . It if! a common problem when the vessel pumps must
deliver the cargo a considerable distance or vertical height to the shor~
tank. Check for valve malfunctions in the discharge line such as a sheared
. In
. t h e pump opera timg a ga inst a close
ste rn or dropped gate resultmg
valve .

eOSlTIVE.mSPLACEMENT PUMPS AND EDUCTORS

dt

.' di Splacement pumps

section describes the different types of postli ve
t the end of a
el as the use of eductora to drain the tanks an mea a
ischarge .

roSITM:'-V1SPI.ACEMENT I'UMI'8 ANIl Ent lC'"nlll.'l

CARGO P UMPS

176

Au.~illry

slide val\'e

Piston valve

177

.
t af t h e piston creates a va cuum , thu!!. drawin, t\
vemc n
. tak
I
F"
.
te ca r go mto
,"emO
e va ve . IguTC 7-13 18a simpl
r
\."
tinder throu gh a n m
e
VI ew 0 a rethee)' . gpUnlp.
C1 Proca~~g the d isch a r ge st roke, the pi~ton forces tho cargo out of the eylinDo h th e d iKch a r ge va lve, creating a delivery pres sure on th
t\ t
tona

1m
take an d dI SCh arge valves are usually
e ou i e def th" '"h pump. Add tt
side of ~~ake these pump~ double-acting. Si~p\y stated, a double.acti'~g
stalled. ne in whic h pum pm g actton occurs Simultaneously on both Bides
pulllP I~ tonfor eac h st rok e of the pump .The ne t res ult i8 a smoother delivPlS incr ea sed pum pm
.

orthe
. and
g ca.,
pa~l. y. Re ciprceating
pump s ar e self
t~ .
meaning t hey have the ab ility to regain suction whe n suction is
pnJ]1l:~ se pumps a re capable of moving the atmosphere (vapors and inert.
1051. ir ) which ma y be drawn from the ca rgo tank with th e liquid during
f 31
M1.5 0final

U n.lik
e-e
stages of st n. ppmg.
I ~ ~ntnif ug~ \ pumps, they can develop
th eu
nece ssa ry t o draw liquid in to the intake when operating in a
UIII
theva dition. The m ain disadvantage of reciprocating pumps is that they
:~l\Y slow. For example. a reciprocating pump on a typical coastal
k vessel gen erally h as a capacity of800 to 1,000 barrels per hour tbpb).
~ ncem when ope rati ng a pos itive-displacement pump is that th e disline is open. A positive-~isP~8c~ment pump will de,,:elop a consi~er
abledischarge pressure if the pipeline 15 blocked or a valve ISclosed agamst

Slay rod

ch:

lhe pump.
Pomp cylinder

R ota ry Pump
Another type of positive-displac ement pump is th.e ro.tary pump : which operatesby physical ly trapping the ca rgo a nd ca rrying It ~m t~e inlet to ~he
outlet. Thi s is usually accomplished through the rotatlO.n of mte~eshm~
~ars, lobes , screws, or vanes. Figures 7-14 through 7-17Illustrate differen
typu of rotary pum ps .

,Figure 7-13 . Simple view of a reciprocating pump. From Principles of Naval Engi

neenng.

Reciprocating Pump
poeitive-diaplaeement pump typically used in striPpingllervice
1E~i!ii!~.~m~.,Ia~n~,k vessels is the reciprocating pump . Th e design general1Y
Dsists; oftwollislona (duplex pump) that move back and forth in eyle
e d i her by steam or air. The flow of liquid to and from the
UUlp'i8 ccompliehed through spring-loaded val vee. On the intake stroke,
e

sueuco

.ct4. Simple gear pump. From Principl es of Naval Enginrins


Swinging Iype
moving venee-"<e--____

POsrrlV1'~- D1 SI ) l.AC E r.n:NT I' UMPS ANn Em lCTOHS

179

capacity of these pu.mps is limited by the volume of th e space becBsing a nd rotat lT~g eleme nts. Rotary pumps nrc self-pri ming
the
tYo'ccncnerall Yh a~e ~ be tter d lllc ha ~ge ~apacity tha n a recipr ocating pump.
and gd pend on hqUld flow for lubn.cali on; t herefore it is not recomme nde d
TheY h' Ybe allow ed to operate without liquid for an extended period of
. th ey. ~re ~ se d ori
th. flte t Ine marine se ~ce
pnmanly as st ripping pumps or in
tlJll ". ,where a h ft con di tion I S encountered , such as with.
d
'watlOn
f numn i I
rorwar
1I1
roorn. This type a pump I S a so wen suited for vesse ls transporting
pump . cosity ca rgoes suc h as as phalt.
high-VIS
Eductors

'l'he

EducLOTS are typically u tili z ~d for stripping on vessels t ra nsport ing a dedi-

d cargo. On a crude ca~ er , for exam ple. eductors are commonly used

Figure 7-15. Moving....an e pump. Courtesy Vinod Melwa ni.

ro~triPping during cargo dls~harge ~nd crud~-?il-wa~hing oper ati ons . An

ed,ucto r is ajet-type pump whi ch requires ~ dn,":ng fluid to be delive red to a

de lacreate a low press u re on t he s uctio n line. The eductor is typically
nO: ered by the cargo taken from t h e di scha rge side of one or more of t he
~ain cargo pumps or a ge neral purpose pump. Figu re 7-18 ill ustra tes the
internals of an eductor.
The discharge from the eductor is either se nt di rectly as hore through
thedischarge main or , mo re commonly returned to a design a ted slop ta nk.
Another application for eductors is in the segrega ted-ballast syste m. The
eductor is driven with s ea water from th e segrega ted-ballast pump and
I

Discharge

Sucllon
Figure 716 . Screw pump. Courte sy J er emy Docekal .

Inlel

ntemat view of an edactor.

usvtew
CARGO PUMPS

180

used to strip the ballast tanks. Th er e ar e seve ra l advantages

with the usc of eductore in n st ri pping syste m:
I.

2.

3.

888

Gelated

They have no moving parts, which generall y tran slate s to les8 rn

nance and greete r re lia bility .
Slott .
Eductcrs ca n be upgrad ed in size to far su rpass the st ri pping ca pacity or
positive-displ acem ent pump.
I
Th ere is no ri sk of overhea ti ng or ina dequate lubrication when th e eduetor
loges s uctio n.

The s ingle disadvantage of a n educto r is the fact that a driving fluid

(cargo in this ca se ) must be s u p plie d for conti nu e ~ operati on . Therefore, an
eductor is of little value at th e bitter e nd ofth e disch a rge when it is neces_
sary to strip the last cargo tank a nd drop a n d st ri p the pipelines.

REVIEW
1. What type ofpump is typically employed for the m a in ca rgo pumps on
modem tank vessels?
2. Wha t type s of pumps are typically employed for st ri pping service on
tank vessels?
3. Define the following terms: gravity head. static s uctio n lift, pump
head . disc harge head .
4. Wh at is t he main rotating element in a centrifugal pump called? In
what area of t he pum p is energy converted from high velocity to a combination of velocity a nd discharge pressure?
5. During a cargo disch arge, wh at are t he telltale signs that a cent rifugal
pump is being starved of ade quate liquid?
6. Define ca vitation. Wh at a re the short- a nd long-term effects of'eavitating a pump?
7. How does an oper ator pr event loss of s uct ion in t he main ca rgo p~p
wh en th e cargo level is low in the t ank? <Desc ri be the use of a pnme

tank.I

8. What techniques are employed to pr event loss of suction in t he mS.1n

cargo pump when discharging the las t tank (finishing t he cargo diS'
charge)?
What is meant by the term "self-priming" when a pplied to a cargo
\':ful ?
.
wn t re the advantages of stripping with an eductor? When IS un
r. 0 lit.J.le value in the stripping of the vess el ?
f th
rson-m-charge must carefully monitor the perform an ce 0
e
P.
p's wHen they are cro ssed over on the sucti on or dischar ge

181

\'
. a shore booste r pum p employed i n la ndem with th
. n..en IS
d
h
e veeee S
12. "'''
IlIps? Wh at concerns Ge S t e shore booster p
,
,go pU
'
\' D
ib h
urnp create lor
,.
atcr of t h e vesse . escn e t e performance of th
\'
the oper rnps befor e a n d a ft er th e bcosta r pump illsla rte d e vellSc S
~rgo::possible c~use8 for the m~in cargo (centrifugal) p~mp to lose
13. Llst.t during a dis ch a rge oper at tcn .
suction
h
t th
.
ist the gauge s t at 88S lS
e o~erator 10 monitoring the perfo r14. L ce of th e ca rgo pumps. Where IS th e emergency shut down for the
",an 1C8,go pumps locate d?
veeee
.
ry diff
m er e nces betw een a deepweU (vert icalWhat ar e the prima
16. tu rbine) pump a nd s ubme rged pump? Wh at are the advanlages of
deepwelVsubmerged pumpmg systems over a conventional pumprooIl1?

MV r ETRO LAB
W" r ld Tra ntp or1 Co.

C HAPTE R 8

RH.

RH '

~ -"

Tf lL, US M
R t'J:

rltOPCCTS

Cargo Transfer Op era t ion s

~5

0 00

bb\s

JtI
<Po, gPO phis
_2 F.O. u.S, non
1~

1~1.l~

o;G RATE

The following item s, derived from fed er al regul ation as well as company
manuals, must be checked prior to comm encing a cargo tran sfer an d at the
cnange of watch, before each success ive PIC ass umes responsibility for the
c r'go operation.

Ti tle 33 CFR Part 156.120

. V-e88""e I'lrU>iil'"ing8: Moorings shall be strong enough to hold th e vessel

e p eted conditions ofsurge, current, a nd weather. T~e moo~'

eo ufficient length to allow adjustment for chan ges 10 dre ,
ld u fig a cargo transfer (fig. 8-2).
182

REG

HAl-L AST

"-

JET

Jf.T

JH

!i-o

5-0

!i-o

JET

JET

JET

5-0

10 - 0

S,OOO bp b (lUll)

IIARGE RATE

REGULATIONS

.1""-

_I R(,r 8 " Hos...

LOAD~A.rOR CO:aROL
he tran sfer of ca rgo between a vessel and the shore fa cility or between two vessels requires ca reful planning a nd exec ution by the
person s-in -charge. Th e goa l of this ope ration is the sa fe a nd efficient
tra nsfer of ca rgo. With thi s in mind, t he P ICs should conduct a thorough
insp ect ion of th e vess el a nd faci lity before assuming the ca rgo watch to
minimize the possib ility of cargo contamination , spills , fir es, and explc .
sto ne. This cha pte r addresses the precau ti ons tha t should be followed by
a vessel PI C when ever a cargo transfer is under t ak e n. a nd it focuses on
the cri tical poin ts of th e loadi ng a nd di sch arging operations. Preparation for t he cargo transfe r begins prior to the vessel's a rrival at the
ber th . It in volves t he developme nt of a ca r go plan outlini ng such thin gs
as the identity of the ca rgoes, tank la yout , seque nce of ca rgo transfer,
cargo quantity a nd ca lculations, and ot her det a ils of the up comin g operation (fig. 8-1).

REG

-, 't-"

112 1
g "HoSe. 3
_3 #-2.. ~ 9 15" H eee

~ .L

yes.l@)

N /';"

DISC CRUDE O il W ASH

)-es([!P

TANKS

fl5

l o ~O

1"- /
;

tr2 F.O.

LLA.'

5 -0

115

1"- /

BALLAST

/"-

112 F.a .

U F.O.

' 2 F.O.

S- o

5-0

5-0

Figure 81. Typical plan outlini ng the cargo layout . qua ntities, an d rates.

2.Cargo hoses and loading arms. len gth: Cargo hoses and loading
anns must be long enough to allow the vesse l to move to the limits of ~ts
moorings with out pla cin g strain on the hose. loading arm, or trans fer piping system (fig, 83).
3.Cargo hose 8UPPOrt : Eac h hose must be properly sup~rted ~ prevent kinking or other dam age <such as a bight of the hose getting pmched
between the vessel a nd the dock ).Th e hose should be properly supporte d to
prevent undue strain on it s couplings (fig 8-4).
I
Transfe r sys tem alignment: The pipin g system must be pro~r y
. d to permit the sche d uled flow of oil or ha zardous material. Prior to
n up the piping sys te m, it is recomm end ed that all valves ~e ~~nuany
u 1 y checked to en sure they are initially closed. To mJI~tmlZe th
<h
. .
. r the PIC to line up t he.
II uma n error It 18 standard practice lor
. divid I
for the scheduled transfer and th en have another m IV! ,~.
~ <
I it i I 0 common prac .Ice
I II Correctness. On automated vesse 8, 1 18 a 8.
b.
II: rsonnel on deck verify the opening and closing of valves. Wit

Figure &.2. Vessel moorin gs mus t be adequa te and properly tended .

Figure 8 -3. Cargo hoses mu st ha ve s ufficient len gth a nd be pr ope rly supporte d to
prevent undue st rain on th e couplings .

1U:( ; l ll .ATIi INS

185

aRsive chan ge of t he cargo wa tch, the PIC abculd chi'ck the curach SllCC f aU cargo system va lves .
tatUS
0
' tS
...J1
,.
Tron st'l'.ero>'st eTrt, Il n ll Hed. c u.m p fJlIe n tH; Any pa rt 0 Lth e trans rer
5.
. , not n"..eded for the ope, ration I II to he .securely blanked 0 r sh u t oIT.
piPIJ1 Cargo hOlles or loudrn/! arms, not In 'Ul'; The end of each cargo
6 loading arm not con n~cted for the tram:;fer ofoil or hazardous matehOse 0T t be bla nked-ofT usmg proper closure devices such as butt rfl
nal ll1US fer-typ e re silient seated valv es, or blank flan ges.
e y
alves,
wa
..
Th e cargo hose or loading a nn is to be
v
Transfer
sys tem, ,~ ed p iping:
7. d to fixed piping on the vessel 88 well as at the facility .
CO~~~~'f'rboard. disch argf.'ls~a su ct io n vu /t'f.'s: Eac~ overboard dis.
e or sea s uctIOn valve that IS conn~ted to the veseel'e cargo piping or
ch~ stem mu s t be seale d Or lashed In t he dosed position,
tallg.t orgo h oses, con d ition : E ach ~argo hose use d in th e tran sfer must
be visually inspected for any unrep aired ~oose c~vers , kinks, bulges, soft
. te or any ot he r defect that would permit th e discharge of oil or hazard::~go through the ho se material. Further, there sh ould be no gouges,
ts or slashes that pene t ra te the fir st lay er of hose reinforcement. The re~o~ementlayer refer s to the strength members in the construction ofthe
hose---fabric, cord, Or metal.
10.Ca rgo h oses, p ressu re rating and labeling: Each ca rgo hose or
loading arm must me et t he b ursting and working pressu re ra tings contained in Titl e 33 CF R P art 154 .500, Each cargo hose must have the

i\I~ 8-4.A h

08e

rack us ed at a terminal.

186

CARGO TRANSFER OI' f>: RAT IONS

.---

IIM . lJl .A lll l NS

'"'

followin g i nfo ~ a ti on (minimum ) marked on tht!jackeL th e nam e

product for which the hose may be us ed or th e word s "O IL S ERVICof each
hazardous mat eri al s, the hose mu st be marked with th e word "H E.~ For

SERVICE-SEE LIST," followed by a letter. number, or 8ym b: , t h AlMA!

spe nds to a lis t or chart with the necessary inform at ion in th atcOrtc .
transfer procedures manual. In addition to th e-iden t ity of t he prude vesllel',
may be transferred through th e hose, th e maximum a llowable uctst~at
pr ess ur e must be indi cated. See chapter4 for de ta ils conce m inge wor~ng
a nd loading a nn insp ecti ons a nd ratings.
a rgo UliC
11. Cargo con nections: The cargo h ose a nd load ing arm Con
.

must have suita ble gasket materi al to ensure aleak-Frae seal \\'h", eCbons

.
.
n stan_
da rd flanges are employed, a bolt must be Install ed at least in every th

hole and in no case should th ere be fewer than four bolts for tempora 0 er
nections. If the fla nges are nonsta nda rd or th e connection is penna;;' nc~n.
bolt must be used in every hole of th e flan ge. The deta ils concerning: ,a
tr ansfer connections can be found in Title 33 CFR Part 156.130.
argo
12. Monitoring devices: These devices may be inst alled at a shore f .
cility to significantly limit the amount of a discharge of oil or hazardo a
materi al durin g a transfer. These devices, when required by local autho~~
ity, must be install ed proper ly and maintained in proper working order.
13. Discharge containment equipment: Each shor e facility is reo
quired to have ready access to sufficient containment material (i.e., a
boom) an d equipm ent to conta in any oil or hazardous materi al discharged
onto the water during transfer opera tions .
14. Discharge containment area: Thi s refer s to the fixed container
<trough) or enclosed deck a rea located under the vessel manifold (refer to
figure 8-3 ) int end ed to collect a ny sp illage du r ing connection and di sccn nection of cargo hoses or loading a rms. Th e containment a rea must havea
means of being drained periodi cally so as to pr ovide th e required capacity . The required cap acity of the fixed contai nment (trough ) area is dependent on the diameter of th e cargo hoses or loading arms connected to
the manifold. The details concerning the capacity of the cont ainment area
for a vessel can be found in Titl e 33 CFR Part 155.310. As oft his writing,
all oil tankers and offshore oil barges with a ca pacity of 250 barrels or
more must have peripheral coaminga (at hwartshi ps as well as foreand-aft) that completely enclose the cargo deck area, ca rgo hat ches, manifolds, transfer connections, and other openings wher e cargo may overflow or leak. The coamings must be at least four inche s high except in the
after corners on the port and sta rboard sides of the vessel, where they
must be at least eight inches high .
15. Scupper. or draine: Means shall be provided to mechanically
close each weather-deck drain or scupper in the container or encloseddeck
area so that in the event of a tank overfill, ruptured hose, or pipeline leak,
the cargo is contained on deck (fig. 8-5).

Figure 85. All weather.deck drains must be plugged during a cargo transfer.

16. Communication syste mlla nguage fluency: Two-way voice communications must be pro vided between the persons-in-charge of the transfer operations. Th e communicatio ns equipme nt must be suitable for the
area ofoperation, such as the use of intrinsically safe portable radios when
transferring flamm able or combusti ble liquids. At least one person at th e
eitecfthe transfer operation mu st be capa ble af fluently speaking the languageor languages s poken by the PIC on the vessel and the PIC at the facility.
17. ErMrgency shlltdown: Both the vessel and the shore facility must
heve a means of stopping th e flow of oil or hazardous car goin the event.of
anemergency during a tr an sfer opera tion. For vessels, the method may.mvalve a pump control, qui ck-actin g power-actu ated valve. or an operatmg
procedure. The emergency shutdown mu st be operable. from the cargo
deck, cargo control room or the usual operating stanon for the per8Onin-charge of the cargotra nsfer on the vessel (fig. 8-6 ).
The facility must provide an emergency means to enable the PIC of the
ssel to stop the flow of oil or hazardous cargo during a tr~nsfe.r. Th:
ethod ofshutting down may be electrical, pneumatic. me.cha~cal hnkag
e shore facility, or through electronic voice commUnlCatlOr . hi th
o~ oil transfers, the facility must stop the flow to the vesee WIt n e
11 Wing limits:

188

...

CARGO TRAN SFER OPE'"

1V>.T10NS

Sixty seconds for faci litie s th at com

I , 1980 .
mence ope ratio n on or b f
Th '
(. O f e Nov
r
rrty second s for facili ties tha t co
d
elJl11ll
1980.
mme nce ope ration afte r N
oV{'rnh('r 1,

" thF~r ha za rd ous ma terial tra nsfers the flow to t he ve R!W!

W1

In

t hese limi ts :

Si~ty seco nds for a facili ty th at com me nce d

mu st Slo p

Ta '

Thirty seconds fo r a faci lity tha t com ma

d pe h~n before OClobl-r 4, l l>nh
1990.
nee ope ration on or ane r 0 eto!)(>r
" '7IJ
4,

18.
" Ph er eon-in-cbare
I i e , a t site s Th eTe must be
des!
son-in-c arge on the vess el a nd a t the shore facilit
a eSlgnaled per.
to be a t th e s ite of the transfer opera tion and ' y. ned!PICs a re required
transfer personnel.
rmme late ly available to
19. !7ansfer p rocedu re s manual: Ea ch ve sse l cond .
uctm g the tr ans.
fer of oil or h az ardou s ca rgo mus t have a t ransfer r
cargo transfe r must be conducted in a ccordance ~t:t~dure~dm~nua~. The
transfer procedures manual.
e gut elines In the
20. S u ffic ie n t p ersonnel: Th e personnel re uir d
a tion a s outlined
th e transfer procedures

in

m~ua~ m~~~~:~~ ~~~;:r.

<'
H~:(; U I..ATl n N S

1B9

21 prelr a n s fe r co n ferem'e: The pcrson-in-char g

f th

~reon_in-charge of the facility must hold a confer:n~

the p. dividual u ndersta nds th e followin g:

e vessel and

o to ensure that

ellch 111
Identity of t he prod uct to be tran sferred
Qua nti ty to be transferred
,Sequence of t he tra nsfer operation
Tran sfer ra te
.....e
or ti tle a nd loca t.
ion of ea '
ch person
participating In
" lh e transfe r
I~
.
Details ofthe t ransfemng and receiving Byste ms
Critica l stages in t he t ransfer operation
Feder al , state. a nd loca l rules that apply to the t ransfer of oil or hau.rdous

" .."go
Emergen cy procedures
Discharge containment procedu re s
Discharge re porting proced ure s
Wa tch Dr sh ift a rrangem en ts
Transfer shu tdown procedures

In addition. proper radio communications must be established.

22. Ag reem ent to begi n transfer: No ca rgo transfer is to commence
unless th e person-In-cha rge of the vessel and the person-in-charge of the
facility agree .

23. Lighting: Vessels conducting transfer opera tions between sunset

and sunrise must h ave deck lighting that adequately illuminates the
transfer oper ations work area an d each transfer connection point in use 0 0
the vessel.
Title 46 CFR Part 35.35-20
1. Warning signals di splayed : Tank vessels tra nsferring carg o at a

dock must displ ay a red flag (bravo) by day and a red electric lantern at
night wher e vis ib le from all sides (a ll-round light ). When transfe rring
cargo at.anchor, onl y the red fla g shall be displayed . A warni ng sign shall
be posted a t th e gangway or point of access to the vessel with the following
wording ba sed on the type of cargo being tran sferred:
FOR OIL CARGOES

WARNING

No visitors
No emoking

No open lights
Fi...~.Jl.lia..,ner",,"O,IJltdown control for the vessel's cargo pumps.

FOR HAZARDOUSMATERIALS

wARNING
Dongerou. Corgo

No visitors
No smoking
No open lights

--

190

CARGO TRANSFER OPERA TIO NS

HE1;UI..\TIIJN S

191

,, ty or plat fonn. Prior to IfJading. t.he person-in-char ge shall

cfacl
detcrrni
hh
/l!h or an l'ns pection to etc rm me w lt cr smokinl( may he permitted
. areas 0 th er t h
co"dud onable s afety 10
an i
t re weather deck of the vessel.
",-ilh -ees rea di ncu : T he sho re te r minal or other tank vessel concerned
ShO
7.
readiness to tran8fer cargo .
tJ\~~ ~~~ol'a~vCB: All sea va lves con nected to the ca rgo piping ayete m must

';; .t8

lolled.rl ga s syste m: T h e Inc

. rt
gas syste m mu st he operated as necese
9. ln al'ntain an inert atmosphere in the ca rgotanks as required by reg-

be C

""tol11
. d
. th .
..
SS-'. n Vessel s reqUIre to operate In I' mert condillon must verify that
tlO
u1l1
h cargo tanks h a ve an oxygen content ofB percent or less by volume

1111 SUC 'l ive pr essure (see Title 46 e FR Part 32.53-5).

d a poSl
.
\' ~
.
'"
V0 por control operation: 'vlien conducting a closed loading oper10.
di
rect!
h
. which in volves Irect m g. t e cargo vapors to the shore facility from
allon
l'a tanks , the pe rson-i n-charge shall complete the required addithevesse
. 0f imepecuo
. n sh own in ch apter 5.
. I tries to t he d ecIa ratron
tlon~ e~eclaration of I ns pect ion (DOn is a checklist that contains th e
that mu st be ins pected by th e PI C. This form (fig. 8-8) must he signed
~;~~e PIC pri or to taking charge of th e cargo tra nsfer on a ta nk vessel.
Figure 8-7. Warning sign posted at the access point to th e benzene-regulated arta

on th e vessel.
If th e vessel is transferring a benz ene regula ted cargo, a warning sign

must be posted a t each access to th e regulated area (fig. 8.7).

2. Repair work authorization: No rep air work in way of the cargo
s paces may be carried out wit hout permission .
3. Cargo con necti ons: (See number 11 a bove or refe r to Title 33 CFR
Part 156.130 for details of ca rgo connecti ons.) Ca rgo connections must be
mad e to th e vessel's piping sys te m and not t hrough a n open end of hose led
through a hatch . Whe n the ca rgo connections a re s upported by the vessel's
ta ckle, the per son -in-ch arge s hall dete rmin e t he weight in volved and ens ure that ade quate su pport is ut ili zed . Portable drip pa n s s ha ll be placed
under all cargo hose connecti on s wh er e no fixed containmen t is employed.
All cargo valv es s hall be se t for t he sc he du led t ra nsfer and veri fied by the
per son-in-chargs .
4. Fires or open flamell: When loading grades A, B , or C ca rgoes, t here
shall be no fir es or open n ames present on deck or in a ny compa rt ment
which is located on, facing , or open a nd adjacent to th at pa rt of t he deck on
which cargo connections have been made.
5. Boilerandgalley fire safety: An in specti on shall be mad e to determine that boiler and galley fires can be maintained with reason ab le safety.
6. Safe smoking areas,' Smoking is prohibited on the wea the r deck~of
tank vessels when they a re not gas fre e or wh en they a re sit uated alo ngsid e

Co m pany Re commendation s
.J'
tion
to
the
aforement
ioned regu latory requirements ,companies frelna dUJ

tl includ e the Ioll owin

g sa few
ety iIte ms to t h e pret ranefer ch eckliIst :
que~ J argo information : The PI C shou ld be provided with the most cur t 'mate ria l sa fety data sheets (MSDS) available , or t heir equivalent, for
thecargoes t hat a re about to be t rans ferred.. During th e.cargo transfer, this
information sh ou ld be disp lay ed in a cons picuous location on the vessel for
easy refer ence by pe rsonnel (fig. a-g).
.
2. Fire-fighting ge ar: All fixed fire-fighting gear should be laid out
andready for immed iate u s e in the eventof a n eme rgency tfig. B.I0~. ~essel
personnel shoul d lea d out fir e h os es in t he ca rgo tank ~rea ~nd pceitton th e
foam monitors in t h e ready posi ti on . Portable fire exti nguis hers should be
placed in th e vici nity of the cargo manifold .
. ...
3. Emergency towing wires (a lso referred to as ' fire WIres ): Towmg
ngJustabovethewa.
. hth eeye h a n";
Wiresshould
be n.gged for e a nd aft , WIt
eo
tar's edge on the offshore side of th e vessel.
f bo di
4. Bonding cablelinsrdating flange: Although the use 0 a ~tng
cebIe between the vess el a nd sh ore fecili
aCI i ty .IS diiacou raged by the man
d ~ une.
d I'. 0 '[ Tankers an J erml mmunity (see Internati onal Safety GIII e for I
h
I B ndin g
.
b ding of t e veaaer. 0
, Iocal rules may sti ll mandate pr oper on
lectri I rc daring
. emethod of'reducing
. the p OSSlible occure nce ofaneee
d. ncaa ith the
.
.
.
f
h
or loa 109 a rms WI
nnection and di sconnecti on 0 ca rgo oaee
fl
ble cargo Val. A potential fir e risk is possible ehou ld th ere be . a~ma during thi s
resent in the immediate vicin ity of the open pipe mes

GO INFORMATION CARD

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For uslstanc:e, phone CHEMTREC

toll free, day or nIght

800-424-9300

MARINE RADIOTELEPHONES
CALL 202-483-76U5

1' ' ' 'lIll 'ij

Iod

eo.-.-.T . _ ~

IF THIS HAPPENS

. ..... . - . _ ._
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Br eath in g vapor In confined erees may cause

asphy xiati on ,

IN C A S E OF ACCIDENT

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(1" ' 11I1_ 1)

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HAZARDS

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EXP L

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ARGO TRANSFER Use authorized personnel cnt

C
y, properly protected.

OSURE

fJ5B-:Il
(I " '''' C'II

.,_.__

FLAMMABLE LIQUID NOS

I CORROSIVE MATERIAL

r-----------------------

1'"

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., k_ ..._

MTBE (METHYL TERTIARY BUTYL ETHER)

Extremely flammable. Igntted by heat S

(I "'-;~ ">PII

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ShLJl off all Ignition sources. Keep people away. Keep

upwind. ShLJl off leak il without risk. Wearself-COnlained
breath ing apparatus . Usa water spray 10"kn0d<. down"
vapo r. A ush area with water spray. Aun-otllo waterway
creates fire hazard(f1oals on water); notifyfire, hea~h and
pollution control agencies.

On smaH fire use dry chemicalcrcartcn dioxide. Onlarge

fire use water spray or appropriale teem. Cool exposed
tan ks w ith water.

Remove to Iresh air. II nol brealhing, apply artifK:i al resetration, Ollygen. II breathing is difficu~ , administerollygen.

Call physician .

eclaration ofInspection . A form similar to thi s one must be signed by

lAking charge of the deck . Courtesy ARCO.

8 9 C d'

- . argo information card i s usually peste In

ronspicuous l ocation on

Figure B.I0. Fire-fighting gea r is readied prior to a cargo transfe r .

Figure 8-11. Spool-type insulatin g flange is a one-piecedouble-sided flange rnachined from cast nylon . Courtesy Apollo International Corp.

opera tion. The purpose of th e bonding cable is to provide an electrical path

to eart h, thereby preventing the creation of an ignition source locally at the

cargo manifold. Where bonding is still required by th e shore facility, the

person-in-charge shou ld ensure that it is the first item connected to the
vessel upon docking a nd the last item removed from the vessel afte r completi on of the cargo tra nsfer , disconnection of the ca rgo hoses or a rms , and
cleanup of any spillage . According to the International Safety Guide for Oil
Tankers and Termi nals, a more effective method of preventing such an occurrence is the use of an insul at ing flan ge in th e connections between the
vessel and shore facility. The insulating flan ge is typically installed on the
shore end of the hose st ri ng or loading a rm. It is a perma nent fittin g th at
employs a special gas ket mat eri al , bolt sleeves, an d washer s to eliminate
any metal-to-metal conta ct ac ross th e flan ge faces. Th e use of an insulating
flange minimize s the chance of a n a ppreciable elect rica l cha rge occurring
when connecting and disconnecting the cargo hoses or loading a rms (lig
8-111.
5. No unauthorized craft alongside: No vesse l may come alongside
or remain alongside the cargo area of a tank vessel during loading or discharging of grade A, B, or C cargoes unless granted permission by th e person-in-charge.
6. Flame screens: All cargo tank openings mu st have prop er flame
screen protection (fig. 8-12). The PIC should check that all flam e screens
are in good condition (no holes or fouling) .

..
. posttion on a tank.
U11 age opemng
WIth flame scree n In

19 6

()P t~ltAT I ONS

CARGO T RAN SFER OPfo.:RATION S

197

7. Safely m atch es: Th e U Be of ligh t er s or mat ches ot h

h
ma tch es is forbidden a boa rd tank vesse ls at a ny t im e.
er- 1 nn safely
B.D oors andports: Duri ng a ca rgo transfe r or a ny ope rau .
possi ble accu m ula t ion of'cargo va pors, a ll d OOTS and ports to ~~~ ~VolVing
a reas of t he vessel (h ous e) mu st be s ecu red.
oncargO
. 9. Pum p roo m ve n t ila t io n a n d bilg e a larm; On veSsels ui
Wlth ca rgo pumproom s , th e PIC shall en su re t hat power ve nt,' ) t~ I.PPed
'
h
..
8 10 n 18
era t mg
\V ene ver It 18 necessary for personn el to e nter th
op,
btl
I
e
s
pace Th
~umproom I ge a a rm mu st be tes ted pri or to ca rgo transfer , and th e' . e
10 the pumproom should be s t ri pp ed dry .
bilge
10. Cofferdam. a nd ooids: All voids a dja cen t to th e ca rgo ta k h
be checked to ens ure they a re empty.
n 88 all
J 1. Segrega /e d -ba lla s/ sys/e m: When vessels arrive in th b

lasted condition, per sonn el should veri fy to t he best of th eir a biltre hal.
y rltao
at
th e ball ast water is "clean" prio' r to di scharge in to th e harbor ' S~rmu
neous ca rg~ an d b a IIa ~t ope ra tio ns should .o? ly be conducte d after care.
ful calcula tio n ofbendmg, sh ear, and ata biltty condit ions (free eurfae
el
of the vessel.
12. Portable electric eq uip me n t: Portable electric items must be disconnecte d from th eir power source.
13. Con /ai.n me n / boom: The riggi ng of a containment boom around
th e ~essel dunng cargo transfer operations may be requ ire d by local au.
thortty or some shore facilities (fig. 8-13). In th e event of a discharge of
cargo Into th e water , th e containment boom limits the movement of the
spill with th e pre vailing winds or curre nts. The proper use ofconta inment
booms not only protects adjoin ing shorelines and se nsitive ecological areas
but aids the res ponse and cleanup effort,
14. Spill response eq u ip men t: Emer gency spill response equipment
on t he vessel sha ll be readi ly accessible. The spill response locker typically
includ es such ite ms as portable (Wilden) pumps, absorbent pads, scoops,
buckets , rags, squeegees, mops, boots, gloves, aprons, and goggles.
15. Draft or freeboard restrictions: The P IC should confer with the
facility concerni ng the ava ila ble depth of wate r alongside th e dock and any
freeboard restrictions th at may be imposed prior to th e car go tr ansfer, If
th e depth of water at the dock is in qu esti on, it is advisable to take
soundings around th e vessel at th e proper stage of th e tide, An accurate determination ofthe depth alongs ide th e dock is necessary to avoid the possi
bility of the vessel touching bottom during th e final stages of loading.
While discharging, the change in freeboard, coupled with th e ran ge of the
tide ~ could result in undue st rain being placed on the connections or mel:\uica1 loading arms, The PIC should take corrective act ion to prevent
sucll a~ occurrence.
6, Freshwater allowance (FWA): When a vesse l is being loaded to
its appficable limiting load line, the PIC should check th e density ofth e wa

Figure 8-13. Spill-rontainment booms are oftenriggedaround the vessel during a

tItI0 transfer.

teralongside the vessel to det ermine any allowance that should be applied
ifl10ating in fresh or br ackish water. Performing this check will avoid the
possibility of overloadi ng or loading the vessel short.

OPERATIONS
After all pret ran sfer and safe ty checks have been completed, the cargo o~
eration can begin . When the PICs ofthe facility and the vessel report then
readiness to commence the cargo tran sfer, th e manifold valves are op~n~d.
The start of liquid flow is a critical point in the cargo operation, req~m ng
the personal supervision of the PIC. It is standard industry practice to
start the cargo tran sfer at a reduced rate with personnel sta ndingby at the
manifold on deck to check the connections, hoses, arms, and piping for
leaks. Personnel should make a round of th e deck, visually checking t~e
Water alongside the ves sel and the ta nk ullages to confirm th at cargo IS
fuI.Wing in th e correct dir ection. On vessels equipped with a pumproom,
Uil l space should be checked frequ ently for any leaks. The vessel cargo
Ii s must bechecked for prop er venting or inert gas delivery, as th e opera I n warrants. At the st art of th e cargo transfer , the PIC should keep a
watch on pump, manifold, and deck pressur e readings .

198

(1\'~;ltA'I'I () N S

CARGO TRAN SFER OPERATION S

199

When t he P IC is sa t is fied th at th e ca rg o tr an 8 ~ .
l8
s moot hly. t he loading or d ischarging ra t e can be inl'r" a"d prOCeeding
.
. . . . . se loth.
maximum . AEI t he ca rgo trans fe r proceed s it is r~co m m d d u agreed
.
' e n e tht
pers on nel mak e continuous ro und s of the de ck check!
I ~ vcssel
.
,
... fi g SUI' 1 I t
ca rgo a nd ball a st ta nk level s, mamfold connections h
~I
em!! 8 s
,
, ose""arrns' va1Ve
a Iignmen t, pumproom , mooring lin es gangway vessel tr m
id I
. "
.
8 1C, we th
tI a current, and secu nty. Some ve ssels maintain a slat
bo a er,
playing t he curren t ca rgo a nd ballast tanks involved in t h tn ard dis.
.h
any stop gauges or fina l u lla ge s noted on board Th e PI C she rsldnsrer wit
.
'" a u ca lcu)
t h e cargo tran8f~r ra te ho~r~y ( to en~u.re compliance with the 8 ate
value) to det ermine th e anticipated sa iling tim e In a dd,", "
h greed

.
.
10n, t e p
s'peed a nd manifold press ures should be recorded by th e PIC. The esump
hsh ed cargo t ran sfer pla n must be followed and a ny last- " t h tab"
ati
or d e re or devi
evratrcns
from th e pla n should be' recalculat ed mm
t u eidc ang.
"
" I'
0 aVOI exces
arve tnm, 18t, st ress, or stability problems . A number of oper au
h "
ir
e
th
ion
of
'
.
I
a so req uire t e attention 0 th e PIC at ce rtain pomts in a cargo one
t t ~at
inclu de the following :
rans er
1. Sampling: Tank vessels a re su bject to sampling a nd lab ans] "
"
"" h
~ I S"
va~ o us POints In t e tran sport ofa cargo. For example, a vessel may be reo
~wred to perform ~ot~m sa mpling at th e beginning of the loading Opera.
ticn . Bottom sa mphng ISperformed for quality assurance and to ensure the
vesse l was pro.per~y prepared to receive th e ca rgo being loaded. The PIC
~hould determine ifbottom sa mpling is requi red for a ny ofthe cargoes duro
ing th e pr et.ran sfer conference. The tanks that mu st be bott om sam pled reo
cerve 8 partial load to 8 specified level, a nd then the operation is shut down.
The loading opera tion ca n only resume after th e PI C receives clearance
from th e laboratory. Lin e sa mples a re usually ta ke n ofTthe facility pipeline
through which th e vessel is being load ed . Th e PI C of the vessel may reo
quest a line sample be tak en from th e dock manifold, which is then labeled
and sealed by a witness. Th e lin e sa mple is usually retained on the vessel
for the duration of th e voyage should any discrepan cies ari se concerning
the quality of the cargo. The ca rgo tanks undergo a final sa mpling toward
the end of the loading operation, a nd a lab analysis of th e cargo is provided
to the vessel prior to leaving the berth.
2. Heating coils: When handling cargoes that require th e application
of heat, the PIC should be familiar with the operation of the heating coil
system on the vessel and the permissible temperature range of the cargo.
Prior to loading a heated cargo, the heating coils in the tanks should be
checked and any leaks or defective coils repaired. During th e loading operation, the temperature of the cargo arriving on the vessel from th e shore Iacility should be determined. If necessary, heat should be appli ed to the
cargo tanks to attain the desired temperature. Vessel personnel should
~nitor the ~argo temperatures during the loaded pa~sage a~d make th~
necessary adjustments to the heating system. When diechargtng. the PI

e the heati ng coils prillr to reachinKthe t .

rh eati ng the cargo.
II rippingstaKe in the
av OI ove
"
accu m u la t or: When loading a carKo that i
id
3 Sta lC
.
I' d i h
aconst ered a poor
.
the preca ut ions out me In t e In terna!iana l S [et: G 'd
condllcLOkr,s and T er m in a ls m uat be followed. Any cargo a e Y "'f e for
hle o accu. hi e e I ect rOBt aa uIC Ch a rge durinc a 10'eapa
0'"I Ton
" eran apprecla
d"'
"
_latlog ectal handI mg.
"
Th < II .
..
ng operat
ion
[I1ll1
e
10
owing
precautions
apply
h
i d"
uires ape
'
.
w en oa mg a
req
mulating ca rgo mto a nonmerted ta nk'
~tatic-accu
.
~otl1d eceu.rd

i l'
" ", [0

11litial load ing rote : The tanks should be initiallyloaded st a reduced rate
to minimizeturbulence and splashmg 8S the cargofirst enters the tank.
The cargotransfer procedures manual on the vessel specifiesthe correct
initial loading rate.
CUJhion the ta nk: The reduced loading rate should be maintained until
B. the bottom of the cargo tank is covered to a specified heightwithcargo.
C. Maximum loading rote: The cargotransfer procedures manual oft he vessel should be consulted for the maximum allowable loading rate when
handling a static-accumulating cargo.
D. Relamtion period: After the tank is topped off, a minimum relaxation period oft hirty minutes is required before any equipment is introduced into
the tank. After the thirty-minute period, any equipment introduced into
the tank must be properly bondedto the hull.

;...

4.Segregation: On multigrad e carriers, proper segregation must be

maintained between dissimila r ca rgoes. There are numerous methods of
segregating cargoes; some comm on a pproaches include the use of double-block valves, specta cle blanks, a nd removable spool pieces.
5. Shutdown: Th er e a re many reasons for the PIC to terminate a cargo
transfer. Some a re ma nd a te d by regulation while others are based on
sound tank er pr a ctic e a nd common sense. Typical reasons to shut down
the cargo transfer in clude the following:
Oil or hazardous materi al from any source discharged in the transfer operationworkarea, into the water, or upon the adjoining shoreline in the
transfer area
Severe electrical storms or other extreme weather conditions in the vicinity
ofthe vessel
Fire onor in the vicinity of the vessel or on the wharf
l)rgO tank overfill alarm activated
Purnproom bilge alarm sounding
.
'
a 110 Pumpoverheating
benical failure in the cargo system [i.e., 1088 ofhydrauhc system. moperOl," ve valva!
. gaugmg
. system, mope
.
retive high-level alarm,
ve, inoperative
Verfill alarm system, etc.l

.....

F INI SII ING CA It(;(1 LOAl) lNn

200

CARGO TRANSFE R OP ERAT IO NS

Veslle l traffi c pa ssing a t un sa fe s pee d

Exce ss ive m oti on of t he vessel (a u rgi ngld ri n ingl
Mooring lin es part in I!'
EXC1'8Sive cargo p ump disch arge pressure
In oper a tive int"rt gall sys te m
Extrem e deck pressure cond it ion (hig M ow)
P IC expe rie ncing fa ti gu e or 10 8 8 of orie ntatio n with respect to th e tra nsfer
ope rati on

Th e pe rson-In-ch arge of a ca r go t r a nsfe r s ho uld not hesi ta te to h

down the ope ra t ion if a problem a rises or if in doubt -alwa ys reme~~t
. h u t down!
r

TOPPING OFF OPERATIO N

An oth er cri t ica l point in the loading of a tank ve ss el is the to pping_ofT of
cargo tanks. Topping-offi s that stage of t he loading operation when a cargo
tank is filled to th e maximum permissible level consistent with safe
operation and regulatory requirements . A nu mb er of fa ctors a re ta ken into
account when determini ng the topping-ofTpoint in a tank, in cluding pcten.
ti al expa ns ion ofthe liq uid ca rgo du e to temperature variation s, ability of
th e facility to s hut down , expe rie nce of vessel personnel, and th e qu anti ty
of cargo to be loade d. As th e liquid level in a cargo tan k a pproach es th e topping-ofTpoint, a number of precau t ions a re routinely observ ed , including
th e following:
1. Control the loading rates: If necessa ry , the loading rate to the
tank being topped-off ca n be reduced by ope ning t h e n ext tankts ) in the
loading sequen ce. Thi s is one way to con trol t he rate at which t he tank fills
and to ensure th at proper flow is established to th e next tank. Anoth er approach is to have the sh ore facility reduce the ca rgo loa ding rate.
2. Stagger the tank,: To prevent too many ca rgo tanks appro aching
the topping-off point simultaneou sly, it is considered so u nd practi ce, when
possible, to stagger the cargo levels in the tanks.
3. Valve function: Any valves involved in the t opping-off operation
should be checked to ensure they are functional prior to re aching the final
ullage in the tank, Both manual and automated valves s hould be operated
and verified visually by vessel personnel.
4. Tank level.: On vessels equipped with a closed gauging sys tem , itis
standard practice to check the liquid level using a second (independent)
ga"lfgirtg method. Manually operated sonic tapes are commonly used to
pare.readings with the closed gauging figures. Vessels typically ca""'! a
e~ of theae handheld tapes that are inserted through a standpIpe
u
vapor valve arrangement on each tank for the purpose of
ui
adings.

20 \

tank: l f'n problem a rises whil e topp '

6.8 ocIl IUP ) use a b ack u p ta nk into whic h th e " lng-off(for example, a

Wh
h
..arRocanbed
vs v e),
att\l1l ed , hinK tank s:
en t e tank in queetlon reach
n ected.
j 6. SIVJI~ ext ta nk to be loaded should be Opened beforeea t~e prescribed
~lllge, the d-off tank . The ope rator should never Shu~oslDg the v.alve
all ~e ~:::hore pumps as ~he re !lultant surge pr eaaur a co~~;n entlrel~
ag&1n5t
to compon en ts In the ca rgo transfer eyete
caUSe send8Jl1 sge
I D h
m.
ouS
Ilest (or h e p : unng t e topping-o fT operation the PI
1. Rt':ditional help if necessa ry .l f no one is available and too C should
~ (or a topped off at the same time, the PIC may eel...... I ffian y tank,
_.A 10 be
be- I d d - h
.,.."IVeys h utdown
..... d- -dual gr ad es m g oa e , Wlt t he exception of th
ili
in 1\'1

II
h
d
'
e S81 mg cargo\,he __;l;ng cargo IS gen er a Y t e gra e that WIll finish last th b d
""e~'
.
."
the sail ing ttme
ofth e vesserI. It -rs t hereforervwsibleto' heretdY eter_;"mg
.
d
1 ffecti
. , r~~
S U
own the
1JL"--.~ .m"oPs Without a verse y a ect ing tha sailing time of the
I d
other>.;<U&~ d
h
vesse,an
..me loading each gra e as t e tanks are topped ofT. Another probl
torts ....
duri g h
.
em
thaIfrequently arises
t e toppmg:o fTopera tion i~ the,condition ofthe
ring lines, lfthe P IC I S co"!"ro nted wit h slack moonng lines due to free~ change duri ng the toppmg~fT ope ration , ~dditi~nal help should be
e81ledto gofore and aft to ten~ t h e line s ,. If no one IS available, it may be nee"",<31)' to shut down the loading operaucn to take up the mooring linea.
a.S hu td ow n : If t h ere 18 any dou bt abo ut t he topping off operation, the
PIC should sh ut down.

w:n

FINISHING CARGO LOADING

When approac hing the end of t h e loa ding operation or the completion of
ooeoft he grades, the PIC of t he ve sse l is dependent on a shore shutdown.
At this point, the PIC h a s few options in t he event ofa problem, given the
ebsenceof'a backup ta nk . Wi th t his in min d, th e PI C should give the shore
facility sufficient a d van ce notice (standby ) oft he shut down and communi ate the following :
A.

Vessel identification: Clea rly identify the vessel, particularly at facilities

that handle the loading of more th an one vessel simultaneously.
Cargo identification: Clearly specify which cargo is beingcompleted.
Cargoloading rate : Reduce th e cargo loading rate if necessary: .
Cargotank status: Advise the facility PIC if the loadingoperatIOn IS ending in a slack or topped-off tank on th e veeeel.
Dock manifold standby: When possible, have the facilityPIC stand bythe
dockmanifold valve in the event of any problems stoppingthe nowto the

eeeel

.
.,
the PIC should
utdown: Once the order to shut down the cargo 18 gIVen,
rify that flow to the cargo tank ha s ceased.

202
G.

OFFSIIO HE MOfJHI N(; S

CARGO TRANSFER OP fo:RATI ON S

M a n ifolcJ./Ju lVt' p oeuion: Se cure the vessel mani fold \.'lIlvcrl) ~

ca rgo(s) in question.
Or

I h~

S.

When possible, it is advisable to end the loadi ng operntion .

tank . which is pa rt icula rly hel pful when trimmi ng the veSse l to,n a slack
draft. When the loadin g operation is complete , all manifold val a certaifl

VCRd'
shauld
be secured . The cargo hos es or loa d mg
arms a re th e n dr ai ned
nected , a nd blanked. Th e hoses are typically drained by either ~ 1,lI(:o n .
vacu u m pump, or th ey are blown clea r with air or nitrogen The ca 8VJtY or
ifold valves on t he vessel may need to be open depending o~ t he me~~~rnan.
played to drain t he hos es or a rms. Once the hoses or loading ann. a I. ..
.
of th e vessel. t he ma nifold
should be blanked and th e entire cargo ree
s ear

4.

secured for sea. At th is point , the deck pressure ofinerted vessels Sho~~~~
checked an d the ine rt gas system started if it is necessary to top u the
pressure.
p

203

Iring bUllkers: When it ill nut pOllllihle to sh ift ca rgo, the trim ofthe veilShl
be adju llte d by llh , n ing bunkers .
~elcan
.
be di ted h
k
Ballasting: The t nm can. 8 JU.II-.e y ta ing on bedlaet into the eegrete d ballast system provided thlBdoc s not re sult in overload ing or eX~Bg.
lIiveIIl(CSll
. es on t he hull.

Comminglin g
. ning of the loading: opera tion some vessels are required to per-

At the ~gl';ung operation. This involves loading a specified quantity ofone

foJ1Il 8.b ~neach cargo tank , th en sto pping the operation. The partial load in
eln
grlId
tank is then blended with th e next grade in the loading se-

each carg~eet th e customer's specifications.

quenre to

OFFSHORE MOORINGS
Lin e Displ a ceme n t
DUring the final stages ofloading, th e fa cility may want to change produeu
in anticipation of th e next opera t ion. Thi s in volves displacing the contents
o~the shore pipelines with t~e next cargo to be handled . The shore facility
will calculate the total qu antity necessary to perform the line displacement
and a dvise th e PIC of the vessel. The PI C mu st the n calculate the proper
stop gauge in the last tank to be loaded on th e vesse l to accommodate the
line disp lacement from the dock. Some facilities use ano t her approach to
clear the previous product. A ball or cylindrical de vice (cal led a "pig")is in.
serted into the pipeline and forced through the line.
Final Draft and Trim
When th e vessel is load ed to its a llowab le loa d line , vessel personnel must
ens ure tha t the ca rgo calc ulations are correct, and th ey must visually
chec k the dr a fts duri ng the fina l stages of t he loa ding operation. At this
point th e draft a nd trim a re close ly monitored, a nd any a llowance for fresh
or bra ckish wate r at th e dock should be a pplied . To dete rm ine the specific
gravity ofthe wa ter a longs ide t he vesse l, a water sa mple is taken and meas ured using a hydrometer. Referen ce to the vesse l ta bles will reveal the
permissible allowa nce when floatin g in other than sa lt water. The final
trim is al so an important consideration for some vesse ls. The PIC has a
number of options to adj us t th e trim ofthe vessel including the following:
1.

Trim tanks: Toward the end of the loading operation, the PICcan reach
the desired drafta by selectively filling cargo tan ks located fore and aft of
the tipping center.
%ift iNl ('argo: After loadingoperati ons are complete, the correcttrim can
be achleved by shifting cargo within the vessel.

tank vessels have increased in size, the number of ports that can safely
As

odate th ese vessels ha s declined. This has led to the development

a~mr:ater terminal s located some distance offshore. The use of offshore

o ~Pg bu oy. platforms , and lightering zones has reduced th e need for
moonn
,
.
. bl
larger tank vessel s to negoti a te busy har bors an d restricted navtg a e waterways

Single-Point a n d Multipoint Moorings

Withsingle-point or multipoint moorin gs, a ~ankship ca~ tie up to one.or
more buoys in deep water well offshore. Figure 8-14 .ill u st ra~ s a emgle-point moorin g and s pecia l hose assembly through which cargo IS load.ed
ordischarged. The hose is attached to a submerged pipe1i~e that ca~es
the cargo along the seabed to or from the onshore terminal".At a s~~
gle-point mooring the vessel makes fast to a buoy at the bow. This ~~
the vessel to pivot freely around the moori ng buoy with changes In wind
and current. A floating hose is hoisted aboa rd the ve~sel and ~ade fast to
the manifold. On e exa mple of a successful single-pomt ~oonng m:an gementis the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), located eightee n miles offehere in the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 8-15).
.
tel f
Good communi cations , training, a nd pri or planning are esse ntt. .or
the Bafety of all involved in th e use of offshore moorings. I": multipoint
.
.
pOS1.itiron, typically by let.Oonngs,
the vessel is ca refully maneu vered 1010
t
0 ofeach anchor a nd backing to a position within a cluster.of five or
OOring buo ys Th e mooring lines a re run to the buoys by hne bo~ts,
Ii vessel is held securely in positi on by th e combination of moonng
. t moon. ng arrangement
u; anchor chains . An example of a mu Itrpotn
fOund at El Segundo, California.

204

...

Il ISC II.Il, I{COl N( ; C)I' ~:ltAT\(IN

205
M OOl1 ng bra Cket s

Mooli ng buoy

ni ~ ch a r Jte Procedur e
e of loa din g, t he re are many approaches to th d' h
~ ill t~ca~ischarge pl an tha t is developed should endeav~r ~&; a~ge

Chain swtYel
Shall un iversal

jot","", -:::J~f..-""-~

\.e;:....el, I ne

~r II.

maintain a

AUII:!sWIVel
8$$embly

B'G dlame ter

riser sha h

10'"diameter ca rgo tra nsfer pipe

Special reinforced
base hose

Base U1'IIV8rsa' lOint

~

Base hose man ifold

Sea bonom (296 ")

Figure 8-14. Diagram of a si ngle-point moori ng used in th e Sou th China &>&

Pl atforms
Another approach at some facilitie s is the use of ofTshore plat forms. Figure

8-16 illustrates such

platform located in deep water offshore.

Lightering Zones
Lightering zones represent another option when dealing with larger vesse ls s uc h 8S t hose frequently fou nd in the a rea ofTGalveston,Texas. Figure
1-18 in cha pte r 1 shows a typicallightering operation performed at sea.In

thi s instance, th e VLee is discha rging part of her cargo into a smaller
Iightering vesse l for delivery to th e tank fa rm or refinery ashore.

DISCHARGING OPERATION
. of the pretran sfer procedures menttone
.
d ea rI'rer nndsfUpon completion
ter recheckin g the lin eup of th e vesse l, th e discharge operation can c~~
mence. It is advisa ble to sta rt th e ca rgo pumps at a reduced speed, ellity.
.
tank ull ages, a n d proper fl ow ootheCacl1Y
per sonnel check connections,

~BUll! 815. The Loui sian a Offshore Oil Port (LOOP). CourU>sy LOOP LLC.

.:u /

206
CA RGO pl.A N
MV pF.TROLA B
Wllrld Tran 1p"rt Co .

FOl.P S

~IANI':.sJA~IS)

(liDS

NIA

TE

LJJ,\Dl:"iG RA O"ITRO L .)H'ao

VAPOR C .

TE

7 ro> 8PH(M4')

DISCIIARGOEE~IL
wAs H
CRU

>",,0 0

TA J'';KS

SECREG" TED BAL LAST

FigtlJ't' 8-16. Tank barge moored at an offshore platform . Courtesy TOSCO River.

D1Rn" BALLAST

NIA

SLOPS

IdA

head .

reasonable dist ribution of weigh t over the length o.f~he vess el , thereb~ mini.
mizing stress on th ehulJ an d ens uri ng proper Sla bility (fig. 8- 17). Du ri ng -the
discharge of the vessel. th e PIC follows 8 number of soun d tanker pra ct ices:
1. Trim: The discharge of't he ca rgo tanks s ho u ld be arranged t o ge t th e
bow up at an early stage in the opera tion. Dischargin g the fonv 8,rd

~anks

increases the trim by the stem , which aids the drai nin g a nd stnppmg of
the cargo tanka. On the othe r hand , th e vessel s ho uld not be a llo wed to develop an excessive trim, 8 S thi s can cont ri bute to fal se t a nk le vel a larms,

unacceptable
stresses, engine room problems, and und er keel clearsnce
problemshull
.
2.Pumproom.' Frequent in.pec'ion. ofthe pumproom sho uld be m.Bde

during
y the dis charge operation , checking for leaks . The PIC s h ou ld penodicsll check 'he CB'go pump 88Bls, beBrings, and CBsings for
When cargo pumps are operating properly, there s hould be minimal norse
or vibration. No one is permitted to enter the pumproom unless the ventilatioo evstem t. OpecS'ing and a .tendby ia P'80ent 0' the PIC is notifi ed,.

ov"heBti~g.

~hould be monitored. Any abnonnal fluctuation s or Bu dde n

3. Pump pressure: During the cargo discharge, the pump and mani-

(h~

fold pres8Jltes

chsn,lle/l)m
diSChs,ge Preseura WBn-Bnt B .hutdown of the operuticn .
'l'liedischs,ge pre aura of t he vessel CBn be expected to change gradually
as the-shore tank are filled or when shifting tanka.

2 s.ll<XI 88LS

Figure 8-17. Cargo

bbb

r.! F,O.

'2F.O.

d.i charge and ballast plan.

s

'2 F.O.

ed with submerged

ossover: On vess~ls eqw~p when two or more

PIC should
is a risk ofoverP 4. Cargo system
theother.Theabumps in each t ank, t e. into th e sa me pipeline.
di
charging
1
mowers
cargo pumpsare IS
.
fr m onepump ove' r
p increases t he
the shore
flowing a tank ifthe deh veih discha rge side of th~ pU:
aence of a chec k valve on th e tank from either anot ktheump
tankorullages to
pceaibility ofretum flo",": to into a common line, c.hec On vessels equipped
valves are closed
facility When discharging I . the corre ct directlOn
'nsu" 'th Bt CBrgOis fiowin: ::nk also verify that 'Bt : : are open, there is
with loading drops for cac discharge.Htbe drop v that is not curr ently
Prior to the s tar t of the car gon I ing a full cargo t~nk tank high-level or
a distinct possibility of over nnnel ahculd never Ignoreas there may be a
being discharged. Vesse.l per8~:ring a cargo discharge ,
and ballasting th e
overfill alarms that activate
real problem.
. While dischargin
Ci plan to avoid eta bTty
I I
. g cargo
5. Stability and
the prescribed tr an s er
vessel, the PIC should fol ow

exercl~e C~UtI~ere

u:

REView

208

CARGOTRANSFER OPERAT IONS

and atrees problema(see figure 8 18). Any last -minute changes to the car 0
plan shoul.d be recalculated to ensu re that no such problems ari se dUri~g
the operat ion.
.
.
6. E1JU'rgen~ hutdou:n: All person.nel involved In the cargo dis.
charge must know the locenon and operatlOn of the emergency shutdown
controls for the cargo pumps. Personnel should be made a wa re of the cond",.
tiona or situat ions that warrant an emergency s h ut d own of the cargo
pumps.
7.1nerl geu .,tem: On vess.elsthat are obligated to ma in ta in an inert
conditionin the cargo tan ks,the inert gas system mu st be opera ting durin
the discharge operation. Vessel peTSonn~1 must moni tor th e perfonnanc:
of the inert gas system th roughout the discharge to ens u re th at it is deliv.
eringthe required quantity (deck pressur e) and quality (oxygen content)of
gas to the protected tanks. (Refer to chapter 15 for a more detailed discus
sion of inert gas systems).
8. Slop tank leeel: When stripping cargo to a designated slop ta nk on
the vessel, the operato r must guard agai nst overflow ofthe tank. On some
~essels it !s a commonpractice to consolidate the strippings from eac h tank
mto a designated slop ta nk. This expedites the operation a s th e conte nts of
the slop tank can then bedischarged ashore with the main cargo pump at
the end. For this reason, one or more of the afte r tanks near the pumproom

209

ail serve as a slop tank. It is advi sable to initially pump the slop tank
usu Y level that can accommodate th e etrippinga from the other ta nks.
dOW;~: hould closely monitor th e slop tank level duri ng the discha rge opthe . to ens ure that it does not overflow.
tlon
etri . th e p lP.e
. I i,~el: At the completion of the
era9.
Dropping a n d BlnppmR
" harg e opera tion. th e contents ofthe pipelines and pumps on the vessel
di" ld be deliver ed to t h e raCI"I"I' y. Th e pipe
" \"mea are typically
"
draine d and
u
shO
the remaining cargo .
IS s~'
nppe d to. th e.f actiliIty: \ n the case of crude-oil vessels, a special s~al~-dl~I?eter h ne IS proVld~d .for this purpose. The
small-diamete r plp ehne I S m~tal1 ed from the etr ippingtdische rge) pump to
the outboard side of the ma nifold valve on deck. The J\.tARPOL line (as It is
frequently cal1ed) p ~rmits th e PI C ~ b~a88 the la rge discharge mains on
deck when perfomung t he fin al stnppmg of the cargo system. This final
stripping is critical to minimize contamina tion of any ballast water that
may be sub sequently introduced into the cargo system.
10. Mooring lin es: During th e discharge operation, personnel must
closely monitor the tension on the mooring lines, gangway. cargo hoses,
and arm s. Nece ssary adjustmen ts should be made during the transfe r to
avoid parting the mooring lines or connections.
11.H eating c oils: The heating coils should be secured when approach ingthe stripping stage in the discharge ofa cargo tank to avoid overheating
the rema ining cargo.
12. Line flush : When the sequence of discharge of ~~erent cargoes
may resul t in th e contamination of a high-grade product, It IS often n~s
sary to perform a line flush . This is a fairly common practice wh.en ~ult~ple
grades are ca rried in a sing le cargo system on the vessel. In this ~ltu~tlOn,
there is a risk of contamination from the previous cargo that re~al~s 1D the
piping an d pumps of the vessel. Th e contents of th e ~essel pipelines are
carefully flush ed (clea red ) by pu mping a small quantity of the next cargo
into a slop line or in to S tank with lower grade product on the dock. To ensure th e piping is sufficiently flushed , the facili~y PIC usually checks for
the color change (dye d cargoes) at th e dock manifold. di char
13. SHUTDOWN: If any question or problem anses during IS
ge
operations, th e PIC should shu t down.

REVIEW
1. What document identifies the "person-in.charge" of the cargo transfer

. of a cargo hose, list the possible

on the vessel and fac~lity? .
2. When conducting a VlsuallOspecliOn
causes for rejection oft~e hose. b di played when a tank vessel is
3. What warning signals/Signs must e IS
transferring cargo?

CARGO TRANSFE R OPERAT IONS

210

4. List the information that should be exchanged bet wee n th p

iog 8 pretransfer confer ence.
e ICsdur.
5. What is the requirement concern ing la ngu age flue ncy wh
ing a cargo transfer on a ta nk vesse l in t he Un ited Stat
conduct.
6. What is the differen ce between a lin e sam ple a nd a botton
7. List some or the typical reasons for ta rrninating a cargo t ra sa mple?
tank vessel.
nsfer on a

C H AP T E R 9

~n

Chartering and Operations

8. What is the function

ble l cable? Descri be th e corrCCl seque
f bo ofdi8 bonding
of connection I a n 109 C8 e 18 employed.
nce
.
9. What is the function of a n insul ating flan ge? Wh e re is t he i
flange typically installed?
e Insulatmg
the precaut ions commonly followed when to ppmg
' 0 If a ca rgo
10. Describe
tank .

11. Describe the proc~8S of finishin g cargo loading on a t ank vessel

12. What are the typical methods of drainin g the cargo ho
.
arms the completionof a cargo transfer?
ses or loading

~t

13. ~a:~;;~r:~~:;r dropping and stripping th e pipelines at the end

14. When stripping the car go tanks to a desi ate d slo
eel, what precaution should be foil
d?gn
p tank on the ves15. Whendisch
.
h
owe
.
tank be sec:.:~g a eeted cargo, when should th e heating coils in the

SCOTT R. BERGE RON

ith th e exceptio n of the use of a pipeline, the most cost...efficient

meth od of t ransporting bulk quan tities ofl iquids is ocean transportation.It is es timated that , worldwide. ta nkers carry approximately 2 billiontons of oil annually . To put th e cost of tr ans portation into perspective,
approximatel y 2 to 3 cents per gallon of gasoline at the pump can beatt rib-

uted to transport of th e oil by sea.

The United States is th e largest oil consumer in the world.To feed this
demand, the U.S. imports about 294 million gallons of oil per day or approximately 107 billion gall ons per year.
An operator or PIC of a tankship or barge should be familiar with the
commercial side of the tanker transportation indu stry . Decisions made
onboard the vessel by a PIC can have serious commercial implications affecting such a reas as profitability, customer satisfaction, maintenance of
cargo qual ity, and environmental impact.
This chapter provi dea an overview ofthe interface between commercial
operations and onboard operations.The better both sides understand each
other, the more successful each operation will be.

VESSEL OWNERSHIP
Reference will be made in thi s chapter to the owner, 8h~po,,:,ncr, operator,
manager , and charterer. While many different orgaOlzatlOn~1 arr angements have been est abli shed to operate ships, we refer to a baSIC stru cture
in thi s chapte r. To eliminate any confus ion, the following vessel ewner ehip

.t~e

end operating stru ct ure is ass umed.

Owner/shipowner : Th e veeeel'e registercd owner is not always
party that is responsible for running th e vessel- It is common that a shi p 1S
211

T HE C IIARTE lt PARTY

CllARTt:RING AND OPERATIONS

2I2

bv 8 single-purpose company for finan cia l, ac coun ti ng a nd I .

,/Whenusing the term owner or 8 h rpowner
"
'
, we refer to
t h l a b I] l"l)'
h
ibi li
c tna n
. owner or the party who takes t e ree poner I ity to put the v
. ftg.
mg ,
eSliel lflto
sem ce.
.
Operator: The operato r is th e part y ",:h~ IS responsib.le for t he de .
day commercial operation ofa vessel. Thi s Includes findm g s pot a d Y to.
age eherterera (or the vessel and coordinating the necessa ry voya voy.
. norma IIY re epon erible for
nrovi d m
t g b u n kersage
tails. The operato r IS
l o r provi
to de.
vessel. In th e case of 8 ship under tim e charter, the tim e charte.. the
.
rer nor.
mally becomes the opera tor of a vesse I. Wh en ope rating a ves sel , the 0
tor does SO "en behalf' cf " th e shipowner .
pers _
O...ened

"~
reaeO . ~ .

Manager: The manager is the party who is responsible for th e tech .

management and maintenanceof the vessel. Norm ally th e techn ical meal
ager is the one who ~rdinates the crew~ p~rchases the spares, and ~:~:
diesthe day-to-day mamtenence and periodic drydocking of th e ahi I
t diti
c,
company, t h e same organ ization is responsible
rp. nfora
ra I lOna.I Brupowmng
the operation and maintenance
ofthe
ship.
However
it
is
becc
.
mlngmore
.
'
common that the shipowner, the operato r, and the technical mana g
th

~
,
.
ki
er ara
ret! d meren parties wor ng togeth er to mak e a profit.

Chllrtf'rrr:The charterer is the party who ha s taken the vessel on a vo _

age charter. Cargo owners and cargo traders a re common ly chartere/s
Thecharterer IS Involved with a cargo th at must be
df
.
to
h Th h
move rom one place
o':;ao~re;f th: ~e:s':r party is the contract between th e charterer and the

TYPES OF CHARTER AGREEMENTS

There are four ways for a cha rte rer t
The tirst is a voyage chart I hi 0 pur chase ocean transp ortation.
"rent" a vessel to carrv er. fn t IS case, th e cha rtere r will cha rter or
. . ~ cargo rom the loadi
(
rt( J T
pc s . he second meth od is th
h
ng port a) to the dischar ge
time chart er, the vessel is wren~:~~ r. a period ~rtime c~a rter. Ouring a
or a specified period of ti me-s-six
mQnths or twoyears f
-age 8tthe direction'o~~~: ahmpl,e. The vessel will perform multiple voydi llrt.,e th
c ar erer during ti
h
Ii
r
e op.erator maintains res
' . . a rme carter. In a voyage
fj ' v ~I while with a time cba t pon~blhty for th e daily ope ration of
IS e p n'8 i i1 itf:In both voye r nd t. e charterer normally a ssum es
an
a
e ern
e reA onaibility ::r
~Ime charters, the technical man unnmg the vessel (maintenance a nd
r w.
m t
II
,eh rt.erer to
ure
"i!~k~~,!, a
pr
transportation is through a
!!!!' i I
r.
J:ie on a bareboat charter, th e cha rni t
e ch~rter, but muat also assum e
cludlng providing the crew and

213

e In such a case, the charterer actually becomes a ship opera

, d a manager .
tof ~ Ily car go can be transported unde r a contract of affreight ment or
,
FlnCa mmonly,
a au pp lite r or pro d ucer of a product will make a e OA
CoA.
perator of vesse ls . The eOA will specify a tota l volume of cargo
th an 0
. d f h
.
W1
Tried through the peno
0 l e cont ract In certain size shipments.
to be Cilmple of t hiI S ar rangemen t 1S
i a chemi
ermce I company th at produces
,In e"a soda. The chemi cal company need e to ship caustic soda in regula,
e
' oca ttons
In
t he wor Id. As th ese shipments are fairly
(sus
. I entsW vanoua
Shl plll
cal compa ny cou ld coneIude a eOA with a ship opermca
d'ctable, the chemi
r to provide transportation for 1 million tons of cargo per year . The
er&O.
.
be I
CoAspecifies w~ere the ca rg~ IS to e oade~ and discharg ed and alsc esblishes the size of the shipments (for Instance, 1 million tons in
~ ooo.ton shipments). A eOA normall y involves multipl e options and
c1~uses for flexibility to suit the need s of both the charterer and the ship
operato r.
There are numerous benefits with a eOA . First, the charterer has purchasing power due to th e large size and number of shipments . Second,
chartere rs can insulate themselves from the price fluctuations in the
transportation market. Final ly, the charterer can predict fixed costs for
transportation for better overall cost control when selling the cargo. The
vessel operator also benefits as the eOA provides a certai n amount of guaranteed cargo to be carried over the period ofthe contract.
Once the charter is negotiated, the te rms ofthe agreement are specified
in a cont rac t kn own as the charter party. In order to identify suitable vessels and to subse que ntly facilitate negoti ations with the operato rs ofthese
vessels, a chartere r norm ally uses a broker. The"fixture" of a charter party
is the conclu sion of th e negotiation.
'nu nllne .

n11l

''',I

THE CH ART E R PARTY

As the requirem en ts in volved with bulk liquid transport ation do not
change th e basic te rms a re made on a sta ndard contract fonn.(charte r
part y), Th ere a re several versi ons of the sta ndard contract; each IS nam ed
after th e author and th e type of cha rter (voyage or time cha rte r). ~OAs are
normally contracted und er th e te rms of a voyage cha rte r party W1t~ many
clauses attached. Examples of common cha rte r party contr;~~~~~~~
ASBATANKVOY (Associa tion of Ship Brokers and Agents),
..
(Shell Oil Company), EXXONVOY (ExxonMobil), B.E~PEEVOY (British
Petroleum) and TANKERVOY (Inte rn ational Associatron of Independent
Tanker Owners).
The type ofcharter party form that is used will depend on th e charterer,
the nature of the transportation needs, and, in many cases, the sta te of tbe

TE RMS or THE CHART ER PARTY

CHARTERING AND OPERATION S

2 15

214

dard cha rte r pa rty has differen t s t re ngt ha wea k

dd d
h
'
n e ll ll (!l1
market. E8 (' h s n
is AI" clauses CBn be a e to t e s ta ndard char-'"
'
an d crop h88 1 "
.
hi
~ pa rty
form to allow modification to BUll ~he chartere~ o~ 8 Ip ow n er . As with the
freiIeht
g ra Ie, the clauses arc subject . to. negotiation
I . In a weak m a rket
th chartere r has 8 stro ng posi t ron , many C Bu ses CBn be a dd d '
h
wnere
me
barte
re
r'
'1'
'to
the charte r party to improve th e c arterer ~ P~BI Io n . 1n 8 strong market

and

th e shipowner will have the leverage to ehmmate s ta nda rd clauflcs

perh ap s add some th at favor t he vessel.
The fixed cha rter party ,with clau8e~ will cover all a8pe~ts of t he car.
riage contract. Some or th e Issues negotiated and agreed to In th e charter

part y include the identity and descn ptlOn or the vessel , ca rga (es) a nd th

amounts to be loaded, the freight rate , chart~rer's exp enses. port fees, po~

agents, cleaning procedures and costs , laytime, demurra ge, loading and
discharge rate s. loading and discharge ports, oil pollution liab ilities, Voy_
age liabilities, cancellations, an d even weat he r and force-m ajeu re (act of
Godl issues.The potential list of issues covere d in the charter party is e nd.
less.
The Ro le of the Broker
~ charterer will ~rovid e ~ b:oker with inform ati on regarding tran sport a-

tion neett: and will ccmnaeeron th e broker to negoti ate a contract. The broker ~hen ~mes.out on the mark et ,~ looking for ind ications of freight rat es.
I?uring this period. the broker will identify suitable vessels from posit ion
hs~ of vessel operators and from replies to direct solicitations. At that
point,
' g one ship owner
. the broker starts to ..war k" th e ca rgo, 0 fie n playin
agaJns tanot hertogetbe t~
.~ Depen dimg on the type of ca rgo charter
....r ra....e.
parties can be negotiated 0
b '
'
r fi
n a prompt asra (voyage commen cing wit hin
2......8 h
I
.
ours 0 xt ure) or for v
frelghtment for h hi
. I ery arge cargoes With contracts of afcould be fixed mo~:h y s~cla ized chem ica l parcels, the ch arter party
The role of th e broker a ~ance of th e COmmencement of the voyage.
.
er IS Important ' th
m e negoti ation of bu lk tran eportation The n eka and th
e
amount
ofmon
.
1
d
' a certain level
rt
ey 10'0'0 ve req u ire
or tru st aMong the
to
.
a erera vessel 0
nemli:ldleman whocan build th
per a rs , an d owne rs . The broker IS
8 lie. n rmedlary In e II
e personal relationships an dean a lso serve
a h
0 vmg problems betwe en the parties.
I owner or operata 'lI
.
c
h r.l;lkers work to fix / W1 commi SSion a broker a lso. In
e la
990 th ,
he charter party, Due to depressed
eueofowne rs 'b TOk ers has decreased ; In
'
a r n ~ begufi'
wprkmg charters directl y With sh ip opI
a:."ed by a broker is 1.25 percent of
:to as the gro ss freight. If mor e broe added to the fixture and the charulit increased use of th e In ternet
n
future .

TERMS OF THE CH AR T E R P AR TY
f

nsur e a profitable voyage, the tankerman should be familiar with th

c ,in a eharter party. Ca reful negotiations are made on man y rti
1L'rJ1l
ith th
'
pa ICUI
of each charter WI
e assu mptton that vessel personnel will t
a:perlYand within the te rm s of the agr eement. Ideally, a copy of the C:~
~Iuded charler party sh ou ld be placed on boar d the vessel for th e crew to revieW, but this.seldom happen s becau se t he actu al signed document may
notarrive u ntil after t~e voyag e h as bee.n completed. In any case, copies of
staJldard charter .pa rlles.sh ou ld be availa ble to th e master .
Practical details and Ite ms not addressed or specified in sufficient detail in the charter party sho ul d be explai ned in th e voyage instructions,
which are normally se nt to the oper ator and th e vessel via the broker involved in fixin g the cargo. The followin g points addressed in each charter
party should be reviewed and under stood .
Laytime
Laytime is the amount of time allotted to load and discharge the cargo.
There is normally a window of time known as the "lay/can" (layti me commencing/ca nceling ), when the vessel must present the notice of rea diness
(NOR) to indicate that the vessel has arrived and is rea dy in aU respects to
load the ca rgo . lfthe vessel does not arrive and present a valid NOR in thi s
window, the charter is subject to being cance led. The tim es involved with
the NOR and the di sconnecti on of ca rgo hoses nonnally determine when
laytime begins and en ds .
Typicall y, a vessel is all owed thirty-six hours to load and thirty-six
hours to disch arge a single ca rg o at one loading an d one discharge port .
Furt her allowan ces are m a de for multiple cargoes or grade s of cargo and
multi ple berths. The total of sev enty -two hours is referr ed to as ~aytime.
While th e rule of t h u mb is that a vessel should physically load or discha rge
her cargo within twen ty-four hours, the thirty-six hours ofl ayt ime on each
side anticipates t he ad di tional time requ ired in port . In some cases, the
laytim e is reversib le, m eaning tha t if only twelve hours are use.dto load , up
tc sixty h ours can be a llowed for the discharge. When a vesse l l.s prevented
from comple ting the load a nd di scharge within the agree d laytime, demurrage en sues . Demurrage is defin ed as the compensation ~rom th e cha rtere r
paid to the sh ipowne r/opera to r for time exceeding.l~ytlme. For example,
leytime may be exceeded due to slow loading or recewmg cause d by the ~r
minaI's operations. In such a cas e, the sh ip operator will lodge a claim
against the charterer for demurrage ex penses. (T he chartere r may then
claim the terminal, if appropriate.) If the delays are due to a fault of t~~
}pessel (for example, malfunctioning cargo pumps ), then th e c~arterer WI
In.atitute a claim against the shi powne r/operator for the lost time. Demur-

21"

cHAllTERING AND OPERAT ION S

II negotiated at a fixe d price per da y

rage rate s are no.nn a y tel as pa rt of the charter party ,
ra
ume-chatte r ecuivelent
- ..

(a

negotia~d

Cargo Qu antity
d exact a mount of liq uid ca rgo , d ue to va ria tions
ltia very difficult to loa da n ity of th e ca rgo as well a s t he problem s en
t re and ensl
.
'
.
in the tempe ra u
. I'quid volumes m a floa t m g ves sel. However
- _..I
h n meesunns I
I d
ith
'
cecnterec w e
if
th e a moun t of cargo to on , Wit so me Van.
the charte r party specl I~e5 lng to quantity include "m in/max" (min imum
ables. C~mrnon terms re
i e~entage moloo (a pe rcentage of t he nom inated
aomum amount , per
h hi
"
E
an d m enti ty whiIC h can be more or less at t e s rpowner 5 option . X8m_
cargoqu
5
t Moloo means the owner can load a nywhe re bepercen
h
'
t
Ple', l ,OOO tonsda t1 050
tons) an d CHOPT Ic arterer 8 op IOn, norma lly
tween 950 an ,
'
I d
h h
ts
'
h
'
"
hat
th
e
chartere
r
ca
n
oa
asmuc
a
s
e wan , u p to
referring to t e lac
the full capacity of th e vessel>.

Notice of Readiness
All r the te rms of a cha rte r party, the master of a vessel must present
the notice of readiness (NOR) when the ves s el arrives and is r e a dy in all
respects to conduct cargo operations (fig, 9- 1), The s ign ifica nce of this notice is th at , und er normal charter parties , it establishe s when laytime
will begin,
This simple act can ra ise se rious qu es tions and confli cts. While the
NOR may be tend ered , it may not a lways be accepted . The charter pa rty
clearly specifies under what condit ions-whe n , whe re , a nd how- t h e NOR
is to be tendered . Common clau ses indi ca te how it mus t be sen t <verbally to
the agent or via telex. or fax ) and wheth er it m us t be tendered during the
workday or th e workweek. The followin g ex ample ofthe NOR cla u se is derived from th e standard ASBATANKVOY ch arter party , This clau se is
eubject to negotiated change s, NOR clauses will als o vary a mong ot her
s ndard charte r parties.

/JUHIIIMAf/",ME
. of Readiness
Notice
PORT
Dale

TO
To..,mom It may concern

"

ltIat me above vessel hss arrtve<! at the Port of

T'!lil II to inform you
,
..rt'I to commence load of her cargo at
LT on the
In every respec rea
, INs
flOI,n
in accordance WIth the lenTIs anclC(ll"IdrtlOns of ttle c;harter party gov~

""""on l
You~

Faittlfully.

;J.'hCi>ASBATANKVOY notice of readiness clause is as follow s :

For ancl on behalf of shippers/receivers

val atcwtomary anchorage et each port orJoading and discharge,

oy,hi, ~ent shall givethe Charterer or his agent notice by letter,
releM,. telep.hQ,lle that the Vessel is ready to load or discha rge
o
on laytime, 8S hereinafter pr ovided , shall com.
p'lr
61hours after receipt of such notice, or upon
a
In
ring when at eealoeding or disading or discharging along side u
here delay is ceueed to vessel getea for any reason over which th e
11 a
nnee ueed la ytim e .

Notice of Reacliness AeeeptedlRecelve<!

At

By

Hou~

on the

......
C

Figure 9.1. Notice ofreadino88 document. au

rteey Laurin Maritime,

TE RMS

or T IIY. CHART}o; R PAItTY

2 19

CHARTERING AND OPERATIONS

218

res sure of 100 psi g at the v eeeel'e manifold throughout the period of
charge
. . f8CI>1>Illes
> are ca pable of accepting
h P
ge provided th at t h e 8 horc rCCCIVIng
diSC er e of th e cargo WIt
. hiIn 8UC h '>
tme or at such pressure
disC hIlrg
.

It ' important for th e masterw know when to prese nt t he NO R 10' r cx

" ,> ft hecharter par ty clear ly specifies that th e NO R mu st he ' ~ do .

ampie,
h F id
h
"'0 C'Tc>d
between 0800 a nd 1800 Monday throug
nay. t en th ere is no n('ed to
waste fuel and expenses to try to meet an ETA of 1900 on F riday U d
these conditions, at the direction orthe comm erci al opera tor, it is P~ob:h~r
more prudent to run at an economical speed th e la st few days to pi
to id
U
an anY
early Monday arriva l. :t'he s~me .1 heory.a ppItea f i es. n.der most char.
ter part ies, laytime WIll begin either six hours after a va h d NOR is tendered(in the event that the vessel must anchor du e to bert h un availabil "'
"
~'d
ft
'yl
or once the vessel 18 mooredTi
. me watung
l or tt es a e r the NOR is te .
dered is nonnally n~t considered.as layti~e and, th erefore, is not paid f~r
by the charterers. Time used dunng transit from the a nc horage is also not
counted as laytime.
It is important to note that the NOR should be tendered on ly whe n th
vessel has a rrived at the locat ion specified by the charter pa rty Inorm alle
the customary anchorage) and when t he vessel is re ad y to load or
charge. U~ der most conditions, the vessel is ready to load or discha rge
when she IS ready to proceed to berth. Whil e delays caused by s uch thing
as port clearan ce formalities ha ve to be accepted, t her e a re no excuses if
the c~ rgo tan~ are not properly clea ned or inerted. A fal sely prese nted
NOR I~ not ~ah d a nd could cause signi ficant delay a nd monetary loss in the
resulting disputes.
>

>

As a rule of t h u.m b ,.t h e ve s s e l s ~ ou l d a lw ays pr ovide e nou gh pump,ssure t o malOtaln t h e 100 perg. Normally, t he shipowne r is FinandIngpr
ally re sp on sible l'tor t h ~ diI S.Ch a rgmg ti1I1~e exce e d ~n~ twe nty- four hours
when 100 paig i s n ot m amt at .ned . Exce~tt~ns to t hia include discharging
of rnultiple gr ade s or t~rmtoal. r eetnctton a. A pumping log must be
maintained by the ve ss el s cr e w to orde r to defend a ny pcesibl e claime in
>

>

>

di;'

Cargo Hoses
While
ti
fhth e NOR nonnall Ysets t h e tim e for la ytime to beein the dis connech
.
e- ,
Ion 0 eeea nonnally determi
est of the ehipo
I
rmm ee t e end of laytime. It is in t he best interwner opera tor to ha
th h
possible after loading di h
. ve e oses con n ecte d 8S long as
U d
or I SC arging ha s sto ppe d
n er most charter parties th
.
nected. and disconnected b th' he ca rgo hoses shall be furnis hed, canpenae. In practical term s. [he ~ c ~rterer at th~ charterer's ri sk and ex. munal hos es WIll be us ed . If it becom es
necessary to use vessel ho
sumesliability for the cond~:'s, It ;~uld be done only if the charterer assponsibility for the cargo en::tt~e e hos.es. For.a sh ipow:n er/ope rato r, relp the c~go once it ha s pasfled th m.~fold rail . Anythmgthat h appen s
e rer should remain the charterer's ren ibHity.
>

>

thi s respect.
With regard to loading , the normal rule is tha t the vessel will accept
cargOat the rates requested by t he chartere r, with du e regard for safet y.
The loading rate of t he vessel is normall y determined by th eventingcapacity of either the common vent line, the pressure relief valv e, or the vapor
collection (emission ) con t rol syste m , depending upon which venting system is in u se while loading. Suitable reduction s ofthe loading ra te are allowed to safely top ofTt h e vessel's tanks .
Prote s ts
It is incumbent for the ve ssel's master to protest against violations of the
charter party. This is d on e by a letter of protest. The vessel operator normally specifies the format ofthe letter orprctest tsee figures 9-2 and 93).
Common rea son s for protest include the following:
Slowloading rates (an ything less than the vessel can safely accept for loading)
Slowdischarge rates (any reduced discharge ra tes ordered by the terminal or
when the tenninal will not allow the vessel to maintai n 100 peig at the
manifold)
Deadfreight (when the terminal does not load the minimum nominated cargo
quan tity)
Cargo quantity discrepancies (differcnces between the charte rer's ca rgo surveyors' total s and the vessel's own cargo quantities determined by gauging)
Shore connections (insufficient number of shore connections provided, or the
diam eter of the hcaea is less than tha t of the manifold)
Multiple grad es of cargo (multipl e grades of cargo am not loaded or discharged simultaneously)

Jahall ditch arge , u IIcargo, ee defined her eat&thltl'eOf

' respect of part cargo, from the
at ill
In
e:\'eallel8hall maintain a minimum die-

Safe Berth
In meat if not all charter parties, it is the charterer's obligation to nominate
a safe berth for both loading and discharge. The safe navigation of the vessel remains the responsibility of the ma~t~r. However, if the master feels
that the nominated berth is unsafe or If It does not have enough water

/JURI' fIA/IJ1/IIE
LETTER OF PROTEST
PROTEST OF DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN SHIP & SHORE FIGURES
TO

MIT

BOLERO I

16-lJ6-{)O

FROM

1ll' Mast e, of MIT Bo~ro I

I. \1'18 Mu tel' 01 MITBolero ' hereby. on behalf of ine DIme,.. and/or dlartefel'l, protest
ag.,st Itle sloW loading rate along Side your terminal ,

T,

PIlI. . . be

~ 1m ltlIl"8 iI' (J11Cf'81)8r!CYbetween ship ancl shore fig l.nts covering the
IoId&d It

yOI.I temi/'IIIIlNs

,,"'"

day of

Metric Tonnes

AdU8llo8 dlflg rate was only.

M, lJ1C1011'18 5

"'.!ric TOnne'

MIT BoleroI can receive

m' I h in Iho tank. loaded

I herebyalso eee ere. on behalf of the (HmeB andfOr charterers, the nght to revert i"llhil
On bel'IIH of ltlI Owners and/of cNrtete1'1, I hereby protllSllhis difference hol din g you

matter at a later date.

retponal)le tor any IndiOI' IUclaims \IItidl may occur d ue to this difference

Yoursfa lthfu lly ,

the Muter of Mlf BoIel'O I

....

Youl1l1aittlflJRy.

Figure 9-3. Sample letter ofprote8t. Courtesy Laurin Maritime.

CHARTERINOAND OPERATIONS

222

(the vesse l t he n t he master mu st ad vise t he opera.

available for the d f a 0

tor 8 8 800n as POSSdllble:, .

/JUBINIIIA/IR1ME

'

ecommended t hat one con sult t he In te rt anko

For furt her stu y. I 18 r
"
publicati on: "Tan ker Voyage Cha rters.

TANK INSP ECTION CERT IFICATE

Oth er Cons iderations

.~...
while not specifically addressed in a charter party
The (ollowmg ttem a.
'
should be famili ar to vesse l personnel :

""n
TERMINAl.

cLEAN TANK CERTI FICATE

1 di

argo the termi na l representa tive or ca rgo surveyor

mgrt"-fi"" ~ indicating that the tanks are of su itable eleanll.

80U
signsce
......
.
.
h This
ness.
is part icularl y important when the charterer requi res visual
Pri "Idto .

08

tank inspecti on pri or to loadi ng (fig. 9-4).

hours LT on the

and found....". nne<llll't.et previous C8I9t

suMDieto load !he cargo(es) at

DRY TANK CERTIFICATE

cal'(lO lanb tbcargo tank:ll Noa

cargo lanb N_
cargo tanb Noa

In order to defend a claim against shortlanding of cargo , a certificate

should be signed by an independent su rveyor or t he cargo rec eiv er, acknowledging that the cargo tanks have indee d bee n s tripped of all pumpable qua ntities.

~ jotIIty

We, Itl8 undersigned, hereby declare ItIal the cargotankaCII MIT

inspected at

liS

IoIows

,.

,.

,.

...

The ship's pumps. aoee. manifOlds. deck healers 'N8f8 also inapeded by openI'Ig lt1em.,a

CARGO SAMPLES

It is a normal procedure that samples of the ca rgo a re taken during th e

loadi ng opera tion a nd prio r to discharge . The s a m ples shou ld be taken and
sealed by a cargo surveyor. Th e vessel ebou ld maint ain 8 comple te set of all
sa mples taken. These sample s should be ke pt in th e s a m ple locke r for at
least one year followin g the disc harge ofth e ca rgo . In the event of 8 cargo
quality issue, th e vessel's sample may be re qui re d to defend the s h ipowner.

found drt and d ean as far 85 visible, S(J 8cceptable lof~ing Il'MIllbove cargo(es)

Aemar1l$'

Date'

Time.
BILL OF LADING

The bill of ladin g is the cha rte re r's receipt that the cargo has been deliv~ to the vessel. It is used as a fin an cial tool to t rade t he cargo once afloat,
nH iJ. u.. a.ls o Lh.e document required to disch arge the cargo. While an
I
diSCUSSIon of thi s legal instrument is bey ond t he scope of th is
K
Ilowing should be und erstood .
car m ~ be.taken when dealing with bills of lading. There are
Ii
- -ieeued which the master shou ld s ign after
copies
. lFthe cargo type and quantity do not ma tch t he
rrli' roteet must be issued.
o I di..P~ are sent to the re cei ver. The cargo
un.i tli ori,ginal bills oflading are pres en ted . It
1 1
. at the discharge port before t he billa
lfe Clli10 is Bold or traded during th e
eee ra"naacUon. Upon in struction fro l11

Surveyor.

_.

Chief omcer:

.....

C rte Y Laurin Maritime.

S ampl e ta nk inspection certificate . ou 8

225
224

cplable to di sch arge th e cargo if the

the vessel operator, it is u8Ualf~:;;mnitY (LOll which h~l d8 t he VCRBcl's
hart erer ha s iflsu cd a lette r 0 Ii discharging the cargo wit hout the ori b';'
ess
or
.
.
owner and operators hannl
I bills of lading.
t dy t he issues conc e r mng bill s of lad.
ne A ship 's master should ~urthe~~eUspeci fic instru ct ions about handling
,
Th e vesse l opera to r will pro
mg.
bills of ladin g.
G FOR THF. NF.xT VOYAGE
PREPAR!N 1
be mai ntained with t he chartering de. . should a ways ..
Close commUnicatIon
I
der to save time a nd expense, the veepartment oft he vessel operator t: o~nticipated voyage in advance of the
set's crew should be awa re o . e 'nerti ng and other requirem en ts such
g
discharge. Issues of tank c!eantn , 'a mage ;equirements will h elp the ves, t i n regulatIOn, an d c
8Sportrestnc 10 . ,
fi the next voyage.

sel's crew to efficIently prepare or

PRICING
.

dedonbcard a vessel, supply and dema nd must ~e deter-

::o;:.~~;:~~rtation ofthe product is one part oft~e larger pictu re of

fulfillin demand. In some cases, the purchaser coordmate s tr~nspo~

rion: in :ther cases the seller will include delivery costs in the selling price.
In either situation, the people wishin g to purchase tra nsportatIOn are cernmonlyreferred to as the charterers .
.
The price for transportation may fluctu ate on a dall y and eve n an
hourly basis. These changes are due to vessel su pply a nd cargo deman d:
the greater the number ofsuita ble vessels at a given location , the I~w~r the
price to transport cargo from that location . Likewise, whe n a ship HI the
only suitable one at the location, the rate will increase.
Many factors affect. the suita bility of a vessel. A potenti al charterer
mcsuconeiderthe following questions:
Is the vessel approvedto carry a certai n cargo?
the "izeof the vessel allow it.to reach the load and die? lin it loadthe desiredamount ofcargo within the required

r;t llutooruatlOTl :
l U . Will

; Does thecharterer acceptthe vessel, or has the vessel

p'oor operational history and/or technical condition?
VI'
I \!j!1l'J: [ecteddue to unsatisfactory cargolank
n, sceidente,or poor vetting inspections?
an r tril:tioll8 from using the vessel becaUse
or example,in order to load cargor-om

to

nl.' port in th e United States a nd di llChar ge Ilt iIn aoolhl'

-.
Un ,' .""nd State s. t h e Jones Ac,t requires th " v e!lll~' I to he b r'1port wlthm the
ated. a nd cre WI'd by U.S. clt ize nll.
UI t, owned, eperprior cargo; Ar e the pri or ca rgoes com,at ibl
.
. d?
.
e With t hat to be
Many eargoea require that the previous th ree
carne .
cargoes do not
tai I d
Edib le ea rgoea re quire that prior car,~. d. t .
con In ea .
no VIolate certat
.
tions. Chemical eargoea must be compatible with .
In relltncpno rcargoes in d to
.
or er
avoid dangerou s che mica l reactionll or car,,,. la "
n mmat lOn.
Lt;

FREIG HT RATE
Theprice charged for tran s'p0rtatioD.is normally referred to as the freight
rate. In most cases, the' freigh t rate. IS made inclusive of all t ra dmg costa.
'I ts
Al ong with th edloperation of ~th e shi p, there ar e costs for bunkerapucts,
ruga, line han ers, custom lees, agency fees, clearance costs, and other
tolls.Ther e are diffe rent.means of calculating and offeringthe freight rate :
Worldscale,lu mp su m, time-charter equivalent, and rate per ton.
Worldscal e
The new Worldwide Tanker Nominal Freight Scale, commonly referred to
88Worldscal e. is a standard freight rate system esta blished and governed
jointlyby th e Worldscal e Associations of London and New York. The original concept of the Worldscal e was to determine uniform voyage costs and
revenues after th e va ria ble port and bunkers costs were taken into account. Today. the Wor ldscal e rate syste m defines a common referenceand
procedur e to a ssist charterers, brokers, and vessel opera tors in calculating
freight rate s for the carnag e of oil from all loading points in the world to all
discharge location s in th e worl d.
Driven by the need s oft he Bri tish an d American govemm enta to eetebHsha consist ent an d unbia sed charter calculat ion method after World War
II, the World scale system wa s born . The American and British systems
were combined in 1969 (old World scale) and lat er revised in 1989 (new
Worldscale). Together, the World scale Association s maintain a schedule of
fr1!ight scales ba sed on a sta nd ard calculati on meth od.The schedule is normally revised annually with new rates becoming effective on January l of
the revision year.
.,
.
In addition to the calculation procedures, the Worldscale schedule h~ts
standard rates per metric ton and mileage forvoyagcs betw~en all concew]fi porta in the world. Variable costs including bunker prices, port.co~tsd
l!I. .1 fees, and unique port cost differentials are addressed and adjus e
ng each revision of the schedule.
.
the actual
n freight rates are booked on a Worldscale baSIS, thencalcul ti
te is specified in percentage reference to the Wcrldscele
a IOn.

F REIGHT HATE

227

CHARTERINO ANDOPERATJONS

226

. e or~nat rate~ if! speci fied as WS 100 . A fixtu~e concluded at ws

The ~a8ehn
t fthe cataloged World llca.le calculation wh ere as WS 80

lcuIBtion
for d
t he oa a n d diIS Ch arge ports specified ,'
125 18 125 peKen o
l
is 80 percen, 0 fthe ,.
n
the cha rter ' party.
. is
. be 9t expIa me
' d In
i t he folIo'"
rtbe Worldscale calculatIOn
e b88180
f
h 1999 di .
....
iog Th
Worldscal
Preamble. copied directly rom t e
e it ion :
e

All rate calculati ons . which a re mad e in USD . arc per tn nne for a full ca rgo fOf
the standard vessel based upon a round voyage from loadi ng port or ports to
discharfing port or porte and return to firs t loadmg port u si ng the und{'T.

'The following sam ple calcula ti on illuatrate h

r ttln pr ovid es a co nsistent met hod to calcula~~: th~ World sC8le rate
pe fhow th e a ctua l vessel characleri stic sd'rr
freight rate rega rd
leSS0 by the W~r ldsea1I' P reamble. The prevai
tner lin
trom th I' standa rd
' vesse -l
defi
l1ed
COlllpared agsm st WS 100 for a ny p articul
g W.orld scal e percentIlg
. n t
.'
ar ca rgo SIZe d
,r.e 8 th e price uc u auon e 10 the ma rk et (D
an route identulerating ,S,_nag ta n kahine.
u
ai
.
ue to the hiIgh er coste of
p s , a slmil a r ayslem toW
U
for Jones Act fixture s . This syste m is refe orldsC8le h as bee n eefllJl sh edRete S ch edule or ATRS.)
n ed to aathe American
ker

:li

SIMPLIFIED WORLD SCALE CALCULAn ON

EXAMPLE: Car go-50 ,OOO tons of oil from BuU B

york, NY. (3 ,5 40 n autical mile s)
en ay, Curacao, to New

mentioned factors .
All nfthe factors shown are purely nominal a nd for rate ca lculation pur-

posesonly. In partkular, the fued hire element of USD 12,00 0 pe r day is not
intended to represent an aetualle\'el of opera ting costs, nor to prod uce rates
providing a certain 11' \ '1'1 ofincomeor margin of profit , eit her for th e 8tandard

veskl or forany other vessel under any nag .

(a) Standard Vessel
Total Caparity
75,000 ton s
u.e. the veuel's caparity for cargo plus store s, water, and bunker s, both voy-

Rate per Wor ld8Cal e sche dule: $3,751met ric ton

WS 100 or flat rate : 50,000 mt@ $3.751mt " $187,500
\VB 45 rate : 45% 0$ 187,5OO " 84,375
\VB 200 rat e : 200% of$ 187,500" $375,000

Voyage calculation b a sed on WS 200

(Note: Fixed rate differentials h av e been omitte d

10r 01anification.
' l

age and reet ....e)

Average lIl:'rvice speed

Bunker Congumption Steaming
Pw'poIesother than steaming
In port

14,5 knots
55 tons per day
100 tone per round voyage
5 tons for each port involved in the
voyage.
380 cat
4 days for a voyage from one loading
port to one discharging port ; an additional12 hours being allowed for each
El
ext ra port on a voyage ,
~~'~"~.~ l!n1e n t
USD 12,000 per day
h
USD 82.75 per ton
the BVf!rage worldwide bunker pri ce for fuel oil (380C80
1 O~wber 1997 to 30th September 1998, ae assessed by
mltedr(of London).
by the Aasociationll in the light ofi n formad::OfSeplember 1998, the ra te of exchange
rrency to USD being th e average appli-

Dal's:
5.1 days
Ballast-l ,nO nm @ 14.5 knots
5,3 days
Loaded-l ,770 nm @ 14.0 kno ts
2 days
Loading
2 days
Discharging
WS 200 freight ra te
(4,688 )
Commission (1.25 %)
(12,000)
Portexpenses (Cu racao)
(25,000)
Port expenses (New York)
Bunkers :
(40,040)
Fuel oil at sea-l 0.4 days @ 35mtJday@S UO/mt
(4,4001
Fuel oil in port--4 days @ lOmtJday @$UO/mt

Total
Daily running costs 14.4 @ $5,OOO/day
nM"l.Ile: example owner's capital costs for vessel)
~ullll

375,000

288,872

(72,000)
$216,872
$ 15,061

ult per day

Lump Sum
arne implies, a lu rn-eu rn rate is a fixed price for the delivery of the
a d cargo and voyage. This fix ed price is normally inclusive of al l
. lated coats and probably will not be affected by the amount of
t ately loaded. When offering a lump-sum rate, the shipownerl

...
CHARTERING AND OPE RATI ONS

228
" precise figures for port costs an d ot her expenses or th
operator muet h a
d
e
profit margin will be directly redu ce .

C HAPTER 10

Ra te pe r To n
While Worldscale rates are gene ra lly used for the mo vement ? fpetrol eum
oils, the rate per ton is more common f?r the fixt ure of chemical s. In th is
'n price is mutually es ta bhs he d for each ton of ca rgo loaded
cese.e cem,
.
. I d h
.
Unless agreed otherwi!>e. thi s rate will n?t me u e . t e voya ge a nd POrt
costs. A fixture made on a rate-per-ton baste usual ly m~olves a n option involving the quantity. An example would be t he nO,mma~d quanti ty of
20.000 tons, 5 per cent moloo (more or l,es8, owner.s option ). Th e shi powner/operator normall y wan ts to exerCise the opti on to load the addi.
tional5 pen:entquantity in orde r to improve his ea rnings for the voyage.

Tim e-Ch arter Equ ivalent

For practical reasons, it is common to determine the time-charter equ ivalent rate for a cargo fixture, When a vessel is hired under a time cha rte r
the charterer agrees to pay a daily rate for the vessel. Th is r ate includes ali
ofthe technical costsofthe ship, such as maintenance and crew wag es, but
it excludes voyage-~lated costs such as bunkers and port fees. This daily
rate makes it veryeasy for a shipowner 00 compare hi s daily costs against
the dailyearnings, When working with freight rates on a spot m arket . it is
common forthe shipowner to convert the freight rate calculati on into a day
rate, This day rate is known as the time-charter equivalent .

REVIEW
1. What are so.me of the
w~e n

factcra take n into conside ration by a charter er

selecti ng a vessel for h ire?

;List f~ur ways that ocean transportation can be contracted.

''''E"bo
~ the role of the broker in arranging a charter,

World calc?
n a ime.
pu ae of th e notice of readiness?
he commonreason8 to write
. a prote st for violations of the
a.d ry certificate?

nt function in the transport of bulk liquid

ill fi I <ling,

Vetting Inspections
SCOTT R. BERGERON

arine dis~sters in m.odem times hav,e prompted increase d scrutiny

of th ose mvolve d With th e ownership and operation of tankshipe.
Public opini on h a s become less and less tole rant of oil pollution caused by
accidents inv olvin g shi ps . Rece ntly, the re has been a mar ked reduction in
the number of vessels owne d by oil companies. As a res ult, oil companies
now make up the largest sector of tanke r cbarterers. fn order to minimize
the risk of exp osure to a m arine disa ster involving their cargo. most oil
companies have e stablished risk man agement or vetting departments

withintheir chartering organizatio n.

The term vetting is an alogous to screening or reviewing a vessel prior 00
chartering it. While oil companies may und ertake their risk management
responsibilities using different methods and procedure s, there are many
common principles involved in the vetting process.
Prior to chartering a vessel, a revi ew of the following records is ~n or~er.
n skA favorable review will result in an approval from the vettmgl
management dep a rtmen t . The respective company may then c~arter the
veuel. On the ot he r hand. a poor record and unfavo rab le screenmg would
probably pre vent a vessel from being chartered,

INSPECTIONS
,

h sically inspect vessels

, ;P.l~or 011 companies em ploy insp ector s to p y i
n ~
r masIn consid er ed for charte r. These in sp ecto J1l are no~a y r::tion of
hd ch ief en gineers with exte ns ive backgrounds 10 the d c
lete a
Jj els. They usually a tte nd 8 vessel for several hours an . COIDPd
U
h
b
'ng the operation an mac eckHstiq uest ion naire a fte r 0 ser~
. I d the tes ting of
ndition of the sh ip. Area s of ins pectlon Inc u e

-rn e CHEW'S ROLE I N VEnING

VETI'ING INSP~;CTIONS

230

.'

fet

and ca rgo re lated equ ipme nt . Also included is a close

naVlg~tlO~. 8:ft ~ engi ne room. cargo wo ks , cargo ~u mp8 a nd piping, an d

eX8JTllJla.tl.on f
t"
Finally th e ins pectors review th e ooLoord Baf('t
the condItio n 0 COB .mga.
nes a n d t h ey eh ock t h e va hdi
y
1 na n..... routi
I tty of BII
roceduree an d mom e
~L
h
a

:ertification s for the vesse l s nd crew. DependlOg o~ t e ~harter~r, t he in_

teJ"\.'sl oh'etting ins pections varies. So.me m ay re quire an in sp ecti on before
D

"","]8

each voyage. On o Iher ... ..,

'

insnPchons are performed an nu ally or every

...-

secondyear.
Vessel History
Most \'ettingdepartm ents majntai.n.databases ofvess~ls th at t heir c?mpa.
nics are likely tocharter.Any publiCIZed reports of accldents-:-POl lu~lOn in.
ld groundings or collisions-are recorded and studied. It IS also
CI en re,
'
.
. d
-, f
I'
~
common for these companies to maintain etar so a ves se a ~eno nn ance
while on cha rte r. This record is a nalyzed before the vessel IS chartered
again.

O'i\'lIer/Manager Record
In a simils r fashion, vetti ng grou ps will als o keep re cords of the compa,
ni ee involved with th e operat ion of ta nk sh ips . By d oin g so t hey are able to
analyze th e performance and accide nt recor ds of a fleet. A vessel run by a
company that has frequent mishap s or a conti nu ous r ecord of poor performance may be determ ined to be an un acce ptable ri sk to the chartering
company.
Ship bupection Reporting Exchange (SIRE )
TheOil Companieslntemational Marine Forum (OCIMF) recognized t hat
the industry would be well served if th e resul ts of vessel in spect ions could
be shared. Not only would thi s reduce th e fin an cial burden a nd dema nd on
~rsonnel. resources associated with conducting so m any vessel in spections, but Inspectors could also learn from the action s of their counterparts,
who_may h~vealreadychecked a particular sh ip. The de sire to share infernort ulhmately led to the creation oft he Ship In sp ection Rep orting Exc Ifge.1SIRE sy'll1eml. The SIRE system is a databa se op erated by th e
~I
Onc-e a mem~r company uploads an inspection r eport into the de,I
..ome evetlable for review by other member companies. With
v
til .~SmEa- r eport In
" ......m.pany can rna k e use of an inspection
n tiri ti-elr own Inspection. In addition, the shipowners are
I
en~ about the inspection reports. These comW d IJI rt.he database and attached to the in spec11 vetting department to review inspections of
hlp' ne
eSplJnlles to any deficiencies noted duro
uall~rernain in the SIRE database for
ni111i continually improving through

231
..d
Iltandar
diza
l
ion.
All
memb.
tow '
r compa .
el1'orlB
a stand a rd veeeel particular que I
~l ell of OCIMP hay
_.-cd on
. (VIQ
..-- _ n question n81re
I. The VPQ isS lonnalre IVPQ) and vessele
,..p(IIO
'fi
h
normally co 1
ill~ rI' Bnd idenll lea t c most COmmon
mp eted by the
-po"""
"
lcularll of i . ~
" _ , ha rterers , lor ex a m p e, vesse l length
n....,rest to pro.....clIve
. d
Overall he
~r -.
.. expiration atea, ca r go pu mp deta il'
d ' am, tonnagell
rtifi ca ~
.
196 questio
' ns rela ted'" toanth mooring equipment.
.
'
r;t VlQ contain S eome
1b~ ' ''n Bn ce , safety procedures , and pollution prev "1:S8eI's operation,
.....Illn...
I
hi
.
' sen Ion techni
g inspecto r comp etea t IS questIOnnaire durl th e i
I~ues. A
l'rlUO
nng e inspection.

p,,,'

,-r.

C h e mical Distribution I nsti tute (COIl

~. chemical company cha rterers established a system ....
hi
,..
_
- k
th Ch .
ccrnpara e tc
SiRE. ThIs system IS no.~ as e . emlcal Distribution lIUltitute(CDI)
eection sche me . In a similar fashion, the chemical cemp -inS r
t:
he i
ames maintain
aCO emon da taba s e lor t e m. epectton reports made on ch.m-1C8I an dI-iquetied petroleum ~nd gas earners . There are some differences in the way the
l"'oreport- sh anng systems.ope rate, but the principle is the same. There is
an effort for closer cooperation between the two organizations. At the time
ofprinti ng, both C Dland OC IMF agreed to make use of a common VPQ, as
all charte rers need this standard information.
Though COl and OCIMF do not cover all charterers, these twosystems
arethe most com mo n systems used for vetting inspections. Charterers who
are not membe r s of ei t he r organiza tio n nonnally have thei r own questionnaires an d proced u re s for ri sk- mana gemen t. Needless to say, the crew's
role remains the s a me r eg a r d less of t he cha rte rer or the vett ing method. It
should be kep t in mind t h at a poor in spe ction re port remains in the SIRE
database for ot he r p r os pect ive charterers to see, and th is could ultimately
lead to the r ej ect ion of a ve s se l.

THE CREW'S ROLE IN VETTING

A typical vetting in spe ction s tarts wit h a meetin g amongthe ins pector ,
master, and chiefe n gi n eer. The inspector usu ally pr esen18a ny n~es:a~
tedentiale and explains the s cope of the Inspecti on Th e mspectlon h n
eeda with a review of ve s sel documentation s nd records, obl"d' ' '' '' h'

II
fthevessel me u IDg e
I' oIb~lI a st section s,
go operatrcne. and in~pectlon of a areas 0
I
e room accommodations safety appliances , ce g
,
'
_ k
el statTare a so cononng areas on deck. Interviews WIth ey veee
d ~ r a vetting inspection .
embers should always be prepare 0 ti
this is not always
st"inspections are made with adv .ance nt~ol:~fthe vessel during
e. rI'erminals frequently conduct an tnepec
fer operations.

T UE C1U:W'S nOl i" I N

"

VI,;TTING

VET1'INO INsrl::C'I'I0NS

232

The role of the veuins inspecwr is ~. take a s na ps hot look at t he opera.

stetus a nd conditIon orall a reas or t h e ves sel wil l "
tion ortbe vesseI. Th e
d
f h
~
re rted to the vetting/risk -management :p8rtmer~.t 0 t e chllrtenllg
po
' " tial ,harterer for evalua tion. Th e Inspe ctor s hould b
company
or poten
- te rt, ere wt-t h the VcsSel'
.~ _h
eectI but should not be ell cwe d in
treated_ WIt~reapec a;ntenance crthe vesse I WI-II h e I p to ensure a 8UCce. a
ope ratIon. ..-.uper rn ...
"
'1
8
fuI vetting inspection. and e posith'e inspecti on, In t~, WI J help loensurc
acceptance by prospecthechartere rs th ereby allowing th e vessel to t rade
wit hout res trict ions. CleaT violations of regulatl~ns ~r sta nd a r d ind us>
try-accepted pract ices will naturally have a neg~tlve mflue n ce.on the in_
specticn. A poor vetting inspectIon can result m charter~r .dlsapproval
which can ulti mately affect th e employment ofthe vessel. It IS Important to
correc t a ny deficiencies noted by a vetting inspector as 8.00n as POs sibl e.
The vetting insp ector's comm en ts and t he corrective actions of t h e crew
should be reported back to t he vessel superintendent or port ca ptain by the
master as 800n as possible . Th e s uperi ntendent or port ca p tain s ho ul d in dicate that corr ective acti ons h ave been take n when s u bmitting the owne r
comments to the SIRE database . Th ese com men ts can b e tak en into Consideration by th e vettingdepsrtments that access the ins pection re port in
order to determine the suitability of a vessel for service. If a ll go es w ell, the
vessel is found to be of good standa rd a n d ca n b e chartered . If m a ny d eficiencies or significan t violations h ave been id entified , the ve ssel may be required to undergo a follow -up in sp ecti on to ensure tha t corrective a cti on
ha s been taken.
To better understand how to pr ep are for a vetting in spection th e
fallowing information has been reprinted with permiss ion from INTERTANKO'sA Guide to 1MVetting Process, Fourth E di ti on .

A GUIDE TO TIlE VETTING PR OCE SS

lUomember that the inspection result eete bliehee wheth er the tanker is operated In a safe way in ecccrdence with valid ru les and regulations
Tbeonboardins
........icucan
" . eucceaafuI if'th
- e tanker ia
""?"
.
I"'~~
0 nIYue
pr epar ed for
t 11 UUlpecbon .The inspector
'
who .IS to carry out the inspecti on will start W
e\t mp

10 lY!

from even before the time he takes his first step onto the

~ . and WIll
continue to d0 so tmti-I he takes the last step ofTth e gang.

r:~i".tt.illt : aV1ng;lhe tanke r after completing the inspection.

J1ft:iI'r'~
raare fermer eeefa rera who from both deck and engine
r~'~'~I~
hie W asses. a tanker. MOllt like ly t he first impression
~-~'"'~,'=,'\
e tank~ ~ .!lighted until the inspector's arrival at the
IIrrl~''P,"''~~
~8Il.t. ltwill be subjective at this point. Inepec[hil]l:.AT1!.! 'IlPi.
,-I~ n r:the~r looki ng for objective criteri a
1 :}J1f.;r;f;(!"~{,~
I lifac
f ife that;.,however aubcc necious the
H.!i . ,;, \'} ~~.PiI'\1jT.u~r__ ,
11
'~ive evidence to 8Upport hi s Ini. IJ ",1,) ;lJ l'/idi1r'l.!l ~lJi.
nct\ of the route from ship side to

'.

"

233

&ter's ellbin IIhould not be underelltimat d

~8

c . Remembe
1 hllnee to rnak e II t':I l fl~t Iffiprellllion
r YOU do not got
011

~ a llee_
d
'
Pr eparation for the I
.
ti
fUlpealOn
h t th e m apec Ion IS scheduled t
.'Ia ke sure t 8 n"
a aconve ni t ti
.t doee not con lct WIth other inspection
'.
en time for the vessel
SOl
s orslml\ar m t

il)'be arranged th rou gh the port agent.

a terti.This could eae Make su re t hat eac h head of de part m{'nt h8sco mpleted h'
.
L_rorearrival at port a nd that any deficiene h
I II own ITllIpertion
"""
eiea ave been
is should be incorporated in to th e ncrmal eeee,
r{'ported/oolTected
.
. .
routme guideli
Th
An {'fTectlve way of adrmrusteringthis is to i trod
nea .
_
' II '
n
Ute a SelfAsses
covenngthe I~ OWlfigare~. ~~ allocation of tasks for thes '
sm~nt fonn
gestion and will depend on individual , compan y d fi
pecificareas 1.8a sug.
e medareasofresponsibility.

Tanker Particulars
Certifi cationIDocum en tation
Crew Management
Safety Man agement
Lifesaving Equipment
Fi re Figh ting Equipment
Pollut ion Preven ti on
Cargo I Ballast System
Inert Ga s System
COW Installat ion
Moorin g Equipment
Bri dge Equipment
Radio Equipment
Engine Room and Steering
Load Li nes Ite ms
Chemical Supplement

Master
Master
Master
Master I Chief Engineer
Second I Third Ma te
Chief Engine{'r
Chief Officer
Chief Officer
Firat Engineer
Chief Officer
Chi ef Officer
Second Officer
Radio Officer I Master
Chief Enginee r
Chief Officer
Chief Officer

. 1'ttis is meant as an example. The next layer in this table is the delegation
given to petty officers and in turn, to t he rest of the crew. It is important to have
a working or ganization that delega te s. This will achieve an understanding all
the way down through the ranks .
Prior to th e inspect ion pr ep arations ca n be made in certain areas.
The Inspecto r may need to have a copy of the following:
Claeaificetion Document
Certificate of Registry
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate
Cargo S hip Safety Equipment Certificate
afety Radiotelegraphy Certificate
Load Lin e Certificate
IMO Certificate of Fitness

VE'M'ING INSPtx .;'H u N6

Til E CRF:W'S ROLE IN VETIINn

234
IOPP Certi fica te & s uppleme nt . . .
Ce rtificate of Finan cial Respo nsibility

A Crew List
.
[the vessel's cargo ta nk arrangem en t

A Drewma c

VCS!lcl's Safe Manni ng Document

The following should be available for Ins pecti on (some a re n ot applicable
to all \'e85cI8):
Maste l'Sshould lay out the certificates in the s:un e ord~r 8S they a ppear in

235

Be prep ared to demonstrate the prope r operation of th ~ II .

tem alal armll:
e 0 owmg sys

I ne rt Gas ays te m al arms

o ily water se pa ra tor
Fire fighting sys te ms
Stee ring gear
Eme rge ncy generator
Engine room ven tilation shutdowns
Fuel oil cut-off valves

the VPQIVIQ. This S8ves time and creates a good rm pr es sron of ordered Pfl>p.
ara ticn.

Officera' Licenses
Health Certificates
P&A Manual

Approved COW Manual

Approved Ballast Manual
Oil!Cargo record book
Oil transfer procedures
Garbage log for compliance with MARPOL Annex V
Proofof cargo hose/piping testing
Proofoffixed and portabl e fire fightin g equipment servicing
Proofof professional servicing of breathing a ppa ratus
Proof of life raft se rvicing

Settings for vessel's PV valves

Shipping document and cargo manifest
Certificate orinhabitation or stabilization of cargo
Declaration of Inspection if transferring bunke rs
Cargo Information Cards for the cargo on board
Inert GlUI Manual
Waiver Letters, if any
Yt!II~1 Response Plan
Safet Manual

!I!\ll!;'i!,~Operation Manual
mpan II policy for upgrading and training

In addi tion, the following items ma y be checked an d should be

d .
Firemen's outfits
rea y.
Internation al s ho re connection
N a vi ga ti on eq u ipme nt
Charts, publica tions, a nd corrections
EPIRB, pyrotechnics a nd hy drostatic releases
Flame screens, bunker tanka
Suitable paint lock er
Marine s a ni tation devic e
Reference should also be made to the particular requirements of the oil majo r in specting the ve sse l.
The foll owing items are of vital importance as these provide an overall impression of the vessel, and will play an essential part in how the inspection
will be con ducted .
1) Gangw a y : Co rrectly a rranged-is the gangway net rigged? Ie there a life
ring nearby?
2) Signs : All warning s igns posted I
3 ) Crew: All cre w worki ng on deck s hould ha ve hard ha ts and the nece ssary
protection ge ar.
.
'2
4 ) Deck Watch: Is h e present in the area? Hard-hat, emergency eqwpment
handy, necessary for cargo loading/di scharging; walkie-talkie; ask the. ~spec
tor who he is and who he wants to se e; confirm with Duty Officer that thie is OK.
One crew member s ho u ld follow the Inspector to the ship office.
5) Fire Equipment at the Manifold: Correctly rigged and present.
6) Deck: Clean, free of oil/water and obstructions.
7) Scuppers: Blocked, emergency pump in position and discha~geconnected.
nnelinvolvedmthecargoopB) Cargo Information: Make su re t h a t a II perao
.
.
.
.
'
being loaded/discharged, partieeraucn are briefed regarding what cargoes are lit:
ularly the deck watch. All MSDS 3 to be up and easily resdable.

ali ty gogglll8 rubber

I No visitors, Hazardous cargo
'
2 AA per emergency Inetructicne. This could refer to s e
boots, robber gloves.
3 Material Safety Data Sheets

REVIEW

V1:.Tf ING INSPECTIONS

237

236
9) Emergency Equipment : Wor kinR', pre sent ,an d clea rly ma rked.
10 ) Mooring~: In good orde r, no lines on the wm~h ends .
II I Accommodation: All doors closed, clean a nd m prope r order.
The Inspection
Make sure th at the inspector is accompanied on th e vessel d u ri ng the inept;(_
non.The best people to do this would be the Mas ter, Chi ef E ngineer, ChiefOf.
fleer an d the First A.'lsistant Engineer (Second Engineer), who can divide the
areas of inspection a mongst th emselv es Normally, t he inspector will start by checking all certifica tes" and docu.
men tat ion with the Ma ste r. He will then move into the a reas listed below
However , it must be reme mbered th at th e order and sched ule ofthe inspec:
tion eon be cha nged to ecfueve less dis t urbance to the nonnal ope rationa
onboard. The inspector will have a prepl a n ned inspection fonna t , which he
will wish to follow, th ough th ere is not hin g to stop different sections being
done in a different orde r. With the new OCIMF VP Q , much oft he da ta referring to the tanker will hav e been completed in a dvance. Ma ke su re t ha t you
have a completed up-to-date copy a vail able for th e ins pector a s this will save

much t ime.
I I Bridge and Radio Room
2) Cargo Contro l Room and Tank Deck
3) Engine Room and Sl.et'ring Gear
4 ) Accommodati on I Galle y

& iow an'M mMt common rkfi ciend es found in all areas :
Bridge and Radio Room
The most common deficiencies encoun te re d in t he B ridg elRadio room areas
are related to publicati ons.
Peeeege plan only pilot to pilot. En sure tha t t he filed pas sa ge plan covers berth to berth navigation
,. Mililling publica""", ,r om
Id em
ditiIOns on boa ni when new publica tions

na,ye; been ieeaed

I

Officers and ratings not we arin g hard hats on deck

No screens inside the vents for the ballast tanka
No ca libration gas for gas detection imtruments
Crew not wearing personal proteet ron gear
No policy for e ntering tanks

Engine Room and Steering Gear

No proced ures or instructions posted for foam sysu-m
Emergency steering pr oced u res not posted properly in steeri ng gear room
Hot work pr ocedures not used or not present in the man uals
No sa fety guidelint s available for engin e room/workshop welding equipment
No eye pro tection waming noticea posted for engine workshopmschine
No clean goggles by gri nders a nd lathes
ry
Accomm od ati on/G alley
Untidy
Overhl'ad ventilation greas y-fire hazard
Accommodation ventilaUlrs with no idtntification labels
After the In spection

All insp ectors should sit down a nd dtaeuee observations and comments after the
inspection is completed. If not , the Mas ter should record 8 writte n objl!Ction
that this ha s not taken place an d inform his company immediately. Additi onall y, the inspector will give the Mes ter a written list of th e cbse rvetic ne
fou nd. This is a very i mpo rta nt part oftht inspection process. It is 81110 the last
cha nce for inpu t before the in sp ector fill'S his re port with the oil major. Be su re
to discuss everything thorou ghly. Misunderstandings can be the cause of observations.
Correct all obse rv ations as soon a s possible
Se nd the report to the head efflce or depart ment in charge
Com plete t he In specto r Feedbac k Fonn a nd send it toget her with th e report (8 copy is to be foun d at th e bac k of th is booklet ).

mg:Maliter'1 standing orders and night order book

i.~~re;i'r. gyro error

t

f~ition on the navigation chart during trans it of pilota ge to

REVIEW
1. What is vetting? Why i s it n e ce s sary in the present-day transportation
of cargo?
.
. I
2. Describe the SIRE s yst e m established by the all Compenwe ntemational Marine Forum.
.
.
3 , List the major areas of a vessel that are examined in an mspectlon.
4 . Why is a successful vetting inspection crucial to
What are
some common deficiencies identifipd ~y vettll~glI~specto~:.
5. Describe the role of vessel personnel 10 a veltmg Inepecu n.

~he vessel~

BAl.l.MiT l NG 01 '~; RATI O N !i

239

CHAPTE R 11

Ballasting and Deballasting Opera tions

Tank

vessels generallycarry cargo in only one direction, hence the need

carry ~awater ballast on the ret,urn leg ofthe voyage. There are ex.
ceptlons
. h .to this rule such as parcel earners that often backl oad as th eyare
dIIIC argmg cargo and ~nk barges that lack the necessary equipment to
ballast. Properlyballasting a v,esse,' is extremely important; it represents a
largepercentage oft~e o~rat mg life of a tanker (see figu re 111 ). Car eful
plannmg and execuncn IS also essential when conducting eimulta
db
'
neous
disch
cargo w.tH; arge an alJastmg operations.
,to

BALLASTI NG OPERATIONS
A proper ballast plan for the vessel should tak e In
. to accoun t a nu mber of
Iactcra:

Figure11-1.The ballast Iegofa voyage ecnstituteas largepercentage ofthe eperating lifeof a vessel. Courtesy ChevronShipping,
that operators carefully devise a suitable ballast plan forthe vessel, taking
into account the anticipated weather en route to the next loading port.
Modern ta nke rs a re equi pped with segregated.ballast systems consisting
of tanks, piping, pumps, and sea chests used exclusively for ballas t service
durin g th e life of the vessel. These systems were mandated as a means of
reducin g th e routine operationa l discharges of oil that typically occurre d
during the ball ast tri p. Operational discharges at sea included the disposal
of dirty ball ast , tank was hings , pipeline flushings, and pumproom bilges,
'The installation of segregated-ballas t syste ms on ta nkers has dram atically reduced th ese dischar ges by simply eliminating contact between oil
and water. Th e minimum qu antity of ball ast carried is dictated by the
draft and trim requiremen ts that are conta ined in Regulati on 13-2(a), (b),
and (c) ofMARPOL 73/78 and Titl e 33 CFR Part 157.10which stipulatethe
following:
Minimum draft amidships '" 2,0 + .02 (length ofve/lsell in meters
Maximumtrim", .015 {lengthofvessell in meters
Full propeller immersion
The rules further state that a vessel must comply with these requirements during all phases of the ballast passage. The segregated .ballast

240

BALlASTI NG AND

DEBALLAST ING OP ERA TIO NS

, jl.ely located a round th e ca rg o a rea to minimize

tanks must also be proft c(Jr : n or grounding. Th e total a mou nt of ba lla 8 t
pollution in the even~o~co ISd'".ftand trim requirem en ts is ge nerally co
the rnlm mum r d
"
n,
neede d m mee t
II t COnditlon. Adver se or etenora t mg Weath
ballast trip often necessita t e taking :r
stdered a fair-weat her b? 8 S
th
conditions offshore d~~17:st additional ballast car~ed in one or rnor~
storm ballast. Stonn
._ special handling or dis pos al at recepuon
k hich t hen requrre
cargo tan 8 W I I
term condition. the vessel ma y carry 50 pe rcent or
facilities as hore. n as
. b II t
more of the deadweight tonnage m a as .

i:

BaUs st System Con figurati o ns

yetem on a tanker generally fall s under one of
The segregated' ballas t 8
d b II
. I desi
In most case s the segr egate - a ast system con.
three possib e esigns .
'
. h
. 11
< II
.
f
.
f ng tanks( fig. 11-2a ltha teIt er partta y or ru y com.
sists c a senes o W1
d tnm requi
ts A I
.
-<.rementioned draft an trim requrremen . P a n view of
I ith th e an
pyWl
. '
. I h li ta k . h
.
such a ballast configuration for an exiatmg smg e- u
n er I S S Own In
figure 11-3.
In the caseofa double-bottomtanker (fig. 11-2b), the s pace between th e inner end outer bottom ill used for the carriage of sea wa te r ballast; figure 11-2c
shows the ballast area at the sides and bottom of a double-hull tanker.
Ballast Terminology
A degree of confusion often arises concerning the terms u sed to descri be
th e ballast on a vessel. The most commonly used terms are defined a s follows:
Dirty ballQ8t refers 10sea wate r intro duce d into cargo tanks up on completion of cargo discharge. Residual (un pumped ) ca rgo, clingage adheri ng
to the sides ofa tank , and cargo remaining in the pumps and pipelines all
become part of the incoming balla st water, contami nating it. This ballast
contains significant quantities of oil; it requires s pecial h a ndlin g at sea , or
~t must be retained on board for dispo sal at a reception fac ilit y at t h e load-

(a) Wing tank ballastarrangement on

a sIngle-hull vessel

(b) The segragaled-ballasl space in a

doutae-ocrtcm tanker.

p-arturepfJUas is a term used on crude carriers to describe seawater

a cargo tank that has been crude-ail-washed during the

Qlde-oil.washing of a cargo t ank prior to t aking on seaquantity of oil remaining on board to a fr action of

lee.
a laB ia defined by the USCG as ballast "if di sch arged
a tt a into clean, calm water on a clear day would
e a
oil on the aurfaca of the water or on adjoining
mulaion to be deposited beneath the sur'
ning sh e linea." Clean ballast di scharged
monitor and control system h as an
P:8
pee million.

(e) The ballast space In a doublehuli lanker

Figure 11-2. Ballast syste m configura t ions.

BALI.ASTING OPERATIONS

".

"e

".

243

A segregated-balla st system consists of tanks ..

ches t (open in g in the hull). The syste m is design,' dP"pm,g, ~uml p~, and sea
.
d .
,
xc u srve Yl OT ballast
servlee a n 18 camp etely separate from the cargo syste m. In the ideal
sense, segTegate d ball a st shou ld always be "clean " Ho
t
.
h b lkhea d or i
.
wever, 8 ructural
u ead or inner-bottom fracture8 and
failures. sue as .
n oi
pipe[ime Ieaka can
result In contamination
of. the ballast water . It is I therelore,
'
.
conSlldered
prud en t to Insp ect a nd venfy th e conditio n of the segregated ball t .
to dischar ge overboard.
as pn or

Ballasting P r ocedur e

' 2e

OJ .

03e

.3 s

04.

04e

04'

".

ent for 8 single-hull tanker.

With a se grega te d-ba llast sys te m, seawa te r is introduced into the vessel by fir st lining up th e ball ast ta nks, piping, and sea suctions. The bellast water enters th e vessel eithe r by gravity or by using dedicated
pumps to bring wa ter through a sea ches t, As with any operation. the
lineup should be ch ecked to verify that balla st is flowing to the correct
tanks.
Taking sea wa te r int o the cargo system is a critical operation as it involves opening up the cargo syste m of the vessel to the sea. For this reason,
established procedures must be followedwhen commencingrdirty-belleeting" of the vessel. The cargo tanks to be ballasted . the piping, and the
pumps should be correctly lined up. With the double sea-suction valves
closed. the cargo pump should be sta rted and run at an idle speed, thereby
creating a vacuum in the sea lane between the sea-suction valves and the
pum p. At this point, the operator should firs t open the inboard sea-suction
valve an d the n open the outboard sea-suction valve. When it is verified
that seawater is flowing to the correct tanks, the speed ofthe cargo pump
can be increased. The object ofthis procedure is to prevent oil in the cargo
system from escaping (gravita ting) from the vessel to the sea when the
sea -suct ion valves are opened. Failure to adhere to this procedure ~uld~
eult in a se rious pollu tion incident. In any event, whether ballasting With
th e pumps or by gravity, the sea-s uction valves must be the last valves
opened and th e first closed ,
Another issu e presentl y confronting vessel operators is the need to ballast cargo tanks without venting a ny. cargodvapors
A
lito the
ue atm08ph~re:
the emtssrcn
D '
number of states and localities have Impose stn ct mu on
of
cargoshoul
tank8d, remam
un~g
of vapors during operati ons sueh as the ballasting
.
d vents
. di I d by
the ba llasting of cargo tank s, a ll deck opemngs an
closed for the duration ofthe operation. TheatmosP~:~a~e~~~ i~~i~c;rent
the ba llast wat er coming into the cargo tank s can
ways:
h
tanks beingbill
With a vapor control system, the ~apo~8 ,from t e c:;:; roce ingol: e::
lasted are directed ashore via collection plpmgon dQC
p
~
etructlcn .

244

. ~' n IJEBALLAST ING OPERATIO NS

1J1m ALI .ASTI NG OPERATIONS

BALLASTING I U '

245

10
Deckseal
1. Boiler uptakevalve
2. SCrubber isolating valves
3 Gas-lrgelfl9 air inlet va lve

4. F~lnlel iSOlatingvalve
5. Fao-outle t lsola l

no valve

6. GasrectraAation valve
7. Ma n gas controlvalve
B Nonrelumvalve

r--G~~~c,r.;~,

g. Deck mal'llsolaling valve

10. Pr&S6Ure-VlCU\IITl bteaker
1t 04rgo lank 1501a!lng valve
12,. FIoel geuge (i1Iltled)
13. Con5\.1n1 ~ VBIv8
14 PreSlllllr&- VllOlum va1Yfl

51.1nd plpe lor P\lrgif!g

Vapor emiSfiooa can be controlled by si multaneou s cargo discharge

I g OperatlOlUl. The vapors d isplaced by th e incoming ba llast a re transnlutb&lg discharged. Reprinted with permieeion fro m Cont roll ing
/.01),1 from Tan k Ve1l8el Loadi ng, 1987 . Publi shed by National
a n n , D.C.

1. Boiler upt ake va lve

2. 5cNbber iso la tin g va lves
3. Gas-fre eing ai r inlet valve
4. Fan-inlel lselating valve

5 Fan-oullel lso1ating valve

6. Gasrecirculation valve
7. Main gas coraror valve

(----'F':::-JU~:.\!.. L~I L:-.JI~J.U

8 Nonratum va lve

9 Deckmain isolating valve

to. Pressure-vacuum breaker
11 . Cargolank isolating valve
12. FIoaI gauge (il fitted)
13. Constan' velocity valve
I . Pressure-vacuum valve
15. Sland~pe for purging

Forward O

Figure 11-5. When taking on ballast in a locality wherevapor emissionsare prohibited, the atmosphe re in the ballast ta nk can be handled in several ways. One
method, known as "compression ballasting" (shown here), involves transferring
thevapors from the ballast tank to the available empty cargotanks in the vessel.
Reprinted with permission from Con trolling Hyd rocarbon Emissions from Ta nk
Vr88t'1 Loading , 198 7. Pub lished by National Academy Press, Wsshington, D.C.

DEBALLASTING OPERATIONS

~pon arrival at the loading berth, th e ball ast must bedisposed of to permit
h vessel to load a full cargo. Clean ballast , from eith er prope~ly prepared
fRo. tanks or the segregated-ballast tanks, may be pumpe? mto the hartbout risk ofpollution . Dirty ballast is pump ed to a designated recepfacility at the terminal or to a barge.

Load-on-Top
. tee hni
ears, various ballast handling
mques have dbeen
i hutilized
1960 to
.
QIlution ofthe sea. One such technique develope /n t e
:~:
it- n-top" CLOT). This an operational method 0 re du cin
~1
(fift):' ballast and slops discharged into the sea. :r
Ii:I
u
.
.
. .
b
(y
sw,pr WI
I
II racticed
by a significant. num er 0

Il EBALLAS TING Ol' Fl>.

.",TIONS

'Load on top' system of controlling

pollution at sea
k
u rn qu a nlil'U 01sea -w a lar in some 0 1ill 1'l'Ik. lo MI "'e
Afler dIsch arging ~a rgo, e 111'1 f' r~, ,t rni~ t5 w ith oil residultS in th e "nk, .nd becomes

15 ballu!. When ttle w ater~, ~i1rtv boIllnl ..... ater " lIS10 be . ep la ce d by clean belles. which
'dItty', DUling 11'1, vkO~'~:'I ~~ ~i'hOUlli5k 0 1 poll utio n wh en t ho l a nke. re ac he , th e lo ading
~n be puml*! bee 10.
, , "",10" be tl u ned 81. sea 10 Ins ure Iha! Ihe MI -wl t"
por'l Soma empty I,n I mU5
"
pum'ped ;nlo tham " b. llnl rem,i ns clean en d tree 01 0 '1.

~--~

During l!'lt YC/'f"gt"okl lO be "lied with clean ba llast water e re w uhed an d th, oily

wUhingl'" eollKltd into on. "op l . nk.

Th, oil in the nl "ilhbo urll'lg 'd Irty bllluf I,nks 1101t.10 the top.

-'-

.......... . .....
cu_

00.....

:I Th, now de.n Ii nka .r. ' ,IIte1 w 'lh ballnt W811r which w ill remain cleen end I Ulta bl.
01d'KIl .rg, I llh" ot(j ing po't.
til t1'll 'cifmo b,t!lu( IIll k. thl clea ll Wi le r ullda, t tle oi l is discharged 10 Ihlll I t nd
YJiY'"' OCllop II trl lll l,rre<! to thlllI lo p tlll k.

247
nder sta nd the process, envision a VLCC
TOU
. fitt ed with eta term ',na
" j
II discha rge a f cargo. Th e Ii hitp tS
conducting
a fll. therefore , balla st p rep arations begin withe~rude-oll~washing systern, tank s to be ba ll a sted . The ca rgo ta nks to b b cru de-Oil-wash of all
ca~~e dock a t th e d isch a r ge terminal must be e a~a8ted prior to leav,
" g tanks to be u sed for a rri va l b all ast Upo was e\d ~8 well as those
cargo
.
n comp eh on f
.
e th e departure ballast t anks are filled with
0 cargo discharg .
d tri
~.
seawater to
t h
. ,'", um dr a ft a n tnm requ1Tem ents diacus"d
I' The vmee l td e
lI)\n ..
.
earuer
rte th e di sch a r ge port and begins th e ballast legofth '
esse epa
the next loa din g po rt. The vessel is infonned that it m' VOtyag~ en route
to
,
.
1 nJ .
us amVea t the
ext loadmg port In a c e ad a rri
n
. val ballast condition . Whil
teat sea the
cargo ta nks that we re cru e-otl -wa sh ed ~nd left empty at the disch'arge
terminal are n ow water-washed and stripped. The washing, d 1
. hi h i
"
an sops
are tran sferre d wit In t e vesse a nd retained in a designated el tank
The wash ed tanks ar~ t hen fill~d .with clea n seawater, considere:~rril'al
ballast. In the mea ntime, the 01 1 10 the de part ure ballast ta nks has separated into a defined laye r on the su rface of the ballast. Using an interface
meter, the depth of the oil la yer ca n be determined and th e water underneath this layer ca n be carefully pumped overboa rd. The pollution regulationsthat presently govern the disposal of cargo residues in this fashion
can be found in ch apter 14. The water in the departure ballast is decanted
overboard until the oil- water interfa ce reaches a "eefe" height above the
bottomof the tank , thus reducing t u rbulence or eddying th at could disturb the oil layer and cause unaccep table qua nti ties of oil to be discharged to the sea. The small quantity of oil still in suspension in the
ballad water bei n g pumped overboa rd is dissipated in the wake of t~e
vessel. Th e rem a in ing oil and water in th e departure ballast tanks IS
transferred to the s lop tank where the process of separation and decantIng is re peated. The vessel arrives at the loading port with clean ballast
and a sma ll q uan tity of oil and water in the slop tank. Before the clean
Ji lI1i8tis disposed of, it may be necessary to flush the ~um~s and botto~
Pi 109into the s lop t a nk to avoid any possible contammattOn..The cle~
est is pumped overboard at the load ing port , and, depending on k .e
ad of the vessel the s mall qu antity of oil and water in t he slop ta n IdS
,.
1 d d
top of it or pumpe

Ured and the n ext ca rgo IS eithe r oa e on top procedure

'
ure itStod
r to a slop tank. The effe ct ive ness of t he loa -onn eQiby a number of factors including th ese:

248

BALLAST INa AND

DEBALLASTING OPERATIONS

Re cept ion Facilities

d re work s well for mos t crude carri ers wit h a HUm
The load-on-top proce u
.
I
tion u
I. I I n ball ast passage which permits amp e se para IOn tim e to pro.
rient e
and slops. Product c~rriers a nd vessel s o~ short hau ls
cess t h
t
t Iten handle the dirty ballas t a n d slops In ot her Way,
along theco8s mus 0
. . .
hid'
for t he r n
.
Iaciltues .at".t e oa m
Tb esc vcsse IS U I1'IZ.," .reception
",
hg port lor
k t e disposal
of t heir ball ast "and slops . Reception facilities a re s ore tan 8 li Med exclu_
stvely for the receipt of dirty ballast and slops from ve sse.ls. The wa ter and
'1 .
ed ashore using separators. and th
01 IS process"
. he water
uffi . 18 ret urn ed
. to the
harbor. Today, many terminals are outfiulehdwit S . clelntrrecchPh on facil.
ity capacity to accept whatever a ve,s se. as on arnva . n . t e ins tance
where a terminal cannot take a vessel ~ dl.rty ballast or slops, It may be necessary to transfer it to a barge or retam It on board.

Y\:11081

Ballast-water Exchange
Efforts to reduce sea pollution in the past have primarily focused on th e oil
conte nt of the ba llast water. In recent years, increasing conce rn over ot her
forms of pollutio n have prom pted regulators to impose res tricti ons on ballast-water disposal. The prob lem stems from the worldwide t ra n s port of
vari ous types of bacte ria, viruses, pla nts, and marine organisms in the bal last water of vessels, which poses a se rious threat to the marine environme.ot. Following is a notice from one fleet ope rator concerning the need for
iillast water exchange:

Ballast Water Exchange

pallt fewyears there has been increasing concern over the intrewanted aquatic organ isms an d pat hogens through th e disalI 8 ~t. water . In many cases th e organisms (plant , anima l
hifve,been able to flouri sh in their new surroundings.
en 0 indigenous marine life.
mb1y adopted a resoluti on which contains guidero lema. and the Marine Environment Protect ion
n I drafting a possibl e new annex to MARPOL
Wry regulations.
th t any measures which are intranvi~onment do not threaten safety.
nattbn te rn balla st water has been to
t for- water load ed at Ilea. where
er 0 e concern ha s also been ex.ally: ia th e ship were W be
U uUl be completed .
u
change ofbal.ctl balla st tank a are
d he other is

249
the now-through method. in which ballast t k
.
. g In
. clean water. an II srellun1.IIte neol.lsly filled and
discharged by pu m pin
.
The draft guidelines go on to identify th
taken to ensure th e ship's safetY-lluch aa ta~ pr~l.Itlons which need to be
ng Into aceou.nt weather eondiions ensuring t he ship's Iltability being ,
.
.
ware of the
bl
e effects on the
' hip's f1 tru cture an d ot her factors. They o COver crewpaSSI
t . .
..
it ation and th e long-term evaluation of safe'
Tamingand famlhar_

.1,

y ee pecte.

Rt'printed

with permission fromChevron Shi"in

ro_

g ......mpaIlY.ll.C.

Inv a sive s pecies can ca use dam age in sen,,' ,,' ,.

.
ve areas to th e tun Ibi l
lions of dollars . In t h e United States, th e National Invasive S . e o 1
1996 requires ve ssel operators to implement a ballast. te pectes Act of
wa r man agement
h
sche me w hiICh imeI u d es a vo Iun tary regim e for ballas,
.
h
h G
-we ter exc ange
CertalR a reas s u e as t e reat Lak es are protected by
db '
.
a man atory allast-w ater exchan ge pro gra m whe reb y prier to arrival in th I k
I
e a ee. vesse e
must condu~t a fu ll excha~ge of th e ball ast water at sea beyond th e exclusive econormc zone (EEZ) In depths greater t ha n 2,000 meter s. Upon conclusion o~ ~he exch~~e, the ba llas t water th at will be discha rged must
have a mmUI~um salinity level ofthirty parts per thousand. Altern atively,
vessels entenng t he Great Lakes ca n retain t he ballast on board during th e
time in the lakes or di sp ose of t he ba llast at a shore reception facility. The
exchange of ballast can ac h ieve a n acce ptable level of pollution reduction
provided it do e s not com pro m ise th e ope ra tiona l safety of th e vessel while
at sea. Some vessels con du cting ball ast-w ater exchange at sea have developed significant bendi ng s t r esses during th e process. prompting some owners and regulators to seek other solut ions. As of this writing, the industry
conti nues to research methods of ball ast-water management. treatment,
and control to red uce the introduction of marine organisms and plant life
not indige no us to t he coastal areas and inland waterways of the United
States.

REVIEW
What are the IMO draft and trim requiremen ts for a 300-mete r tanker
i ballast?
h
lean ballast is considered water with an oil conte nt ofte sa t an _ _

Ii

ist ur factors that s h ould be taken into accoun t when devising the
ea 1 ballast plan .
r re departure ballast.
a~val ballast.
ents?
ared-ballast system consi sts of what compon
.

250

BALLASTING AND DEIJALLASTIN G OPERAT ION S

7. Describe t he proccdur~ f~r commenci ng hal lnat ing operation!! ullin l::
the cargo pumps and piping.
.
.
B. Def;cribc th e load-on-to p met hod of poJlutlOn reduct~on.
. ball Ast-wat e r excha nge necessa
ry on certem vC!lselll toda y,
9. 11'1>y IS
1
particular ly t hose trading overscas.
10. List four factors that could adv,erse ly affect th e perfonna nce of th('
LOT meth od of pollution reduct ion.
.
11. Why must the pipelines a nd pumps be dropped and s tnpped prior to
introducing ballast water into th e cargo Syste~?
12. When ballast ing carg o tanks in a state that limits va por emi ssion8,
list the various ways th e ta nk at mosphe re can be handled.
13. What is a reception fa cility?
14. How can the wate r in a segregated-ba llast system become contaaa.
nated?
16. What options, if any , are availa ble to th e operator s hould th e segre.
gated ballast be rontamina ted ?

C H AP T E R 12

Tank Clea ning Operations

n th e operation of a ny tank vessel, it is necessary at some .

tanks . Th er e are numerous reas ons for cleaning:
pomt to clean
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Change of cargo or vessel tra de

Prepar ation for de an ballast
Sludge control
Preparation for gas-freeing and tank entry
Preparation for shipyard

A successfu l tank cleaning operation involves carefulplanningand execution to avoi d wasting time and energy .The ta nk cleaning plan should include such considerations as the sequence of tanks to be washed. the
method to be employed , t he number of machines, line pressure, temperature , st ri pping method, slop tank use, and atmosphere requirements. Fortunately, oil and che mical t ransporters provide extensiveguidance in the
fonn of clean ing charts or man uals tha t suggest the optimum method to
clean a tank for a particular cargo or opera tion. Figure 12-1is a cleaning
chart from one operator for use within their fleet.
As an example , if the la st ca rgo ca rr ied was commercial gasoline,
special preparation would be required to load jet fuel (J P-41on the next
~. Reference to the cleaning chart reveal s th e following recommenda1

ne:
Machine wash the tank with coldwater
Flush all aaaociated piping, heating coils, and pumps
oroughly atrip the tank of washings
D the tank through ventilation and mopping
eve loose sediment , sludge. and ecete

251

. .1 1
. "c..
I I .'
~:,j x
J!1i

I
5

Jj~!

!!

-i I I'
ii;
j d

s te

!i .ii!HI ! ! ! ! I
I
j

-,
::....::

~!il

-,

:=

"

Figure 12-2. Typical portable ta nk cleaning machineusedonsmeller vessels. Courtesy Gamle n Chemical.

-,
!

!~. il !!

i
;=

1
~

lf'no wri tten cleaning proc edures exist aboard th e vessel. personnel often depend on a n experience factor with the operation, or they tum to the
cargo own er for a dvice on how to prepare for a certain cargo. Preparation
for loading sensitive chemical ca rgoes often involves additional work such
8 S freshwater rinsing, h a nd h osin g, chemical washdown, and drying.

EQUIPMENT
Atypical tank cleaning system consists ofa sea chest. tank cleaning pump,
heater, and fixed piping on deck.
Machines
leaning operation is accomplished through fixe~ machines
en I mounted in each tank or portable machinessupphedb~ hydr~
q
, ~tank cleaning hoses suspended in each tank. Olearung e dU:~amdee~t
" II er the past severe l =.
Ii nologyhave advenced dramatice
yov
"groac hime th at iIS smaller,
122 illustrates a modern tan k cIaamn
d
th its pre scessora.
S8, and operates at a lower pressure
an

ini

,:r::d

TANK CLEANING OI'E J{ATIONS

254
,
hi
hAVOsmooth bore nozz les t hat d(1i\'l' r tln- W h
Tan k cIeam ng mac m ealean ing th e surfaces 0 f a tan k by dinTI un pmll.~
, fluid t high pressure, C
k.Ft
e-.
mg ur a .
. l fth oJ'ct as wellss splashbac . Figure 12-3 111 ustrat .

O
.
hine i
. IS
ment lscounng achon
I ' talled(fixed) ta nk cleamng mac me In OP('ratum

typical pennanent y meta

lJl

a cargo tank. .
only dri ven by th e washing: fluid and rota h' i
The machme s are carom
.
h
n
hori
'
1
plan
es to achieve t e necess
a ry con-ra!'tc oft hC
and
onzonta
.J.
.
rti
cal
t h ave
r
. ti
cleaning. Nea rly a ll au rtaces of th e ta nk U f e hit
tank surfaces lor euec rve
.. h d

f
, let ith the exception of s a ow a reas, s u r ace s which
by the cleaning j e WI
.
'-h
hi Id d from th e machine by framlOg rnem oers or ot er obst.rue.
maybes ie e
.
I t he ta k
f
'
.
nhin the ta k Ifa s ignificant portion 0
e won s u r ace I S within
none within t e ... O .
.
(a id
bo
ddit i
the ahadow. a I IOn ,I ,uhmerged mach ines 8 1 e- or ttom-mounted)or
h
, 0 f a potrtebl
e machine may be necessary to reac th e a reas in
the spcttmg
W>

the shadow.
PORTABLE WATER.WAS HING

Although pennanently mounted tank cleaning mach ines a re becoming

re prevalent in new construction. portable ma chines still pr edominate
in smaller vessels. Aportable tank cleaning machine (as shown in fig. 12-4)
is used in conjunction with standard 2lh-inch tank clea ni ng hose connected
to a hydrant on the supply main .
Seawater is delivered to the washing machines from a tank cleaning
pump. The temperature oft he wash wate r can range from tha t ofthe ambient seawater to as high as 1 80~F if a heater is employed. Th e supply pressure to be maintained at the machi nes on deck is a critical param eter th at
varies considerably fro m one machine to another; therefore. the manu facturer's manual should be consulte d for the correct value. Modern tank
cleaning machines operate at lower pressures than their pr edecessors. soa
standard value is difficult to assign; it can ran ge from 100 to 180 psi (7 to 13
kgfcm~). The correct supply pressure is cri tical to the success of the wash
operation. as it affects thejet length and the cycle time of the machine.The
cycletime represents the time necessary for th e machine to rotate thr ough
all th~ angles ~t a particul ar location in a tank . Th e cycle time for portab le
machines ~anes depending on the manufacturer ; however, cycle time on
most machines averages approximately thirty minutes Since most portable machines are driven (powered) by the washing medium. ins ufficient
supply preeeure results in slower machine rotation whi ch has a n adverse
affectl,on the wash.
1 ,e machinea should be electrically bonded via the hose to th e ta nk
-e e8ril ~ supply main. Safe industry practice dictates that the tank clean",,,,,,,!n~g~
~ted for continuity in a dry condition and visually in spected
to use. A meaSured resistance exceeding 6 ohm s per meb'r ejection ofthe hose . The tank cleaning hoses should
n"d arecord ofthe test results maintained on th e vessel.

TANK CLEANING OPJo: llATIONS

257

256
.
hould be made up pr ior to loweri ng t he m~ch i no in to the
All connectIons S
t d to th e hose a nd the hos e IS conne ch'd tn
hin e is conne e e "'
"
tank-the mac. I
1
. the machine to t he fir st drop (level ) in thl'
the hydrant pncr to. owe~ngld not be broken un t il the operat ion is Corn_
tank . These connec.tIO~S 8 ouved from th e ta nk . To facilitate d raini ng the
plete and the m8chl~e IS mer ation is complete, a bleeder va lve s hould he
hose after the c1e8~mgl ope;ned to break th e vacu um, t hen resecured
g
opened or the.coupbdn OO'assembly is lowered into t he tank (fig. 12-51
Th rnachme an h ose
d
t: . I d
e
.
. th deck' it is typ ically 8upporte on a lair en called a
through openin gs In e
,
saddle .
h.
rally have a fitt in g to wh ich a ta g line is connected .
..
The mac mea gene
.
II
. , .1. . _ han'"ng the position ofthe machine as we a s Setu n ng It
This ISC! ILa...,S C
eo'

s rtic ulardrop . Some vessels ar e equipped wi

.
8" 6P) aSllem bly for por ta ble wa shing cperatir, ith aspecialhose reel (fig.
)2h di
.
'Ins.
The ta nks are was e, m a lien ee of drops with the m '
..
ch level for the s pecified cycle time of the m hi
~chme rema mmg
at eS-The numbe r 0 f d rops a nd the amounlof tiac tne orin scma cases 1onh
ff
me Spent at each drop can
ger.
vary based on a n um er 0 rectors mcluding the foliowinJl:;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

E):perience factor with the cleaning Operation

Tank size an d i.ntemal configuration (complexity)
Time ela psed since the lallt cleaning operation
Previous cargoes carried
Coated or mild steel tanka
Hot- or cold-water was h
Rinsing or full was h

Th e nu mbe r of lan k cle aning ma chines th at can be operated simultaneously is usually dep ende nt on the dime nsion of the supply mai n a nd the
ability to maintain the desi gn pr essure at the machine. A typical ta nk
cleaning error occurs when per sonnel a ttempt to operate more than th e
recommended n umber of m achines simultaneously. As menti oned ea rlier. thi s ca n result in low supply pr essu re leadi ng to slower machine rotat ion and in adequate jet length . Operators should be mindful of t he
limitation s of the cleaning system th at can influ ence the effectiveness of

ended in a ca rgo ta n k on a fair-

25. Tank cleaning hose and machine suep

Iffi a saddle .

TANK CLEANING OPERATIONS

258

259
th
-dryh ato p the ac cumulated was h water r, de xe rato r should stop the
W~8 ',~n use.
an re Ut e the number arma.
du ne
.
th
The use of coa tmg:s on e ta nk RUrfael's (fo
~ t ok bol to m . S hould a buildup occu

. in re d u ci n g the ti m e and effort nece esa r e.: am pie, epoxYJis very ef_
l1ve
l
fec oat ings also re d u ces t h e qu antity
. of scale
ry IN Cean
a ta
d
. nk ' Th euaear
C
sueh
k C
.
an ca rgo Imp
d

leel of a tan . oattng manufacturers eh ld be

regnate In
'hi' n
' ,>ng lim itat ion s t hat m igh t cont ribute to C~~t' "a:lnsulted for any
erea
h
..... mg 181 ure Typ> I
trietions involve t e te mp erat ure of t he wash wale
\'
lea reT
s d the u se ofch e mica l a d d itiv es . In a ddi tion conlact , ,8,uh PP Y Pressures,
an
. ,
.
'
WI
certai n typesof
~ a-oeS he ating requir em en ts , exceSSIVe stress and vib ti
...... r.
'
"
'
" ra Ion can also
......ntrib ute to t he prem a t u re laJiure of the coatt nsa in a ta k 1
,.
k
ti
be
1
!'>u
n . t ts reccm.
gs
regu arly inspected for evid
fr >1
mended t ha t tan coa mdance
wt
ence o a nure
and maintamed In a ecor a nce Wit h manufacturers' guidelines.
>

>

>

>

FIXED MACHISES

The use af fixed wa shin g sys te ms with permanently mounted machines in

the cargo tanks pa r a lleled .t he development of the modem supertanke r.
Withth e a dvent ofla rger ships ca me the daunting task ofhow toe ffectively
clean the immen se cargo tanks. It soon became apparent that the portable
cleaning methods of the pas t were inadequate for the job.
A number of equipment manufacturers developed fixed tank washing
machines conn ected to fixed s u pply pipin g on deck. Figure 12-7 illustra tes
a typical deck -m ounte d tank cleaning machine t hat can be powered with
seawate r or crude oil.
When com pa red to portable ma chin es, fixed machines have the advantages of grea ter throughput an d jet length , which are more effective when
cleaning larger tan ks . The hi gh er out put fixed washing machi~es are ~i
cally classified accord ing to thei r t hroughput. A high-capacity washing
machine (HC WM ) is d efined as any fixed machine with a throughput exceeding 60 cubic m ete rs per h our. Fixed machines in this category were
linked to the dev elopment of a significant sta tic charge in the ta nk atmosphere which ultimately le d t o t he inert ing requi remenls (see cha~ter ~~).
Other claimed advantages affixe d washing systems are the reduct,~n 0 a ll
!XIr and the fact t h a t it is easie r to control th e ta nk atmosphere SIOC,'
ti
In new construe ton.
.
.
k openings
remain close d during th e op~ra IOn. ems in their smaller
e owners are now installing fixed was.h~ng syst f rtable washin g
duct carriers, a departure from the traditional Ivided ir ~~ two groups:
Ii e. F>
txed tank washing machitoes can be divi e mro
bl submerged
.
able deck-mounted machines and no~p~=:'n~zZle variety
more distinct stages
ea. Deck-mounted machines are usual y
be programmed to perform th e wash in shbe tween prescribed aniPhe operator Bets the machine to was e
1
a Control unit on deck (fig. 12-8).

TANK CLEANING OPERATIONS

260

Twin-nozzle nonprogrsm rnnble machines a re stra te gica lly po8 1itilO n

o

e~t

Nou lfJ lingle

il'l(licator " \

Manual18ve' se m~ ..
"anism

(side- or bottom_mounted ltn t he tank to reach the s ha d ow areas who h e

missed by the deck.mounte d machin es. Th e shadow are a s r ep re a rc are
tank surfaces that are shielded from t he clea ning jets by la rge 1mary
the
structural members such 88 main girde rs , stringers, tran sver:e:
n orweb
ma
frames , an d so on (fig. 12-9), These ma chi nes a re fa cto ry set to perf

____~In ._

BO~om 8rlg1e adjuster

Bottom angle
selector

Manual

raiW\ow&f
lilt ing lugs

Nozzle angle indiCator

Seal dra'"

,Ol>mm

.....

Deck flange
Manual

reverse
Cross Shall

mechanism

Bollom angle adjuster

Impeller

,"'"

in~ G~~box and contro ls for the LavomaticSAdeck-mounted tank clean 18

model contains a selective an: oontrol for USB with multistage

lIi t The gearbox contains (1) the in-line washing nwd turbine that.
ac time and (2) the syatem of gears controlling the speed and directfo n
urtesy Butterworth .

.......

CHUIlE.O IL..WASHING (COWl

263

complete wa8hin~ pa tt ern every time, cycling throu

ber a nd location of tank cleaning mach'
" gh all the an,l .. 10
DUroof the ta n k s u rfaces . Th e lMO rules"
Inesl sd eterm
" e_
. Inedbythecov
.g'te that " 8 \1hori
er
on zonta I an d vertical areaslor crude-OIl-washi"ng systems
staent or ett
. ti 1 b d n ti
are washed
by diIrectimpinge_
e c tv e ty y e ec IOn or splashingof
th . .
m During t he washing opera tion, the machin e ~mplngingiet""
roper rota tion sho~1d be checked by per80nne~ :~t~:gll, ~c1e times, and
~es8eI8, th e smooth mternal surfaces ofthe cargotan';' Withdouble-hull
shadow ar eas should mak e the job of cleaning tanks mand th~ absence of
rnooth inn er bottom of th e cargo ta nk combined .th ~ch SImpler, The
~el1s or sumps should e.nhance stripping effecti:nes~ e use ofsuction
uantity of mu ck and sediments left behind in the tank W~Dhd reduce th,e
q

h
' It COJTe<:t pear
tioning 0 f th e t a n k cIea mng mac ine s operators should fi d
. .
In z th
ta
k
d
bl
'
n more
the Job
of
c1eanmg t e charg? \n h' o\n a ou e-hull vessel far easier and
effecl
tive than on t e smg e- u hivessels oft he past. On the other hnann.a
d hould iIt
become necessary to mac me wash the space between the hulls(segregated-ballast tanks), the st ructural complexity of this area will mak th
job of cleaning a nd gas-freeing difficult at best.
e e
Pipelines and Pumps
Whencleaning tanks it is important to remember that it maybenecessary
to flush all associated ca rgo piping and pumps" For example, beforewater-washing tanks in preparation for clea n ballast, it is imperativethat all
bottom piping, bran ch lin es, a nd pumps be thoroughlytlushed with water.
Failure to do so ma y result in the conta mination of the clean ballast by
cargoremaining behind, trapp ed in dead-end sectionsofthe pipingsystem.
The contents of cargo piping and pumps should also be considered when
preparing for a change of ca rgo, repair work, and the shipyard,

CRUDE-OIL-WASHING (COW)
Growing world concern over pollut ion of the seas prompted the de;lo~
ment of a new cleaning te chnology called crude-<lil-washing. Cru e-o
,
t ib tor to the worsemng
, era have always been viewed as a major
ron n u
th th ron:l': '.'
CO Qitionofthe seas This conclusion was based on the fact at ~~ red
It tu
the majority' of world tanker tonnage and crudead wee~~~a~ure
,~, istent" oil, A persistent oil is one that IS not ~IY ~e:en crude011
n:r:.ugh
. weathering, a combinabonofwave and Wl~~. on weather away
~'"!P.'
, arged?T s,pilled i~to the se~. the ~ght the h~:;er asphalt and
lTh"\![:!1J vaponzatlOn, typically Iaavmg be~hinde roblem ongtnated from
[':L'~I"
Sees in the form of "tar balls. T\.~fcrudecarners,nameIY
~J~ f'::;'d. rmed "routine operational discharge
Ipeline Oushings, and
,I :;~'I}:,;:aJ bf dirty ballast, tank washings. slops, pi

..

TANK CU ;ANING ( lI' ~; nAT I(l NS

264

d . g th e ball as t leg of th e voya ge. 'I'Iu - t'~ li ll1' t I

pumproom bilges a ts cn undo ,o'o the !leas annu all y wa s stagg-pri ll" (", r.
Foil b lug umpe I
" .
Vt' r
quantity 0 01 (' I dhe i dusl ry developed several e pproa ch o til comb.
th 'P es t thirty
years
t e In
.
'
II
'
f
1
'
d' I d-on-top pr ocedures, m s a auon o S Hl n' n'{'(. nt
inclu mg on
p,
t .h e Problem
.,.
e a ted.ballas 1systemS,an d eru d e-OI'I-was 1u' ng sYS!l'ms.
tlonfaclhhes:scgr hg d ta ker has a significantly r educe d q ua nt it y of 011
A crude-oIJ-w8S e n d' h
Th i
' .
. .
board at the complet ion of a ISC urge.
IS rnuu miu s cun
rem~m~g onf h d
rture ballast water and elimin at es th e n('('d for f'l( .
tammsl10n 0 t e epa
,
hi g f ca.....o tanks at sea. Th e net resu It I' S a redu ction
ten sive water-wa s In 0
e
h b ' f
ln th
" o f oily-wat er mixtures (slops) , t e a S1S 0 the pollution
in t egenera IOn
d 'I d '

roblem Tanks are washed with th e cargo (eru e 01 ) urmg th e normal

:ischa~e of the vessel. The first meter of any cargo tan~ to be used as a
fluid must be pumped out. Th is red
uces execs
source 0 f ern de-oil . wa shing
IU
. '
sive electrostatic generation due to t~e pr:sence .of water In t he crude
oil-washing fluid. Cleaning the tan.ks 10 this fas hion takes adv? nta ge of
the solventproperties ofthe crude at! to degreas~ the cargo adh~n ng to the
surfaces of the tank (ch nga ge) 0 5 well as to dissolve the sohd residues
(muck)that accumulate on tank bottoms. The need for manual remo val of
sludgefrom cargotanks tmucking! has been greatl y reduced as th e majority of the solids become part of the delivery being pumped ashore durin g
the discharge ofthe vessel.This saves a substantial a mount of time when it
is necessary to clean the enti re vessel in pre paration for drydock. There is
also an economic benefit to owners as crude-oil-washing increases the
quantity of cargo received in th e shore tank. Compa rative studies have revealed that a crude-oil-washed VLe C can delive r an additional 1,000 to
1.500 tons of cargo which would otherwise have r emai ned in th e vessel's
tanks and pipelines.
Duringa typical discharge, crude oil is route d to a special line on deck
referred to as the COW main. which br an ches off to the individual fixed
cl.eaning ~a.chines in each tank . According to regula ti on, the crudeall-wash piping and machines must be perm an ently ins talled and constructed of. steel or an equivalent material . The COW ma chines must be
:~ported In a manner th~t will e.nable them to withstand the vibration
p;:ssure surges aSSOCiated with the operation Ea ch COW machine
mug'l equipped with stop valves or equivalent i~ th e branch line. The
nczz ea are dnven by the
h' fluid
'
'
within th bod f h
was Ing UI acttng on impeller s a nd geanng
unted e ..I yo t e machine or through the use of portable drive units
;' ''!'o:;;~'t'!i0
..u eck.b Where portabl e dnve
' units
, are employed there must be
.,
Buffi' ~~o1~
e num er cerri d b
'
onlrt I :.J iti
e on card so that no more than two moves from
USI Ion are neceasa
to
1 0 e'
Hi GOW .. ry carry out the COW program. F'I~r e
art deck PIPing connected to a fixed washing machine
I

lied
1..... to the COW main from either the discharge
mps QJ:.a special general purpose pump. The COW

iigu
.
d
lveat the machine on
d re 12-10. The crude-oil-wash supply pipmgan stop va
k.

ran mng from approximatel y 110 to 150 p .

hi
per ate at pr essures
eI
hi
III
mec me.s 0 f hi h can be foun d in th e crude -of -wae log opcratio nll
the deuu ls 0 w 1~ fi the vesse l. Whil e conducting th e w81'1h , i f t he ca rgo
equipment manu or
. 'nadequate t o drive the m ach ines, it may b

and

--

discharge pressure 18 I
h h
e
pump
hrottl e a di cha rge valve to ree c t e recommended vperat
rott
e
a
18
.
h
di
h
.
to
t
ry
necessa
.
h a negat ive Imp act on t e ISC 8rge (turn_
.
ressure Doing so as
d
.
n
mg P
ime of the vessel. Some owners opte to m ala . a n additional
aroun d) tI
..
p for thi s opera t ion ra th e r than punis h the deli very
-general pU~8e pum mps AB in the case ofwater-wa shing, mainten ance
from the mam cargo pu
.
.
hinea i
.
to the crude-oil-washmg ma c mea 18 critical to the
of the deSrignth prepe
s8~aretion Cru de-oil-w8shing generally takes pla ce while
auccess o
e o.
.
I
Id
h
is
being disch arged . As the ca rgo eve raps, t e ex posed
k
.
r
(i
to
id I
the cargo to n

Top art

surfaces ofthe tank a re washed in a .senes 0 stages r.e ., p, nu d e. bet.

tom). Cleaning t he tank in thi s fashion ha s several advantages :
1.
2.
3.

It saves time, 8 S crudHlil-w8shingcan begin earlier in the discha rge cper.

ation.
Freshlyexposedcrude oil is removed before it has time to cool an d solidify.
Washing in stages reduces the use of th e st ripping system.

Figure 12-11 ill ust rates t he typical se t tin gs for a m ultistage wash .
Refer ence to th e COW operations a n d eq uipment m a n u a l for the ves sel will give th e prescri bed ullages and machi ne angl es for the cleaning
o rati on. It. is imp er ati ve that ope rators follow these guid el in es , a s imp'~rly set. machines can result in wast ing time and e n e rgy "wa sh ing"
lIun ce oft he ca rgo in stead of t he tank s u rfaces . With m ost crude oils,
leaning can be accomplis he d with the machine performi ng one
Half; cles per ar c. In th e cas e of poor cleanin g crudes or a n exce s(Ii
nk , two to three cycles of t he ma chine m a y be n ecess a ry.
til
fik ah ould be av oide d as it is a waste oftim e . T h e bottom
uall y be~ns when the t ank is n e arly e m p ty (a pproxihe bottom of a cargo tank accumul ate s the gr eat e im
, and waxy re sidues , on e must e nsure th e
til
ro m /ll~ry" bottom . With this in mi nd, th e
a til s PI!ing ystem must be capab le of re movm
e toro hput of all the tank cl e aning rnaDaly'
t is R ' t, the vessel must h a ve a n
s
'n the tanks. In order to veri fy
iii able arrangements must be
ay
argo tank is dry at the e nd of
. considered dry, acccrdtna w
uan Y 'of oil near the stripping
wli r in e tank !' Upon complee ntents of all pumps

Figure 12-11. A typical multi sta ge crude-oil-washoperation,Courtesy John Hanus

d Mar k Hu ber.

d here th rough 8 specHtl

ipeline e must b e drained and s t nppe as f th vessel's manifold
ill iameter line t hat t e rmin a t es out boa rd 0 bl e ant ltle sofotl re.
is final s t rip pi ng i s c ri t ica l, a s u~acce~ta be I~:st water, It is ung.in the lines will contaminate the tnCO~IJOg ~ing opera tIon 15 to
to remember the goal of the cru de-ot al sea pollutIOn by enaurhe possibility of a ccidental or intentlO?~ se qu antitlesofoi! and
.
t with mtmme l
t
essel leaves the di scharge p~r
de_od-washing a re subject 0
board. Vessels performmg cru
t th e dischar ge operaDJ. port state authorities at a ny porn mlatnry a nd operatIOnal
,
th the regu
e continued compli ance WI

('HU llE -O] I...WI\S I

' li NG ICOW)

TANK CLEANING OPE RATIONS

268

Atmosphere Control
Vesllels th at engage in cru~e-oil.washin.g oper a.tions mu st h ave an Opt-ra_
tional inert gs s syste m. Pnor to cr ude-OII-was hmg 8 ta nk, th e Oxygen 1
els must be determined at a point 1 mete
r below
nd at half t
the
b t he deck a d
,
ullage space. Additional oxygen rea dmg s may e n ece8 8~ ry ependent on
th e internal configuration of th e ta nk. The oxygen readings mu st not
teed B percent by volume and a posit ive deck pressure is required thrallzh.
out the wash . The object is to maintain the cargo tank s in 8 nonfl am m
condition throughout the cargo discharge and cru de -oil-wa sh . The a e
son-in-cha rge should carefully monito r t he qu ali ty a nd quantity
ert gas being delivered to th e tanks during t he washin g operation .
In For a more detailed discu ssi on conce rning the us e of the inert gas system see cha pte r 15,
In th: ideal s ituation, eve~ ca rgo ~ would be washed each ti me the
vessel dlsch,ar~~s, However , tim e ~onstramts a nd .charter obligation s a re
frequently IIrnl.tmgfactors. According to IMO , dunn g the dis cha rg e of the
vessel, a s ~clent n~ber of car~o tan~ s ho ul d be crude--oil-wash ed to
enable compliance WIth the following criteria :

tl'

ofth~r.

1_
2.

3_

MARPOL 73/78 draft and trim requirem ents must be met th roughout the
ballast legof the voyage (cha pter 11),
~eavy weather ballast, should Ileaconditions necessitate taking on addi.
rional ballast.
~r all tanksto beballasted have been wash ed, 25 percen t of the remainmg ta~ must be washed on a rotational basis to cont rol th e buildup of
eclidresidues.Cargotanks need not be washed more frequ ently th an once
every four months.
B~I~:~ water may not be placed into a tank that ha s not bee n crude-oild

26.
.80 k vessel s unde r 70,000 dwt m
t
, ,"
I above 70 .000 d wt mu st ha ve al leau at1 thave at Icas t one al ta
'~Is ha ve sufficien t ca paci ty to retai~ t~O slop t...'lnks, The~: ta n: . vesoil res idu es , pip eline nushin
a Y.
u slops generate d r n a uau\\lasIu ng '
. hi
ge, and d'
rom ta nk
~
....ina ted water WIt In th e ca rgo IIV8le ' In)' ballast. Any th
t_ 11
1 ,
.
m IS ueu 11
'
0 er conjlllk On s ma er ve aae s, i t IS comma to U8e a )' st n pped to th e
I _L~ or a s mall indepe nde n t tank on n k
of the etterm t slop
dec for one
1lI~
f
1
r .
cs cargo
te
a
number
0 vess e s eq uipped with m I, I ecetpt of the slop, Th
a
. ,
u rp e Iwi I
, ere
.." used in stages to a ssi st In t he pr oceasin f
IRg slop tanks that
~ eSe vessel s , t hee senarat
i
g
o
theo'l
.
.
can
separat ion pr ocess is more ccrnpl I te
Y wate
b r mIxture e. 0 n
th
the disposal 0 f t h e wa ter from the Illop ta nk a t se ae t ereby permitting
are used (fig . 12- 12), the fir s t tank to receewe t h e oily-w
.' Where
te two- slop tanks
dirty ta nk ,
a r mIXture is the
'
Both slop t a nks are initially fill ed part
are int roduce d i nto the dirty tank about :~~~it~c1~an seawate r, Slops
forms a defined la y e r on the s u rface of th e dirt
t In the tank, The oil
(bottom) portion of the tank continuously I y ~ op tank while the clean
line) to abo ut midheight in the clean slop ~a~tate8 (through a special
the clean s lop tan k is either recirc u late d to th~ ta:k~~~r ~tgthe bot.wmof
n machines
pumped ove rboar.d through a n oil content monit
or
ucr (seeanI
cb apter
14)
Upon cam p 1e tla n of t he washin g operation ' tb e s1op ta nks are allowed
to eett Ie a n d t h e w a t'er under
. the oil layer is pum ped Over bea r d to a certain
Ieve1a beve t h e suction pomt . The rem aining 0,-1and wat er mixture
can be

uuuu,uu

Gravitation
line 10sea

""<XI

[;8J Inlel dilluser

il-waahing must be 00 mp let e d be'lore the vessel leaves its final

IIcnarge
!L

To cargo pumps

.1

,The piping a rrangement on velilieis equipped with dual slop tanka

'e nt s epa ration of oil-wate r mixtures, Courtesy Richard Beadon and

l /\N

K. COATINGS

TANK CLEANING OPERATION S

270

discharged to a recepti on fa cility at the loa ding port .or commin~led with
rocessing of th e s lops In th is ma n ne r is ca ll d
the next cargo. Th e P
b
d
e
toed-en-top. a n operational technique t hat has een us e o~ tanker8lo reo
duce sea pollution for man y years (see chapter 11 f~r a d etal.Jed di scullllion
of the load -on.top procedure ), Unfo,r tunately , t hi s te ch m q ue is labor.
intensive and its effectiveness can be mfluen ced by a num ber offaclors in_
eluding the followin g;
1.
2.
3.
4

5.

Motion or the vessel

Length of th e ballast trip
Chara cteri st iCll of th e cargo
Seawater temperaturt'
Human error

For this reeeon . many operators retain the s lops on board for di sposal at
a reception facility at the next port .

SUPPLEMENTAL CLEANING
After 11 tank bee been gas-freed. it is sometimes ne cess ary to perform add itional washing.
Hand hosing is one way to spot wash the areas of a tank not reached by
th fixed or portable machines. It can also be wed as an aid in t he m ucking
11
ee, sweeping: the mud, scale, and sediment toward on e location in a
~ Generally.al~inch hose with a smooth bore nozzle is u s ed , charged
}i ware a I
psi. Personnel must be cautious of slick s u rfaces while
rlUn in h
nk~n order to ensure good footing.
I a
~'e: tibn that involves the removal of sc al e, s ludge,
I I
I
es that have accumulated on tank bottoms,
ver an extended period of time. When preparing a
ee ctiap es 13), the removal ofthese residues is parize:\ e regeneration of flammable vapors
rsonnel involved in the mucking operafrom con~~ct with the cargo residues
equipment. (Chapter 13 disne
n working in enclosed spacea.I'The
e uildup, reduces poaain ral I
i
cargo to be loaded in subse-

aea

271

prior to ste, .
h nuld be meas u red
f
mmgTh
'P't oe'"
e;(C eed 10 per ce n. t 0 t he lower e' pl'"
uSlve.Ii .e measur, d va Iue eh Id
no f leanin g chem /cal fl must be ulled to I mit.
ou
1C
d f II .
c ea n a ca
Id be conducte 0 OWing the most st ri
rgo ta nk, the 0
.
!i\lO~ shou ld check the compatibility ofcarg::ent safety precautio~:r~bon
a~rlY when 5t ri pping ~ a designated slop tan~a~: cleaning egente,~a~~~
III d rllw nd t he mate rial s afety data sheets' tsonnelshouldread d
e
'" nts It is importan t to realize that certain ,'ICl'!lpanying the clea~nn ,
,I' icity
. h aza r d to p erao n n e I 8 S wen as 8 nos ibl
ee nmg ch mlea
n e . . Is maypose
,
,(0
I h a n dlim g cIeanin, chemi
I'~ Sl Ie ammabil
ace.
Pe
rson
n
e
I uy hazard in
,p
.h
1C8 s that
h
th
.heold be outfitte d Wit
proper respiratory
.
pose a ealth risk
0 ,
equipment and protecti
dothing.
""='.\1Ve

TANK COATIN GS
!.Iodem
tank vessels are
u sual ly ,const ructed of mild "o.n:
""I WhiICh must be

.
roperly prot ecte d against corrosion. Th e surfacesof the ......... d """
di
P
cargoan U<Wast
tanks are fre~ue ~t1y Ime in a n effort to prevent ccrre sicn or potential
cargo contammatlon and to reduce th e accumulationof scaleand facilitate
tank cleaning. A n umber of approaches are utilized to physicallyprotect
thesteel structure of a vessel. including hard coatings, stainlesssteel. and
sacrificial anodes (fig . 12-13 ).
Hard Coatings
Hard coatings are the m ost com mon method of protecting the eargoan d
last compartments of a t ank vessel. Th e tanks on a product cr percel
mer are typically lined w it h eithe r pure epoxy,polyurethane,or zinc
heate. based on the durability of t he coati ng and its chemical resise to the cargoes transp orted. Th ese coati ngs provide a hard barrier
een the steel surfaces of the t ank and the car go or ballast water.
me-ofthe hard coatings commonly u sed in marin e application are the
II mg:
, sed to ted both cargo and
Epoxy: a two-part durable paint matenal u
pro
. then
,
It~ ree e thiekercoanng
Ba last spaces of oil and chemical carn ers, 0

I
e
. 1 . taneetca vanetyo cargoe .
est and has reasonably goodchemica reeie
' vecoating
.
d ItarusedssRPro I
oal-tarepoXY'amlXtureofepoxyan
'A_l.a' -..A
,.,
.
.'
Icea
yinballo.stuu""'ISIl........
al18st spaces. The service lifeofcoa .tar epox hat tandsup well to
.1.
. hi h-ai loaded paintIt 'a s --' in c..ranand
In SI rccre. an mcrgamc. Ig .nnc'I ...,.cell t 18 U8t:U
~ .. r .on, most organic solvents, an d 01 ca... '
1 t Uin..$ applications.
_"erniealreaistance
. I . 'lartoe~y fn (;II
unr: 110m;: a two-part Malena SuIll
t
peratures.
and able to cure at lower ern

TANK CLEANING Ol'fmAT IUNS

272

rdless of the type of coating used on a vessel, t he lien.' ,

dP
.
~U ~
R~~
,IOspecticn
' annol be overstat
e . roper prot ect ion of th e vee,ee I lit relrlll, r
u ~
. .
, ' a'"' ul tnepecuc n anda mai nt ena nce p r ogr-a m to deal . l"ul1Il...
requires " ". l I ' .
With
.~
caii zed failure of the coatings, parhcu a r y In h~ gh -s t re ss areas. a an)'l!).

should consult the coating ,:,anufact urer for gUldanc~ to prevent t~eral.ott
biiity of damaging the coatings on t he vessel . Experienc e has sho;PoSSi.

some coatings can be adversely affected by te mpe ratu re ext r

n thai
,h'
'hI
emea
sive stress, vibration, and contact WIt m compatt e ca rgoes.
, ell.C4
Stainless SteeJ
Analloyofiron,stainlesssteel contains re la ti vely hi gh prop ort '
,
. applicat",onaafch~
vena d'rum. an d ca dmi
mrum . In cer ta in
mium, DIckel,
tanks are lined (clad) with sta inless alee! (refer a~ain to figu::~i. cargo
protect the vessel from attack by aggressive chemicals an d co
. 131to
this system, the mild-steel plating
of .
a tank is lin ed with a ven eejrrosIVes.
ln
.
ofst.,_
less steel usually aroun d 2 mm thick . As m the case of h a rd coati n s "CIJ.Il.
facturers manuals should be consulted for proper ma in tenance
, ~anu.
steel tanks and piping.
0 s!amleS,l

....

Coabrog

_ _ _ _ Mild sleel

uev rew

273

Sacrific ial Anode K

h die protection syste m operates by sacrificing zinc an odes in lieu of
A catte~l of t he vessel. Zinc a node s are fastened to t he sur faces of the tank
S
thO re sacri ficed throug h elect rolyt ic actio n th at occurs when the spa ce is
ana
orni
iate d with
wi the usc of an)\d d wit h ballast water. 'I'hee sh
S ortc
0
ommg aSSOCIate
~:s is the fact th at they only provide pro tecti on when fully immerse d in
h ballast water. The ball ast spaces can therefore experience serious
t e " ge when left empty as is the case wit h segregate d-ballast tanks durwas.....

iog the loaded passage.

R EVI EW
1. List th e t ypi cal rea son s for cleaning tanks .
2. What is the recomme n ded cleaning procedure if the last cargo carried
was comme rcial motor gasolin e a nd t he plan calls for loading jet fuel
in the same tank?
3. What is meant by the cycle time of a cleaning ma chine as specified in
th e manufacturer's manual?
4. Why is the su pply pressure to the tank cleaning machines of particular importance to the succ ess of the cleaning ope ration?
5. When performing the bottom wa sh ofa tank, what is meant by cleaning over a "dry" bottom?
6. List the factors t hat influence t he number of drops and t he amount of
time spe nt at each drop when cleaning a cargo tank wit h portable machines.
7. When water-washing an ine rted ca rgo tank wit h portable machines,
explai n the pr ecaution s to be followed a nd th e stat us of the inert ga s
system.
8. When sho ul d a cont in ui ty te st be performed on a portable tank cleaning hose? Wh at continuity reading is cause for rejection of the hose ?
9. Describe the proper sequence of connection orthe portable tank cleaning machine and hose when pr eparing to start the cleaning operation.
10. How are cargo pipelines, heating coils , and other associated piping
cleaned for a change of cargo, and when it is necessary to gas-free
them?

C H A P T E R 13

Enclosed Space Entry

it h ou. t a doubt, the entry of pe rson nel into an enclosed space IS

'
tenb ally the mos t ha zardou s ope ration perform ed on a ta k po.
It is a nec es sary fun cti on in connection with the following ope nt . vess:el.
.
.
.
rnl q : ~
epection , mamtenance a n d rep air, and hot work .

RI SKS ASSOC I AT E D WI TH
ENCLOSED SPACE E NTRY
Entering a compartment tha t ha s been used to transport a variety ofhazardou s ca rgoes a n d seale d for an extended period of time poses serious
ri sks and s ho uld only be don e under t he close supervision of experienced
personnel. Today, thes e ri sks a re com pounde d by t he wid espread useofinert gas systems with their associated requirem en t to maintain an oxygen-deficient atmosphere in the cargo tanks. This chapter seeks to warn
the reader of the potential hazards and to describe the preca utions that
B o~~ be followed whenever personnel enter an en closed space. Vessel
e sOn.n'"el should consult the various sou rces of information (comps.ny
manua e 'fola t iona l Fire Protection Association,International Safety GUide
or:
r~nker8 and Terminals International Maritime Organization) for
,
t:
teri g anenia
e 1iJW the preparation, testing, and procedures lor e~ en n I d
e.
e primary hazards associated with entry into enc OBe
e c a8si~a )ls physical and atmospheric.

Figure 13-1.Aviewinto th e do~ble bottomofa tanker showing thelighleningholes

and the restricted access to adjacent bays.

double-bottom ballast tank , per sonnel must crawl sidewaysthrough small

1i htening holes to access the various bays of the spaceUig. 13-1).
gOth ther hand the cargo tanks on somevessels are vast open areas
n eo ,
h d1
d.i ta cesbetween bulk(fig 13-2) that h a ve cons iderable dept an arge s n
. d.i id als
he~ds. Each type poses significantly different problems to the 10 V1 u
who must enter an d work in these compart ments,
\\ man
r it d ccess to most
spaces-sma
A related conce rn is t h e Iml .e a
s and the rescue ofan inch compartments is
holes or t ank h atch es tha t make tngress , egreat'
dividual in di stress difficult at best. Entry m o\ su t be alert to the
, a 1\yea
h 1\engm
ing but personne mus
not only phy sic
t Prior to certi fying a
ever-pres ent danger of slips , fall s , and entra~l~en 'and platforms in th e
6p:ace safe for workers , the ac cess ladder s, ; alllDg: 'connections, deteri ocD partment should be carefully ~hecked ho:u~osavoid physical contact
and slick s ur faces. IndIVIduals s h
races of a tank ; personrati
'
" ng ont e eur
I'Ii argo residue
(muck ) r em8101
. clothing such as covernet ntering tanks should wear proper protective
"8 a glo"Oes, boots , and eye protection.

. Hazards
Atmosp h eriC
. nclosedsp.aces. A seth atmosphere 10 e
ti iIS
problem concerns e
.
f dangerouaconceI1tra lSI
ed by th possible inhJlati on 0

Hl SK S ASSl ll" l,\ TE llw rn , ~'

,NCl.mw,ns
, PACE t:NTlty

277

vnpOT!! find" oxyge

cient in rt ge e "m e
c[ , argon!!
I a r I yn-defi
are partleu
t ro .uhle!\om' egiven
.
oil
d
the fspace. Cargo vapors
... a n d
crt'" gfre ely a ll ac cumulate In conc'
ted pock act that gases
ca n m ove
8.......t
... n l Tn"",
. --UU
forexample,
havmg a greater vapor den sit th e~. Hydrocarbon vapors
wer eegion'' of a s pac e. This could beco y .an air, te nd to settle in th '
o
r
h
'
,"vmean\ssue h
e
1sdequacy 0 t e re snng performed on the t
w en detennining the
have bee n li nk ed to inadequate te!>ting ;:;:osphere of ~ space. Cas ualties
rnflYmiss the "poc ke ts" of gas at another AnU8eh samph ng at one location
" "
f
. otercon
.
contomma tlon 0 an atmosphe re reeultin r
cern 18 the possible
hb
g rom the Ie ka
inert gas tbrouf
u"bIkhead fractures ' pipim g, h eatmg
. acoilge of vapors and
"
rotect agalOst. poser Ie leak age th rough prpm
. . g connected1 to
s, th
and valves. To
P
entered,
th e Imes mu st be positively isolated 0 .
e space being
. n Inerted
ressure should be reduced to a low positiv e pressure
to vessels,
. . . the deck

P
leakage
through lin es and bulkhead s. It is im orta n
rm~mlze potenti al
dent concentration , th ese va pors are capabl p f t to realizethat in auffiindividual , but actu al ly killing the per son.
incapacitating an
reds experien ced by ind ivid uals who breath e
tats the
efcient in oxygen .
e an atmosphere that IS defi-

;a~ln~~~~t

adv~rse

TABLE 13-1

Physi ol ogic al Effects of Oxygen Deficiency

Oxygen Percentage
19,5-16
1~12

14-10

10-6

Below 6

Effects
No visible effect.
Increased breathing rate. Accelerated heartbeat. Impaired
atte ntion, thinking, and coordination.
Faulty judgment and poormuscular coordination. Museula r exertion causing rapid fati gue. Intermittent respiration.
Nau sea. vomiting. Inability to perform vigoroua movement , or loss of ability to move. tjnccnedcusneee. followed by death .
Difficulty breathing . Convulsive movemen18, Death in
minutes.

CourtellY MBA.

ilrgO
tank presents challenges to individulP
_I
"it
!
er
m"Brtme n ta. ourtea Salen & Wicand .

ce~' addition to the concerns posed by oxygen-deficient tinerted l spaces,

"eo ~n cargo vapors, such as hydrogen sulfide (H~Sl gas derived from
by ur crude oils, can quickly render a person unconscious. Characterized
" a colorless gas whic
" h has a nasty
proa rouen- egg a dor , hydrogen sulfide IS
tio:e7Y of accumulating in concentrated pockets . Unfortunately, inhale8tifl' o hydrogen sulfide deaden s an individual's sense or smell, thereby
be mg most forewarning of potential overexposure. Table 13-2 gives airPe~e concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and their physiological effects to
SOnnel.

GAS-- Flt n:ING PROCESS

~:NCWSED SPACE ENTR Y

278

TABLE 13-2
ra ti o n of Hyd roge n S u lfid e a nd Effect on p,t"8f1 n

Air bo rne C o nce n !

PPM Lel!f'l ll)'drogrn Su lfide
18- 25 ppm
76-150 ppm for several hours
17G-300 ppm for one hour
4Q0-600 ppm for 1AI 10 I hour
1,000 ppm

279

Jl,,!

Phys.io/~gi~al Effect
Eye l.rn ta t lO?
.
Re8plrat~1J.' 1n: t8 h on
Ma rked ~rn tahon
Unoon~clOu.9ne8 s . death
Death In mmu te e

Co\.lrWtIy MSA

Pri or to ente ring a cargo tan k, an individual m ll;St be a~are or the sPe.
cifieproperties of the cargo and the concern s as~oclated ~th exposur e to
that cargo. It is advisable to consult the ap propnate Materi al Safety Data
Sheets IMSDSJfor th e recommended occupational expos ure limits an d to
check an y additional precautions that ma y be necessary whe n working in

an enclosedspace.

GAS.FREEING PROCES S
The processof gas-freeing usually involves mechanically ventil ating a compartment with fresh air to dri ve out the rem aining cargo vapors a nd inert
gas in the atmosphere. For gas-freeing 00 be successful, the tank mus t first
be properly cleaned (mecha nically was hed ) and purged with inert gas.
Purgtng reduceethe hydrocarbon concent ration of the s pace to a point below
2 percent hydrocarbons by volwne , where s ubsequent ventilation wit h fresh
air will not result in the creation of a flamm abl e at mos phere. See cha pter 15
Jor a detailed discussion of inert gas systems. Wh en t he cargo tank has been
fllpe:rly purged, the inert gas delivery is stopped and gas-freeing com' I' en
G88-~ing is accomplished through the us e of fixed or portabl e
-tm",;o,; ~., e ad employed is usually dependent on the number of ta nks to
I];"i'l:!'l'!=' . , xample when it is necessary togas-free a s m all number of
~r ,.
pair, it i.scommon practice to u.se portable fans
:llJilmI';:::i., "" . _:: on deck Ripe 13-3 illu strates a typi cal portabl e
iI:9,':;o;~"laml!1i!'
c1e ning opening in the deck .
J.r!T4'r.J!!l'1I,:::I: ec
. neal
nd~drt.o the hull and positioned in s uch a
W<. )ITilIl~lli'!T~'.
f~
pace c
e adequately ventilated . Th e outl et
!.;;~,!II"I~l1h@ , resu
tlie
longest possible path through the
r:i"T,j-,.ir,y,'l) J.!!,"1fj,~fu"iITl
_
nti
n . Modem portable fans have a high::S:;i'U""] ,jJ~'JIll "(il;Jc~,~; ',
ei tl t a supply or exhaust mod e. These
(1\,.1 I";" ",i (~.;. (. r.(Ii 'G\~JIT'JllTIlI~~'.4:l '
a WicaUy, or by using steam acting
""j"'. ." ;;'.l!r \'.'It: l!loil~1 ~'L:':'1 '~ _' . '.
_
-M!
e .en t tr e vessel in prepa ra(:loj ,1I' .. ..rJ"l1 ',lr'j. 'I.~Ll!Jt iTlJ'Wl1-:.TlffilI!1lk..~ :.'
areed in the gas-free mode.

,'.. :..:-

Figure 13-3. portable high -capacity fan oommonlyused for gu -reeingeargotanks.

Courtesy Coppus Engineering.
This is accomplished by removing a blank in the fresh-air inlet line on the
suction side of the IG fans. Figure 13-4 shows the location ofthe fresh-air
. . .
inlet line in t he IG system .
Th e fans deli ver fre sh air to the cargo tanks via the deck dist ribution
piping <1G main a nd bran ch lin es). Gas-freei ng the vessel ~n .t hi~ wayis not
onlyconvenient but al so permits ventila tion ofthe cargoplpl.ng mpreparation for the sh ipyard. A number of questions frequently anse.roncernmg
. ed amount oftune and the
proper ga s-freeing of a s pace s ueh as t he requrr
. .
necessa ry number of volume changes oft!te tank atm?sph~re.t~:i:::r~
tent to reali ze that gas-freeing is not a timed o~ratto\h e\.able atmcspace sh ould con tinue until sa fe readin gs are attained WI ~~~is depends
r
sphere testi ng equi pme nt . Th e tim e req uired to accomp IS
on many va ri ab les:
Adequacy of the cleaning job
.
Time elapsed since the previous cleaning
Quantity of muck in the tank
Gaa-freeing method employed
Size and complexity of the compart ment
Temperature and humidity conditions
.
rt
ts and hnes
akage from adjacent eompa m 60
oes previoualy carried

EN CLOSf: D SPACE ENTRY

--

_.- --

280

281

-..-.-.

--

. .-

Figure 13-4, The inert gas system can be used in th e gas-free mode,.Note the loeation of the fresh.air inlet on the suction side of th e fa ns . Courtesy Rich ard Beadon

fllpIl. g a t s eve ra l depths a nd th rough as many d k

" I ~ Figure 13-fi s hows a compa rt ment b'
ec openings 8S practi.
ab e
.
elng tested
C
piin g tube pn or to e nt ry . Ca rgo tanks with
. remotely using a
~afll internal co nfi gurations ma y req uir e furth partial bulkheads or com.
plet ondition of t h e atmosphe re. If the work ' er lIam~ling to fully assess
tb~:vsl of ca rgo pipi ng, pu mps, a nd heatil:ga::~cemvolvel opening or
"
ughly tested . Testing is perfo r med by d
. I s, the y should also be
thOro
. .
raWlng a sa I h
. stru rnent u sing an a.9ptr.8torb ulb or battery-o peratedmp et rough the
uf t ure r's manual WI ll give t he time or numbe f pump.(The man.
a ry for the s a m ple to rea ch the instrume~tOb squdeezell of the bulb
n
Ie t ube employed.I
ase on the length of
sslt1P
f
.
The performa
nce
0 the Instrument should be carer--'l
.
.

Ul. Ymomtoredwhtle
' '''sting the piping components a nd the rompart ment space Th
~
b
d~
.
. espace
should first e t es te . lor oxygen content WItha portable analyzer to deter.
mine th a t t~ e le ve l 19 saf~ for pe rso nnel and sufficient for th e eernbuan.
ble.gas indicator t o functi on correctly . The space is then tested with a
combustible-ga~ indi cat?r. C~rtain types of t hese indicators operate by
measuring t he increase In resistance caused when the sample heats a hot
wire fila m en t. In st rum e nt s t hat function on a burning principle willnot reo
spend correctly if the a tmo s phe re being te ste d is oxygen deficient. Personnel sho uld re fe r t o the m anufacturer's man ual for information regarding

U;:f1S

and Eric Ma.

TESTING
To ascertain the success of the gas-freeing oper ation , thorough te sting of
the atmosphere in the space is essential. While gas-freei ng operations are
underway, personnel should first check all atmosphere testi ng equipment.
The accuracyoflhe testing equipment is critical to the safety of the operabon, since the decision to enter a apace is bas ed largely on ita readings .The
teeti!!i ~uipment8houJdbechecked using 8 calibration gas fr om t he manwa
r and following the procedures outlined in the manufacturers
man
ling equipment is connected to a cylinder of "measured"
p'lo
the manufacturer and the reading is compared to the
yilue
liieJime, the battery-charge and alarm fun ctions should
"It. I of instf\unJ:lnt maintenance and te sting should be
liOaro R No .l.

,~~m~!>!'
~i:Gase8is confirmed, the compart~
Auipment
.rJllclesn sample tubes connected
if.
cording to the Int ernational
B (JS,GOTT): "Care should be
tion .Qfi. the compartment by

phere in a cargo
135. Remote sa mpling of the atm oe
an Mark Huber.

tank CourtelY Kelly

.

282
"
d th e use of resp onse curves when inh 'r prl't i
limitations
an
~l I "
M '
n~
.
13 6 hows n Watchma n j > U t tgus onuor f rolll Mi
th e readin gs. Figur e
8 MSA model 260/36 0/36 1) used for tt"t inl.: .I~'
Sa fety Applia nces (rep aces
,I
mosph eres on a ta nk vessel.
,

instr-urnen

Tox ici ty
rt

t has been tested for oxyge n and hydroca r bon con t('111

Afte r th e com P8 men losive limi t ad dition al testing for the p re se nce of nn .
I . t the lower exp
'
......

re a~';7 ~ alth threat ening substa nces may be necessa ry . The need to tear

tentta . y e
~ th t m"phere is usually bas ed on the ma keup of th e carforlolClcvapo
.
137
I 'ead in th e space . Figure
. 8 h OW S th e detecto- tubes
" rsIn

goes preVIous y came

t icall used to perform thi s test.

yp The ~etector tubes a re chemically treated to rea ct to t he p~esence of a

specific gas in th e atmo sph ere. For example. a ca rgo tank pre viously uRCd
rt commercial gasoline (regu late d ca rgo) wou ld need to be
to transpc
h
h
Th
. ibl
checked for the presen ceof benzene in t e atmosp ere . e pernu.5sl e ex"
it
(PEL
)
for
substa
nces
such
as
ben
zen
e.
a
known
ca
rcin
ogen. is
'bl
. di to '
.
posure I tm
so low ( 1 ppm)that a conventional corobus h e-gas ~n. lea r IS,not SUitable
an d should not be relied upon to measur e the tox icity level In th e atmosphere. The following instrument read ings derived from IS GOTT are considered acceptable for cert ifying a space safe for workers (cold wor k ):

Figure 136 . The Watchman "Iultigas Monitor . Courtes y Mine Safety Appliances
Compa ny fMSA).

OIygen--21 percent

Combustible-gas indicator-less than 1 percent lower explosive limit (L EL)

Toxicity-below recommended/regulatory occupational exposure limits
It is necessary to attain th ese readings to permit entry into a compartment without requiring external breathing apparatus . Ba sed on the tes t
results of the atmosphere. personnel may be required to wear a respirator
or meet other stipulated condition s for entry. There a re two cla ssifica tions
jlfI atmosphere generally receives : "safe for workers" and "s a fe for hot
1X,0 k." The rating assigned to a compartment generally indicates the type
f ark fua may be conducted in the space. For example, wh en a space is
n a af:! for workers rating, it is possible for personnel to ente r and
iii no I w k ithout the need for external breathing apparatus.

'n w8tl1ofthcatmOllpherein
3-7. Detector tubes used to performgil&"spt'Cl ~SA)
. Courtesy Mine Safety Appliances Company I
'

...

ENCWSED SPAC ~: ENTit y

28 4

285

d to revcnt the s pread af fire . In the Un it ed StatcR, a " III

p,roperl y tr.ea~ ".Pfi aled by t he Na ti onal Fi re Protecti on AS80ciat" Bnne chemist
ce
. pectiIOn, a n d lR
. sua nce ofe,
IOn
.
. dI' 0rr pn-S'orm t he tes u.ng. rns
INF PA) 18 requ ire
""Ihot wor k in or on ca rgo
k a, fuueel 011tanks
oi
,.
ng
tan
and
tificates w h en con d u" ,
.
.
d
'
urn 8 i elin es, heating ( 0 1)S, or fitt mg~ conn ecte. ~ Il~ch spaCes.
~y ~ 1 :'8'i~ :copyofthe ma rine che misl ce rtdicate, which 18188ued afte r
gu
, S' D and inspecti ons ha ve been con ducted.
t h e proper ears
.
f "
.
h
. t"
d
., t i
requiri ng th e scrvt cea o a manne r erms a re cscribedin
S uu eno ne
he
servi
f
.
hemi
Title 46 CFR Part 35.01 1. When.t e aervrces 0 8 ma n ne c ermst a re not
ll bl
ch as at sea the senior officer pre sent frequently determines
,
d 1 h
.
avana e,au
the condition of a space . Company manual s etar t e reqUIrem en ts th at
must be met prior to perm itt ing per sonnel to en te r a compartm.ent or conduct hot work. Figure 139 is a n exam ple ~f a standard checkhst used by
one company to assis t senio r per son nel WIth the process of preparing a
compartm ent for entry.
Vessel pers onnel should also fami1i ~ ze the~selves with t he guidance
contained in the Int ernational Safety GUide for Dfl Tan kers a nd Terminals
and in the Nati onal Fire pro tect ion Association manual no. 306, Standard
for the Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels to be Repaired . concerning entry
and work in enclosed spaces.

ENTRY PROCEDURE
Once a compartment has been thoroughly tested and a n entry permit issued.th actual entry procedure must be carefully executed . All person ellOv v d m the operation should be properly trained a nd must clearly
' ,. st.B:n th'el duties when it is necessary to enter an enclosed s pace.
..'1.:-, :
demonstrations should be conducted regularly t o pr eI
,
, ' sl
gency response and procedures regarding rescue
!mJ ~:IJ!<lr.1-l:rD ".; ; "''Iii',,,e~~,,,a r a t i o n is always the key to a safe ope ration,
'hilJ.oltril,r,<I" .i:iii~~f.::oan emergency. Past incidents have repeatedly
~[~iT;fll:UOOJI.llJ' et , r C}Je attempts involving personnel in
@J lli "P:'fi'~'ll"Jft-l!HoI'Irli. n r
It in tragic and unnecessary loss of
l!iI, 7Th,l"i'l.ijll:'::'W~!iI!llIW~l .'een p'uDlished by the International ChamL';1i[,}'i:l'llf~.f!.lTiJ~dlI~rC'~ a_'
0
nt message-"Time and time
~_': pi," [~1i -<ll'~ 11.'.cl!I-;.111 ~ I.~
lIil~
e~"'l'
w e ll established and proven
i'j :'~-.iT1;'PI" ~:1l"",fll:r.:.l.:.I:iIJ..H"..
ccii:i
teeult. The majority offa1~.ll\~T l'OI!II~I'ITTI":H'ITL.1ivrij11T1l L'" i . u
ieion, and by follow11,1T:,~.,r.h\,:, (.\>}." .l:Q'j' t , ..f&Il..II.'r::ro.....
f!I1, UCD rocedures puts lives at
I, l l ' ',"'OI '~ ' ~ : \f H"
l.!'l it.liiil"
~1l,;,lJj!1.lj.EO safe y equipment should
i;. ,'"" ""i -I 1, ;, 1':'HI1;{,fj"'r.\.!.nl'}D:iI!.1~ ,: 1 _,
e for the entire time

';1\

",i,r: 1 " o\,lll:T ('1",

Self-co
ntained breathing .pp. fa t ua ( SC B ~
, .
Llfehnes and harne ssea with lI\1itabl . )With 8pare bottl
3. First aid kit , re~u8citator, and IItfetc~:~pod or otherfairleade8
Protech ve clothmg and Vesta with
4.
I' h .
renective te pe and ha rd hata
5. Approved Ig nng equipment
5. Approved communications equipment
Emergency escape breathing apparatus lEE.
7.
.
BAl
8. Approved atmosphe re Wilting....
~ ..\Ilpment
safety
checklist
permi .
s. Completed
.
. '
IliS\ On of &eni(l
permit, a n~ appropnate logbook entrie8
f pel"8Qnnel, poated entry
10. All valves In the pipelinea C()nnected to h
1.
2.

t e8 pacelaggedl Bec:u~)

Addition al te sting of a n en closed Space

be
pockets of gas. In a dditi on, a physical ins;:;~on ; eces8ary to checkfor
lIlade by the first person ente ri ng the compartment ~e space 8ho~ld be
compa rtment must be made accord ing to the m t ~ first entry mtce
cauti on s .
os stn ngent 8afetypre-

A de si gn a ted individual must serve as a sta ndby ' th

. h
Th
db
lor e personor persons ~n ~h e s pace. de st~n .y should keep visual contact with the persons 10 eTshP.ac~ ad~ .m amI,ahm n1ecessary communications capabilityat
18 10 IV1 d ua s ou d have no other assignsd d ti
b
all times .
ll' S t at
might diIstra ct at tenti
e ntron or provid
e a reason toU
leave the immediate
I _
ti~n. In t h e ev e nt of a~ injury or ot he r problem resulting in a persen ia
distr ess, t h e fir s t actton of t he standby is to raise the alarm.. No one
shoul d a ttem pt a rescu e before the tr ain ed response team is on the scene
and out fitted wit h the proper sa fety equipment. See chapter 16fora number of ste p-by-step guide s for rescue operations concerning variousemergency s it uat io ns .
Mech anical ve n t ilat io n s hou ld be operati ng t he entire time personnel
are working in an e nc lose d s pace . Periodic testin g of the at mosphere
must be performed to detect a ny adve rse cha nges in the conditions cf the
space. Many of the in struments in use today continuously monitor the
space through the u se of a rechargeabl e batte ry-operated pu~p. Th~se
iuetrumente provide a constant readout, and they are 8150.eqU1P.pe~ With
udible and visual alarms that indicate when predeterlIllned limits ~re
athed. If conditions within the space warrant, personnel should be mucted to evacuate. All those involved in the operation should be.obser.
t of anyone exhibiting signs of acute exposure . The telltale.sl~ o~
t i "tation' nausea ' diZZiness,
cu exposure include eye nose, or t h roa rrn
h d d
u
.
'h
e should be rewas e an
ona , and headaches. If necessary t e spec
Th
b of
'I
d'
e restored
e num er
1a
n continued until safe rea mgs a.r .
. . tent with the
.n the space should be kept to a mlRlmUm ecneis
I

eOob.

(A,nln""..

App<""li' C Sompl. /darin ' a..mlA'.

....""'.*...-r""" .

. .... ""'A ..._

,...."...~

TII...",m lt _

pl<oI"'"

b<

... ~ ... -}I< ~~ .....

ef.1Jl

nu.", ,,,,,'t.,.Ilo. lot. ,;,, 01.... 01 alllo . rompl. lloo of 1/). ' "

lho' w

1""" .....

ENCL0 8ED 8PACE E'fT

I'o'ER MARITIME, INC,
RV PE II ~lT
1.
LOCAT10 N AND DJl.CRlPn
PEIIMIT I

MARINE CHEMIST CER TIFICAT

SERIAL NO. A ~

OF JOB

T FOR CotIIP

I.... " . . ..

... ollfl....t5 rrMIUtM1

_1M"'~ OI*' "";I - - .paOl ~ ~

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--==--- - ---==--

IIlny CIllJeIIlllnn, control. Of shuldown Ie bypt$Md 01' ISOIlled. fIOlify l/lI ~ . 01'CIHI
f IflIInd, the Repalf Suplfinllndent must IlIso be notJl1l, IIlny .... bypUIoId OI'lsoIIlto:l!Ol' more
. till SGC, Inllnd Fleet Held, OfaGC mU$l111oO be notrlIl.
of

ith permission from NFPA

7 National Fire protection

ill not the complete and ofeferenccd subject,

g.".l>ICl

I..""" PtI'IOI'l

rolltinutd (JI1 nut pasf

--

I N STH UM ENTATION

ENCLO SEO SPACE ENTRY PERMIT

~S~:

," ""'.
1' l""
0, "
101
....

',r""
''!iii
- ,==:. - -:--1
----,-,--- -:'-Tn, !

I n'

~'....

J",j1i~

.-._
_...__-._-_
- . __ ..
.. _----_
!pI I f lint

Ill

IQI

'01 _ ..... --'-,

, ,,.,,
1 0 ,"

2ID1'tt

, ~

10,"

......
, l.""
1II0

......,.

HlS

'0 0 ""

......

"'W . .... , _

' pi
..=:.
..... :=:
=J
' CO .0_..... --'-- --'- -

,,,, ..

, CO

1 0. "
, CO

...

'n ......

--1-- - - '--1- - --'-

. 0 0"" ......

--,-- ~-

2O
H
31 0"
........

--'-'

.!'alI

,----'-

, ft .....
11
_

' CO
. 0_ .....
_
'0 0 _ .....

I _ 1-....
,

I"I! L .....

..

~_
~_ __

- - - '- - -

_ _' _

... . .-

------'

- --

'_

:---_. --:,,-.:::-..:.- .__ . _. .._---~ " , ~ ~_ Got! J_

....... tI .......... T~ ~

sv--tl-,-T ~ ~

--

I'

l.t L......L.:.~

.A,

t tank vesse ls carry a variety of portabl e instruments th t

d
jaos
hc ri
d' .
.
a are use to
.
BJlses th e a tmosp. eric con mons
. WIthin a spa", ' The most
u
common metra
nts used are slOgle-ga s momtora (oxygen, combustible go.
bo
me
lfid )
I. I
<U>, car n monolO'de, hydr ogen 8U .1 e , mu tip e ga
. s monitors , and deteeto
IA:\;Wr tube
U'-""8, F'19ure
13-10 showS t h ree s m~le-ga s mo?,~r,s from Mine Safety Appliances.
M .menti
ingequlp.
. ' on ed eah rlie r~, t he relia bility and
. accuracy of the test
\C
ment IS cn tlcal to t e s afe ty of t he operation. Equally importan t is an indio
vidual' s understanding of th e opera t ing principles and limitat ions of each
instrument. Vessel person nel shou ld cons ult manufacturers manual s to
familiari ze t hem sel ves with ~roper operation, mainte nance, and inte rpretation of t he perfonnance of Instrumen ts . Many types of portab le instruments are fou nd on vessels; one of the most popular is known as a multigas
monitor . Figure 13-11 illustrates three models of multigas monitors from
Mine Safety App liances.
These in struments h ave multiple sensors capable of simultaneo usly
detectin g a nd mea suring t hree to five different gases. On an inerted
crud e-oil ca rrier , for exam ple, an owner might opt for a multigas monitor
ca pable of measuring oxygen, combusti ble gas , and hydrogen sulfide. Portabl e gas monitors use differen t sensors, which generally fall under one of

.f

the following ca te gories :

l.

2.
3.
RttI"O'

Catalytic
Electrochemical
Photoionization detector

_ _ _ _ _ tor pef10d 0120 houl1l m llCi'n.....

-FigurQ 13-10, Slngle-gaa moni tors. CourteilY Mine Safety Applianc NI Company
(MBA).

..

INSTItUMENTATION

ENCI,OSEP SI'ACJo: Jo;NTRY

290

29 1

2.

3.

Figu re 13-11. Multigas moni lorw

Courtesy Mine Safety Appli an~

4.

Company (MBA).
Watc hman Mulligas Monitor

s.

6.

Passport FiveSta r Personal Alarm

Catalytic and electr ochemical senso rs a re the mos t common types

found in POrtable tnetrumenta used to detect gases.

Catalytic Sensors
combustible_ .as indicator uses 8 catalytic se ns or to dete ct a nd mea sure
fi~ array of flammable vapors in a s pace. The se nso r conl ent. l?at is heated from a battery s upply. Th e heated
xldlZelJ) any flammable ga ses in the sa mple being
n rume t. The wire heats up, causing an increase in
whit
su its in an imbalance of a "Wh eat stone
ce c'P}verted to a meter-reading which is
n I
e ft I r plosivelimit(LEL)inthe caseo[a
r
eral 0
are worth mentioning concern'

Cumhu8t ibl('-r;:as
. indicators t hat 0"".
... ~ rawona ho t '
r('qllir(' lIuffir wnl uxyjren for t he in t
- wm~. (b u m in R) principl,
.
.
B rument to fu
rcr e. thl ll type of In!:itrument is not '
ncuon properly. ThereSUltahle wh
en lIampling an OXY_
gen _d('ficil'nt com part ment such" an merted
car
Consult th e manufactuH' r's ma nual '
1- '
KO tank .
or a Istmg of b
a dversely nffcet t he perform an eo of a n .
eo stanceBthat could
.
Instrument At
h
ing load , silicones , a nd Silicates should L _
.

moep erellcontain_
....avOided as th
.
curat e readinga with .a combusti ble . gas iIndilcalor.
l'ycan cause macIn gl'n eral , a combulltl ble-gas indicator is ullefu! for d
.
ing the level ofva pora given ofTby a flammable Ii . l'tectl~g and measureJl. plosive hmit (LELI. The LEL rep resen' Ath ~~d relative 10 the lowl'r
... l'mlOlmumconce t ti
f
vapo r that must be present in airto supportcomb ti If
n ~ lon o
. nas heoi
aa Jet
t
high
POint, s ue h as
fuel or diesel th lUI Ion.
I . thehqwdhasa
dil
h
e eata ytic senso r cannot
rea I Y measure t e concentration in a space due tc the absence 0
to s upport combustion .
f vapon
A combus ti ble-gas indicato r will not respo nd eorreei
t we
h n me8lluring an
"n.,y
. aoeve
.- the upa t mol'lp he re wh ere t he concentration of nam mabl" apors IS
per ex ~losive limit (UEL), commonly referred to as a "rich- mixture . The
catalytic se nsor m ay initially rea ct to th e presenceof a high concentra tion
of vapors, but it will then fall off as the rich mixture is drawn throug h the
instrume nt. A ri ch mixture is incapable ofsupporting combustion; this affects the pe rfo rmance of the hot-wire filament , causing erroneous read.
Ings from the ins trument.
Th e com bust ible-gas indicator is typically calibrate d by the manufa cture r, using a represen tative gas such lUI penta ne. The characte ristics of
pe ntane are s im ila r to a wi de ra nge of hydrocamons, making it the gas of
choice for calib ratio n of t he instrument in the factory. In the field, however, whe n sampling for the presence of a combust ible gas with substan tia lly diffe rent characteristics from pentane, it is necessary to a pply
re spons e fa ctors provided by the manufactu rer. The meterrea ding oft he
instrument is multiplied by th e a ppropria te response factor 10find the actual concentration of a specific gas in th e space. Table 13-3l ist8 the relative res pons es to various combustible gases for an instrument calibrated
Us ing pentane. In t he case of styrene for example , note that an instrument
(me te r) rea ding of 10 perce nt LEL equates to an actua l read ing of 19 percent LEL in t he a t mosphe re ofthe space when one a ppliellthe fado rof 1.9.

E lectrochemica l Sensors
Electrochemical sens ors are u sed to detect the presence of oxyge,nand a va,
,
. I way to
nety of toxic ga se s. An elect rochemical sensor works l~ a ~ I m l ar
that ofn small battery but one chemical component, which IS necessary to
. .IS mrssmg
. , from t he senao
aor cell . When a suspect
Prud
-" uce eIe c t n' c current
.. h
'
. diff
uc 88 hydrogen s ulfide
is sampled. It
muses through a membrane
. I
thall
,f
t o
'th
the
chenuca8
on
6'
....p 0 the sensor, The hydrogen sulfide reec.... WI

INSTll.U M ~;NTATI() N

ENCLOSED SPACE ENTRY

2.3

292
TARLE 133

~II to Co mb ufltib le G fUle 8 (or

uve R('lIp on
N"
o
I Ca li bratl'd Usi ng Pentane

H I

In lilrum('n

Combustible ('.a$

Acetone
Acrylonitrile (1)
Beneene
Carbon disulfide (1)
Cyclohexane
Ethane
Ethyl ene
Gasoline (unlea ded)

Heptane

Isobutyl aceta te

Methanol

Methyl tertiary butyl ether

Pentane
Propane
Styrene fZ)

Toluene
Vinyl acetate
'1M & P naphtha

Factor by Which to
Multiply LEL Meter Read ing
1.1
0.8
1.1

2.2

1.1
0.7
0.7
1.3
1.1
1.5
0.6

1.0
1.0
0.8

I..

1.1
0 .s

Figure 1312. Detector tube and hand-operated bf.Uow8 pump. Courtesy Mine
Safety Appli ance s Company IM SA).

1.6

Noltl"

I. The1M.' compou.nda may reduce the M'ns itivity of the cc m bustjble-gu ,.MOr by pcieoning or inhibiting t he catalytic act ion .
2. TheM compound, may redu ce the lW' ns itivi ty of the comb ustiblf"pIIl1tnsor by polymerizing on the catalyti c eurfece.
3. Far an instrument calibrated on pentane, multip ly the displ ayed
pereent of LELvalue by the eonveraien factor to get the true percentof LEL.
4.Theee convenionfacton eheuld be used only if th e combustibl e
gu il Imown.

5_ The-e eonvereten ractof'll are typical rOf a Watchman Multigas

Monitor. Individual uniu mayvary :to 25 percent Irum these valu es.
Courte.y MSA

sensingelectrode, which reeulta in an electrical cu rrent that can be meared.These sensors are designed to dete ct a specific gas; ther efore t he ope itot must know the makeup of the atm osph er e prior to testing.
x g'B sensors work in much the same way a s oth er electrochemical
fS.
)[,Y~o from the sample diffuses into the cell and reacts to proelel:tn 1,11 current. Oxygen sensors typically use the oxidation of
e I)lfsl . f.op~ration. The oxygen cell in a portable in strument genernce lf~ ranging from one to two years depending on usc.
n . ill Igsa detectors, many vessels are also equipped with
m
nd:d lector tubes for measuring the concentration of
1ft
pace. Figure 13.12 shows the detector tu bes
II w PUn'iP. used for drawing the sample from the

spacebeing te sted'.Th e detector tubes are made ofglass and containgranules th at a re chemically treated to react to the presenceofa specificgasin
the sample . Wh en it is necessary to test a space, the appropriate detector
tube is selecte d. and the point ed tip s of the glass tube are brokenofT. The
tube is inserted into t h e pump asse mbly or holder in the remotesampling
line. A measured qu an tity ofthe atmosphere from the spacein questionis
drawn through the dete ctor t ube using th e pump.The concentration of vapor is indicated by the len gth of discoloration ofthe granules. whichcan be
read off the sca le printed on the tube. The scale on the detector tu~ may
give the reading directl y, or a guide must be consulted to deterrm.ne the
level. Detector tubes generally h ave a stipulated shelf life, and this date
should be indicated by the manufacturer on the packaging.The e~sure
levelsfor several selected toxic gases are shown in table 13-4, pUbhs~e~ by
the American Conference of Governm ental and Industrial Hygtenlsts
IACGIH).
photoionization Devic es
.
.
tremely lowCQncentraPhOlolOnization devices a re useful for measunn g e~ th tmoephere of a
lions of va rio us subs tances that may be prescnt 10) 0 ', I. t light to first

.
. t mente use u travt
b tween two charged
pace 10 a vap orous state. These lO S ru
, .
th n passes e
IOnize the gas bein g sa mpled. The gas e
M the gas ions move to
plates that separate the ga s ions and free electrons.
d photoionization
th I
th t
be measure .
I
centrations of vola, e P ales, a current is gener ated a can
Ul8trument.s are currently us ed to detect low-Ieve can
tile organic compounds (VOCs ).

ENCLOSED SPACE fo:NTRY

294
TABLE 134
E][poIlUI"C Level s for Tmci c Gall e s

Threshold Limit Value

(ppm )

Sub stOllN'

Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Sulfur dioxide
Ammonia
Benzene
Toluene

Xylene

C HA PTER 14

Sh ort Term E%posu.

Li m it (pp m) re

25

10
2
25
0.5
50
100

15

5
35
2.5

Pollution Regulations

150

Courtesy MSA

REVIEW
1. What are th e primary hazards associated with entry in to a n enclosed
s pare?

2. List two methods of gas-freeing a cargo ta nk .

3. When prepari ng a compartment for entry, how lon g s hould the
be ventilated with air?
spact
4. Prior to tes ting th e atmosp here of a com pa rtmen t, what che cks should
be perfonn ed on th e inst ruments?
5. ~ or to ent?' into an enclose d s pace, t he atmosph ere s ho u ld be te ted
using what instruments ?
8
6. Referring to the previousquestion, what instrument re adings are consid

7 eredaccep~leaccording tolSG01Tto certify a space "safe for workers"?'

. :~ adk~t1onal work is usually necessa ry to m ake a s pace "sa fe f~r

or .

8.

D te noratmg condition of t he ma rin e environme nt has prompted correct ive action both on t he natio nal and international level. One oft he ta sks

U ri~g th.e past se.v~ ral decades, increased pub lic a wareness ofthe de-

early on was to ide nt ify t he prim a ry sources of polluti on from t he cargo system of tank vessels.

SOURCES OF POLLUTION FROM TANK VESSELS

Th e following lists , se para te d according to genera l category, show a number of potentia l so urces of pollut ion from ta nk vesse ls:

~~~e 7uip~ent that should be a va ila ble at the point ofe n t ry while

ne are in an enclosed space.

9. In the event a person workin .
is the first action that shoul~~n_ an enclosed space is in di stress, what
ce taken by stan dby personnel ?
en are the service f
t1
80 a marine chemist required by fed er al regula-

Op erational
1.

Deballa.d ing-the disposal of contaminated ballast water into the marine

2.

environment . Present-day concerns over the content of the ballaat water

go much farth er than contamination by the cargo. Historically, the primary focus of authorities was conmmination oft he ballast water by oil and
noxious liquid substances cNLS). Today, vessE.'ls are known to tr ansport
ballast water with unacceptable quanti ties of bacleria, plant and marine
organi sms, and solids (silt/mud) from distant regions of the earth.
Tank washings-disposal ofcargn'wster mixtures from the washing and
flushing of cargo tanks into the sen.
Pipeline rlearinJl-flushing the contents (residual cargo) of the cargo pip.
ing into the sea.
Cargo tra1ls {er-scddental diachargea of cargo during londing and dill'
charging operations. ThE.' transfer ofcargo is 811110cinted with 8 heightened
risk of pollution from the following:

a U ications contain ex II
.
r io
ing end
ce ent guidance concerning the prepace'
procedure to be followed when entering an ent

li tof sensors employed in

3.
4.

295

POLLUTION REGULATI ONS

. 'EDERAL POLI.UTION LEGISLATION

297

296
Overfill of IIcargo tank durin g toppin g-ofT
Overfilling a slop ta nk
.
tured cargo hose or loa ding ann
. .
Rup
lank resulting fro m gravitenon betw('en tank
Overfi ll of 8. carg o
.
a
Vellsel l"<j uipment or pipin g failure
Structural failure orthe vessel

.
s.
,

7,

Human erro r
I'd
'
of accumul ate d cargo (so I ) Teftldut'a and "'-'Ill!
~~ .,
,
Mut;i:mi1t h e d"18,.nnQaI
_
that has been physically removed from t h e tan ks .

' I""
- 'Iutwn
' - the uncontrolled release
orthe cargo ta nk atmo sphere dor
Air
.
ing I011dingan d baIlaBting ope rati ons on
. the tank vessel.
.
.
Bun ,rl1l/J ope,.. n-cthe accidental
. discharge of oil while oonduetin..,
....

'

-'w'

fuel oil transfe r (bunkerin gl operatlon on a vessel.

Vessel Casualti es
Cargo may be re leased into the envi ronment as
alty:

r esult of

vessel casu-

DISCHARGEOF OIL PROHIBITED

- The Federal Water Pollution Control Act
hibitS the discharg e of oil or oily waste into or upon the rravigobl

~~ers o f the United States , or the waters 01 the contiguouszon:

or whic h ma y a ffe c t na~Ufal resources belonging to. appertaining

to or un der the exclusive management authOrity of the ureteo
Stdes.11such discharge causes a film or dISColoration of the surfoce
01the w a ter or causes a sluoqe or emulsion beneath the surface
01the w ater. Violators ore subject to substanti al civil penalties
and / or criminal sanctions . inCluding fines and imprisionment.

IJ1
'
,

Re port aU dlKhUJel to the

Nati o nal Rel po nse Cen t er It 1.80ll-4Z4.1801
or t o you r lou J U.S. Coast Guard ofliu
by ph one o r VHF radlo, ChVlnel 16.

/11
,

1.
2.
3.

Grounding
Collision
Fire le:rpl03iofll

Figure 14-1. The U.S. Coast Guard requires all vessels to displaythe placardregarding discharg e of oil. Courtesy U.S. Coast Guard.

"

Structural failure

up to $250,000 for individuals and up to $50~,?OO for~~18.tions-with

possibly half going to the informant-s-in addition to ajail eentence of'up to
six years.

FEDERAL POLLUTION LEGISLATION

A number of national regulations have bee n implem en ted ttl reduce poilu.
fion ofthe marin e environment. These include the Fed eral Wa te r Pollution
CODt~I Act 1972, the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ship s 1980 , a nd t he oil
o U,tl n Act of 1990.

federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA)

=""~c~,, er a) Water Pollution Control Act(FWPCA), the di scharge of

~ ~ nofthe United States is strictly prohibited 8S conveyed
In

fi ffie;phitard (fig. 14-1) that is required ttl be di splayed on

t
3 CF,lt Part: 155.450).

Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90)

, and WIid eye
I db a Ie d piiecea ef U'S . legislation
One of t he most controversial
dealin g with pollution is t he Oil Pollution Act of 1990. This act~vers man y
'
Ioi
......... 5 In addit, ion to tmanfacets of the transportat ion a nd han cII mgo
01 cargoe .
di
,
, (th d ble-hull reqUlremen 15datin g changes in ves sel cons truction t e ou
d th e ability to
cussed in chapte r 1) the act ad d resses preparedn~9s a nd provide a plan
respond to a s pill. Under OPA 90 , owners must deve nolluti on incident ocof act ion to be followed by vessel personnel when a .it . uknown contains
Curs or is likely to occur. The vessel respon se p,lan, ah" t" et be 'a pproved
"
'
l i trucbon s t a mu
general information a nd operatlon~ IDS
. must be address ed in the
by the U.S . Coast Guard. The folloWlngcatego n es
plan :
1.

2,

.
. n [i e ahip'a name. call sign, official
Introduction and general mformlltlO :", liMO)international numnumber, International Maritime OrgllnJ1Bbon
ber, and principal charucteristice!
Notification procedures
'
roredures dellling with ope1-Shipboard aptll-mitigaticn procedures u.e.. p
ational Ilpillaand vessel C8sualti8S)

INTERNATIONAL POLLUTION LEGJ!H.I\TION, MARPOL

pOLLUTION REGULATIONS

298
4.

e activities u.e., qualified ind ivid ual'!! reap

Shore-balled l"('~pon ll . IIall t he orgsnizationnl atruct ure ofth ol1 aibili.

h ell and au tho n ty 118 we

5
.
6,
7.

team)

'"

e rellPonlle

mlvemmental, corporate, and contrac tors)

Liat o{conla cts 1.(' ..._

I d h
.
.
nte for vells"! pereonne an 8 ore resp onse t(o
Trairo ng requ Jrf'me
d
'
'II
8m
Drills({requencyand exercises to eternune 6p l -response prep a redn eS8)

299

Conlrol of Discharge of Oil from CllI'go Tank Areas ofOil Tankers

--

Sea Areas
Within a SPECIAL AREA

DiSl:harge Criteria
DISCHARGE eKtepl clean'
segregaledballast

NO

or

Within so nautical miles NO DISCHARGE eKceptclean or segregated

bal1ast
from land

8. Review an d upda te proced ur es

9. G!>ogr8 phic-specific appe n dices
10. Vessel-specific appendix

NO DISCHARGE eltcepteither.
(a) cleanor segregaled ballast~

(b) Of when:
(I) the tanker i$ewoure; and

INTERNATIONAL POLLUTI O N
LEGISLATION, MARPOL
Legislation aimed at reducing pollution from tanke~s has evolved on the
international level through the efforts of the Internation a l Maritime Orgenization HMO), which has been instrumen tal in h amm eri ng ou t th e rules
limiting the discharge of cargo residu es from tan kers. Th e most compTe_
hensiveof the IMO conventions dealing with m arine pollution is the Inter .
nati ona l Conven tion for the P re ven tion of P ollution from S hips , 19 73, as
modified by th e protocol of 19 78 commonly r e fe rre d to as 1\IARPOL 73f18.
There are six annexes with in MARPOL, each dealing wi t h a di ffer en t form
ofpollutioD 8S follows:

Annex I-Regulations for th e preven tion of poll ut ion by oil

AnnexII-&gulationl for the contro l of pollu ti on by noxious liquid sub-

.!an
nI-Regulations for the prevention of pollu ti on by harmfu l sub.
tan'tes carried in package form
-ffiogulotions for th e pre venti on of pollution by sewage fro m
ations for the prevention of pollution by garbage fro m

entioD of Pollution by Oil

m
r

'h

USCG Marine Safety Manual summaenta concerning the discharge of oil

Outside

SPECIAL

AREA

(2) the instantarlcoU$ me of disctw&e of

oil does not exeeed 60 lilJ'eS per nautieal mile;
and (Cilallgd to 10 lures ~r flm)
(3) the tOlal quantIty or oil disctwged
More than SO nm from land do
exceed 11 15,000 (for nntutg
tankeD) { IIJO,OOO for fI~ tiJllUn} of lhe
total quantity of cargo Il.hich ..... as carried on
the PTC\;OU$ voyage; and
(4) the tanker has in opention an oil
dischargc monitonng and coolrol lyS.tem and
slop tank arrangements as reqUIred by
Rcgulation ISof Annex I o f ~tARPOL n178

,,'

hi h h been so cleaned that the effluent

"Clean ballast" is the ballast in a tank ..... lC. as
ecd IS PPM
therefrom does nor create a visible sheenor the011 contenl C'lC
'
Note: Items III brackets { J are not ill ,he currt lll
regulation changes

MSM b f sho.... chiJngtJ dut to C'U rrtlll

II

. th d' cha rge at sea of cargo

Figure 14.2, Su mmary of th e regul ati ons goverrung e IS
.
.
C
"'
n
U
S
Coast
Guard
.
reeiduea from oil tanke rs. our teay . .

.
'1record book contains a comprehenrequires detailed record-keeping The 0.1
th t must be chronologically resive list of the cargo and ballastopera~lOnst nter the date operation code,
corded on the vessel. Vessel person ne -olur e and any p~rticulara in the
.
. h
priate co umna
k
and Item number m t e appro .
in the oil record book must be ept
space provided (fig. 14-2). Ent~es I
art state inepectcre (fig. 14-3). A
up-to-date and available for review by P,
C rtificate (lOPP) must else
valid International Oil Pollution PreventIOn e
be maintained by the vessel.

POLLUTION REGULATIONS

300

INTE RNAT IONAL POLLUTION LF.G1SI.ATION. MARPOL

30 1

.
Che m ical s in Bulk (BCB l as a ppropria te baRed th d r
of th e vessel.

on e ate 0 construction
~ CAn :C'.oRI ES

N . m~ or Sh lp :

Offid al Numbtr Of Call SIJ:n:

CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS (O IL T ANK t:RS )

MACIII NER\' SPACE OP[RATIO;'llS (AU . SIII PS)

(circ le one)

DATE
8.1 11/82

Record of 0 tri tiooil l i e arure of officcrs in ehar

CO DE

ITEM

21
28

PonShaw CA

"

111 111'8 2 1.8. Smith

l ho~

811 -1182

Jl.I
1
2
)

Port Shaw CA
Hea fuel oil r-sc 1-5 S8 and I-SP
1500 barrels S/14182 1.8. Smith

8J1lY82

Port Pine Texas

I C3CandSC
es
2 C

8
81 18182

4.1
4.2

t.

No.5 Port lank

SC
No 8/18/82 0 .8 . Mi ll er

Unde r a nnex II, noxious liquid substa nces are categ orized in th e fonowin
ways , ba sed on the ha zard they pose to the marine en .
.
g
CA
'
r .d
vironment .
.ategory : nnxroua tqut substa nces which present a major haza rd to
manne resources
or human healt h resulting from deballastlIn g opera tiI Ons
.
a nd th e disposa
.
" l of tank washings into th e sea . These substan ces reqUIre
the most stnt;'gent pollution control measures due to the possibility of a
bioa ccumula tt on hazard or hig h toxicity level to aq uat ic life and to hum an s.
Category B: noxious liq uid substances which present a haza rd to rnarine resou rces or human life resulting from debal las ting operations and
th e disposa l of tank washings into t he sea. Th ese su bstances require epecta l pollution control measures due to possible bioaccumulation of short
du ra ti on , possible taintin g of seafood,or moderate toxicity to a quatic life.
Category C: noxious liquid substances which present only a minor haza r d to m arine r esources or human life resul ting from deballastin g opera tio ns or the di sposal of tank was hings into th e sea. These substances only
require s peci al ope r ational measures due to th e fact that t hey range from
sligh tly toxic to nontoxic to a qua tic life.
Category D: noxious liq ui d sub stances which present only a recogniza ble h a zard to m arine re sources or hum an life resulting from debaUasting
ope rations or the di spos al of ta nk was hings into the sea. These substances
only r equire some a ttention through operational measures due to the fact
t hat they a r e practically nonto xic to aquatic life,
Dl SPOSAL OF CARGO RESIDUE

Signalure of Master:

Figure 14-3 . Sample entries from an oil record book for ca rgolba Jlast operatio ns.

Courtesy U.S. Coaet Guard.

IMO established detailed crite ria governing the proper disposal of cargo
r es idues in each N LS ca te gory . Th ese include a number of cont rol m~a'
eu re s designed to s ign ifica ntly re d uce the qua ntity of NLS ca rgoes dIS'
ch arged into the sea:
1.

Cargo stripping: efficie nt stripping of the cargo tanks to reduce the quan-

2.

Clean ing and d isposal procedures (CDP): includes prewash ofcargo tanks
at the discharge port and th e use of reception facilities
Ventilation procedures: removal ofsubstances witha high vaporpressure

ANNEX II, Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances

(NLS)

contains the regulations for the control of pollution by noxious

ncea! NLS) transported in bulk. In an effort to minimize the
o h:
~b!lt:!lnce8, annex II of MARPOL 73/78 requires that
C

quipmenb-, and operation of chemical tankers be

t r: In!International Code for the Construction and
a
. banglrrous Chemicals in Bulk (lBC) or the
Eg\l.ipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous
ton

3.

tit y of residue s remaining on board at the completion of discharge

bU8t ~
In addition to these control measures, a number of condit~ons tm
.
I' 'd s ubsta nces tn to e sea:
met with respect to the discharge 0 f noXIOU S iqur
1.

Vessel speed while proceeding en route (during discharge)

INTE llN A1'ION AL P OLl.UT ION LEGISLATION, MARI'OL

POU ,UTION REGULATIO NS

302
Dischs TgC ofcmuent below th e waterline , taking in to accOu nt t he I
2

3.

..
s

~uctionll

of 8E'a
ssel location .with respect to a ny designa te d "s pecial e re"as ~

V,

l>l:a t1o
IUl y,.

the minimum dlstan" offsh ore

ell
MllXimuJn quantity ofeubst.ances pe rtank wh ich may be d is c h argedto th

M'
Muimum concent ra tion ofs u bsta n~es (emu ~nt) in t he s hi p's wak
Minimum depth of wate r at sea dunng the d is ch a r ge
e

CARGO RE CORD BOOK

The cargo and ballast operations perfonned on a ve s se l carryi g

. US
liquid substances in bulk must be record ed in a n a p prove d ca: ODOlUO
book. The cargo record book must be completed for each tank i gh ,record,
following occur:
n w Ich the
L
2

3.

,.

Loading of cargo
Intern al transfer ofcargo
Unloading of cargo
Cleaning of cargotanks

Mandatoryprewash in accordance with the proced ure s and

IP&A1 manual
a rrangements

Ballasting of cargotanks
~ sdl4rge of ballas t from the cargo tanks
8_ ~BpoqJ of reeiduee to reception facilities
9. Discharge Into the
f
10. Accidental or other ::c;;~::olv~ hresidues by ventilation
a isc arge of cargo
6.
7.

As in the case of the oil record book

.
person in charge of the operation
,.entne s mus t be completed by the
The cargo record book is subject to .a nd signed by the mas ter of t he vesse l.
elate authority.
mspechon and review by com petent port

303

III conttliOS d et a ile d iofor~atioo of the vessel's physica l layout a nd

m
as well as ope r at IOnal pr ocedures t hat mu st be followed in a n
ent
:~~ to COlD ply with the requtrerneots of a~nex II of MARPOL 73n B.
Th e maoual sho~ld contain ope~atlOnal inst ructions for per sonnel conductin g ca rg o h and hng , tank cleaning , h andling of slops , and the ball ast. g/deballasting of ca r go tanks .
In The manua l sh ould contain the followi ng information a nd ope rati ona l
\I

instrUctions:
1.

A list of th e NLS cargoes the vessel is certified to transpo rt and cargo spe-

2,

cific information
A list of the cargo tanks and the nOxlousliquid substance(s) that may be

earned
A descri ption ofthe equi pment and arTangement8 in the cargo system including such ite ms as th e fonowing:
Line drawing of th e cargo pumpin g and stripping systems
Ca rgo heating and tempera ture control system
Identification of tanks to be used for slops
Description of the discharg e arTangements
4 . Th e detailed procedures to meet th e stan dards for the specific vessel, in-

3.

cluding such items as:

Stripping methods {cargo tanks)
Methods of draining cargo pumps and pipelines
Prewash programs for the cargo tanks
Ballasting and deballasting procedures
Procedures for the discharge of cergcwater mixtures
Proce du res to be followed when a problem develops involving a deviation from the approved discharge procedure
A ta ble of th e qua ntity ofcargo residue ineach tank upon completion of
st ri pping opera tions
A ta ble indic ating the qu antity in th e tank alte r performing th e water
tee t

SURVEYS

,t~e transport of noxi

..
ous l~qu~d substances in bulk
on. C tinuin
~s periodic surveys by the na g
.
f'o g comphanc
ith
WI h
e insyectors ofth e WI the requirements of
e port states where the vessel

~a:T.1~""!tl,s u rvey as well

The master of the vessel shall ensure the di scharge of cargo residues is
conducted in accordance with the guidance contained in the P&A manual.
CERTIFICATES

Upon satisfactory completion of a survey, including approval of the P&A

manual, the vessel is issued an International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk or a Certificate
of Fttneas for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. Both are usually valid for a period not to exceed five years.

,r

POLLUTION REGULATIONS

30'

POLLUTION REDUCTION EFF OR T S

.
been mad e wit hin t he tanker indust ry to redu
.
.
.
"
'l'remendQUS st n desdhave
. I ntional pollu tIOn
0f t h e m anne
enVIronment
both aCCIIde ntal an
wn intothee following list , inel u dee coerati
operatrona 1 measures ae.
~~t:8e::::;; vessel design and equipme nt:
I.
2.

3.

5.
6.
7.
6.

C HA P TE R 15

1.Isd -ontop
Segreg9ted -bsll s st design s
Shore recepti on facilit ies
Crude-oil.""s shi ng sys tems
Vapor control sy sle m8
Doublt'-bull const ructio n
Efficient cargo st ri pping systems

In ert Ga s Systems

Pr'ewlllIh procedurt"8 and slops disposal

REVIEW
1. List the operational sources ofmarine pollution from the cargo system
ofa tank vessel.
2. Describe the methods used in the tanker indus try to reduce sea poilu.
tion both operationally and through vessel design.
3 Which of the IMO conventions is consid ered the m ost com pre hensive
with respect to pollution or the environment?
LI.!It the present pollution regulations governing the dischar ge of
a 0 residues from an oil tanker.
IS
"special area"?
nIUl of pollution are addressed in each of the MARPOL anB8..Ubstances (NLS) categorized regarding poiluF:~llb:'i~~,n tained in a "Cargo Record Book"?
tafhed in a Procedures and Arrangements

n December of 1969 the shipping world was rocked by a series of explosions that occurred aboard three VLCCs, the Marpeesa , the Mactra, and
the Kong Haakon VII. Eac h was a newly const ructed supe rtanke r operated
by a rep utable company. The ph otogr aph showing the afte nnathofthe explosion aboa rd the Kong Haakon VII (fig. 15-I) is a soberi ng remind er of
the potential h azards assoc iated with cleaning ta nks on a cru de-oilcarri er.
Shi powne rs launched an extensive investigation to determine th e probable ca use of the explosions. Alth ough it was difficult to pinpoint the exact
cause in eac h case, the investi gat ion point ed to a static electrical discharge
as the pr obabl e source of ignition. Factors common to ea ch incident includ ed ste a ming cargo tanks a t sea in a ballasted condition, employing
fixed tank wa shing m achin es, and tank c1eaning (center tanks) at the time
of the expl osion.
Th e us e of high- capacity (fixed) washing machines (HCWM ) delivering
water-and, in some cases, recirculated oily-water mixtures-e-at high velocity and pressure against the cargo tank surfaces was linked to the de~el
opment of a significant static charge. The benefits of fixed tank washing
had been recognized for some time, and rather than abandon this method
of cleaning, the tanker industry decided to vigorously pursue the concept of
controlling the atmosphere in the cargo tanks while conducting 8 wash. It
was determined that maintaining a low oxygen content in the cargo tank
was the key to ensuring the safety ofthe operation. "lnert.gae," ~s it is c?mmanly called, is defined as a gas or mixture of gases contalOmg IOsufficlerft
oxygen to support the combustion of hydrocarbons. .
.
The events in 1969 prompted the development ofmtemaLionaf
tions calling for the installation of inert gas (I syswmlJ'on crud
"lnerting" then became an industry standerd't
il
worldwide. The rules goveming..t!te design oJ!Elrati n
i:l 81

I NERT GAS SYSTEMS

SOUHCEs OF INEItT GAS

'06

307

S OU RC ES OF I NERT GAS
e types ofinert ga s syst ems a re in common use toda '( 11 n
' S )', (21 0 1il fiIre d linert gaa generate ty . ' "nu ehigae eyeTh, ' stea ms h Ip
(elll, (
.
w TS m e ter 8 IpS and
barges); and (3). nitrog en syste ms (pa rcel la nkeral.
On 8tea mS~ l ps l t~e exha us t from, a mari ne boiler burnin g a residu al
fuel oHresults In a m ixture of ga ses with the following breakdown (a pproximate values) :
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen

Sulfu r oxides
Water vapor
Soot
Heat
Carbon monoxide
Nitri c oxide

,....,..
1 2-14 ~

2-4 %
0 .3%

.%

300mf)m3
200-3000C
1,000 ppm
400 ppm

Th e exhaus t is dra wn ofT t he uptakes , processed in th e scru bber, and

deliver ed via h ea vy -du t y fans to th e ca rgo ta nks . Figure 152 shows the
typical la you t of a n IG sys tem on a ste a mship.

---

. ."gy

15-1 Theaftennathofth

OC uJfi(i durlng!.he te k I e e~plo8lOn aboard the VLCC Kong Haakon V/l

n c eanmg P-"
. 6a e
roceaeon t he balla st pas sage. Courtesy
1 apPeued 8S regul ti
.
1 19'7 Th ... a l,on 62 10 the Safety of Life at Sea
srge ~de Imh.at merting requirements were obvie earners that were employing fixed wash-

U li!!:@a;'tan ks. The success of theBe Syste ms in the

to xpa n810n
.
.
orthe iner'ting
requirementB to
8 ele o(amaller tonnage.

Figure 16-2. A block diagram showing the major components of an inert gee eyetern . Courtesy Richard Beedon and Eric Mo.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

INERTGASSYSTEMS

309

808
ti
owners are installing oil-fire d inert ga s gen
ron.
.
d h
erato
Jn new construe
h.n
IOwarddie!lel propulsIOn an t e custo mer s' d
re
ult ofthe s I
.
k
.
crnshd
as a res lit ~ inert gaB. On parcel tan era tr ansp ort mg ca tgoes a
(or better qua . Y ' .0 0 concerns over quality assurance h ave led to ' h ~n
euve ttlcontamma I ,
e in.
stallation o( nitrogen syatems.

GENE RAL REQUIREMENT S

FOR AN INERT GAS SYSTEM
The inert gas system must be designed and ~perated as necessa ry to rnain_
tain the at mosphere in the cargo tanks In a nonfl a mm abl e condition
throughout the operating cycle of t he vess~1 unless the tanks a te gas free.
Regardless o(th e type ofi nert gas system Installed on th e vessel, it should
be capable o(supplying a gas or a mixt ure of gases with an oxygen contt'nt
0(5 percentor less by volume. This enables the operator to mainta in an oxygencontent of8 percent or less by volume in the cargo tanks. Th e onboard
IG manual should always be consulte d as some companies and te rmi nals
havemore stringent requirements concerning the oxygen lev el to be maintained in the cargo tan ks.The ot her general requirem ent for the IG system
relates to the operator's ability to mai nta in a posit ive deck press ure at all
times. Thepurpose o(tms requirement is to prevent the ingress of air that
couldpotentially compromise th e inert status of t he ca rgo tank or th e en~re vessel. By regulati on, the operator mus t maint ai n a minimum of 4
inches(.100 mm) water gauge (wg) during the oper a ti n g life of the vessel.
~e U~ted States rules concerning inert gas sys te ms h ave been barmoniaed ~th the SOLAS requirements to eliminate t he discrep ancies that
onceexisted between t he systems found on international an d domestic vesta r;fer to Title 46 CFR Part 32 .53- 10). It is important to realize that
I~
e past twenty years, the ru les governing the de sign and opera tion of
m~ have been amended several times as operators gained more exth thes~ eyeteme. To stay abreast of any changes that have been
l~temi1,.honaIlY, operato rs sho uld cons ult the appropriate manu-

oiler -uptake va lves or flueGiant wh en it is secured.

These valves a re ~ocated in an ex~re m.e!y host ile environment-hot, dirty ,

lllld corrosiv e. ThiSca n affect th eir ability to maintai n agastight seal. It is
mrnended th ese va lves be operated on a regular bWlis and sootblown to
""'ure proper operati on. Some manufacturers have opted for an ..eea1
ellS'
. Iieu c f a tt empt im gto~ atnta i n amechani cal se alattheup ~
arrangem entm
take valves. Th e s~otblowers on th e boiler should never be operated in con'unction with the in ert gas system; the refore, interlock s are installed on
~e uptake valv es to pr event s uch an occurre nce. Fr om the uptake valves,
the hot-gas inlet line dir ects t he flue gas to the base ofthe scrubbing tower.

Up take Bell ows

Toaccommodate the thermal vari ances (expans ion and contraction) ofthe
piping during operation , an expans ion joint generally referred to as the
bellows is in stalled in the h ot-gas inlet line . According to surveyors, the
bellows repre sents a weak leak in the piping system; it is subject to meta l
fstigue and holing ove r time, possibly resulting in air leaks in the system.
Sc rubber
The scrubber is the primary processing unit that converts the hot, dirty,
corrosive flue gas into a usable inert gas which can be safely delivered to
the tanks. The scrubbing process has four functions:
1.

2.
3.
4.

Cooling
Removing the solids (soot)
Removing the corrosives(sulfur oxides!
Removing entrained water

Numerou s scrubbe r designs use varying method s to accomplish these

functi ons; therefore, the manufacturer's manual must beconsulted for the
details of the unit on the vessel. In a typical wet bottom scrubber (fig. 15-3l,
the flue gas ente rs t he base of the tower through a wate r seal. AB the. gas
bubb les t hrough the water , it is initially cooled and the larger soot particles
are removed This initial cooling is very important as It causes the corrosive sulfur oxides to be flush ed out of the gas while it p~es throug~ ::
g
seal water and seawater sp rays. AB the gas moves vertIcally t hrohu
f
.
fb m
t eye tha t clean se t e gas 0
tower it passes t hro ugh a se ries 0 a ea or r
.
,
.
ta t of t he gas with t he sea wafi
itiee i th
the fine r soot particles. Th e cont muous can c
.
I
t and removal 0 rmpun res m e
ter epraya results 10 further coo 109 ac Ion
.
I f
gas At th e top of the towe r (outle t) th e final process m;ol;es re~ova 0
ph; sical water droplets from the gas . 'ryte first met~~ 0 :m~::;s~;
tr ained water is accomplis he d by pesamg th e gas roug ~ I d rewhich ca uses the water to condense on th e cellula r-lik e matena an I
main in th e tower. In the second method, th e gas moves through a cyc one
.'
ti on throwing th e water
. .
or vortex se parator whi ch imp arts a spmn mg ac
,

SYST EM COMI'ONF:N TS

I N ERT GAS SYSTE M S

310
scrubber-typlcallllYOlll

- ... Hoi 085Inlel

,- - ...... , -- -+

,,,

Demister

Gas oullel

,,
,

- ...'\
-rrr-

,"
.. : ..
, '
,, ,,

,<

Ii- ,
' --

seal

.<

.....

....

Weir

311

In e rt Gas F an !'!
The next. major com po~ent in the system is t he IG fans. Two inert gas fan s
are rcqul r~d , the c.ombme d ca pacity of which must be rated at 125 percent
ofthe ma ximum discharge ca pacity of all th e cargo pumps that can beoperaled simultaneously. Th e inte nt of thi s requirement is to enable the opera tor to m~in tain a positiv e deck pressure t hroughout the cargo discharge.
Installat IOns va ry, but most owne rs opt to exceed thi s requirement by installing two 125-percent-rated fan s. The advanta ge claimed for this arrangement is that if either fan fails, it would not adver sely impact the
discharge operat~on of the sh ip. The IG fans are typically driven by
heavy-duty el ectric motors and equipped wit h isolation valves on the suction and disch arge sides. The fan s should be visually inspected on a regular
basis through ports located in the top of the casing for evidence of deteri oration s uch a s scori n g, acid damage. and carbon buildup . Duri ng operation, the fan should be check ed for excessive heat and vibration . Upon
shutdown of the system. a freshwate r rinse of the fan blades is recommended for a period of fifteen to twe nty minutes. On the discharge side of
the fans . two sensors a re req uired, one for monitoring t he temperature of
the gas an d t he othe r for monitoring oxygen conten t. The alarm sett ings
are as follows :

Drain to overboard

Figure 153.lntemal viewahowin lh

tesyRidlardtl --d
Dell

onand Ene Ma.

e componenlsofawet bottomscrubber.Cour.

d~plet8outwardintoafunnel_ h

..

thia pointthe gas is full

II aped catche r where it 18 drain ed away. At
important to real,' th y proceased and ready for deli ve ry to t he deck . It is
ze et t hescrubb d
.
or the undesirable elem ts i h er cee not achieve com plete removal
Overti
. en 10 t e gas .
me, detenoration of th
pected based upon th ee 1Ii .
e components in a n IG syste m ca n be externaI surfaces of th crency of'the ecru bbi109 process. To protect th e 'memployedagainstth. e se~bber. either special coatings or liners are
t ureamust be carefullcorrostve
elem en 18'In t h e gas. The anticorro sive fee.
ber8hell. Uponahutd: 1n8P
to ensure proper protection of the scrubr t hcted
flush
. seawaterwnc
e eyete
i recommended the scru bber be
fl ed WIth
f
.
m.rit 18
._ue-gll! SY8tem8hes lIh~wn' tPhenod of 30 to 60 minutes. Experience with
...,nance 18
t he key to ...
. n and preventive mam.
. at rou t
m e"
me.
pectio
~Ia nt .
enalln ng aefe, unmterrupted
.
ope ration of the IG

\lii'i;l;';~l.l":ll. gth
(.

Fresh_Air Inlet
Which p
. P anta have a fresh -air in let on the sue errnita the s yetem
<'
to be used for gas _freeing

~acrubbe r, moatlG 1

High gas temperature-U.SJlMO: 149F (55 C)

High oxygen aJarm- U.SAMO: Operator-set value (but in no case higher
tha n 8 percent oxygenby volume)
Th e reliabili ty of t hese instruments is cri tical to t he operato r ~hen ~e
termining t he suitability of th e gas to send to th e d~ck. O~-spe~lficatl~n
gas is eit he r returned to the scru bber through a recirculatio n line or. m
later model systems, vented off dire ctly to t he atmosphere.
Gas Pre ssur e Re gulatin g Va lve (GRVl
To control t he flow ofinerl gas to th e deck distribution piping, most system s are equipped with a gas pressure regulating valv~, also known as the
main control valve. This valve has two modes of upera u on, manual and au tomatic. In the automatic mode the gas pressure regulating valve operates
as necessary to ma intain a desired deck pressure in the cargo ta nks. In the
ma nual mode t his valve is contro lled directly by the operator ofthe system.
At this point the inert gas piping leaves the afterhouse an d proceeds forward onto th e cargo ta nk area. Safe operation dictates.th~t any IG sys~m
permit flow in only one dir ection, s pecificallygoodqua lity I~~r~ gas flowin g
toward the cargo ta nks. This locat ion constitutes the dlVl~lon betwee n
what arc commonly called the nonhazardous and the potent lOlly hazardous areas of t he vessel. To prevent the ret urn flow of flammable cargo

SYSTE M COMPONENTS

INERT GAS SYSTEMS

' 13

'12
ln th
t m 8 fle ries of non re t u rn devices a re r eq uired , p roviding
vaporsml ellyS e .
a barrier between th ese two a reas.

Ven t Li ne
dment.9 to SOLAS. a vent lin e was added to t he sys te m re.
981 arnen
Inthel
i t he event th e
.
ts Thill vent provides a n a d di\11008I
ea'regua r d In
quuemen d viree fail According to 11\10 , the vent lin e and valve s hould be
nonrt'tum e. .. ",
.
.
installed in th e run of pipin g bet ween the gas pres sure Tegul a t ln ~ and the
deck isolation valves. Th is vent valve sho uld be o~en wh en t he inert gas
ca rgo va pors and iner-t ga s from build ing
I t is nIT to prevent returning
p~
. st the gas pres su re ~eguI a ~mg
' v atve . Th e vent
uppressUf'('in
th e lin e again
also provides a conven ient location to c~e~ k the mtegnty of the nonret u m
devices by samplingthis section of the pipin g for th e presence of flammable
vapors using portabl e ins truments.

the sea l, forcin g the water u p t he .i nlet pipe to form a water plug, Th e water
lug preven ts the gas from entering t he nonhaza rdous a rea e of't he vessel.
b ther varietie s of d eck seals a re kn own as th e semidry and dry-type seal.
These seals operate in ~ u~ h .t he sa me way all th e wet -type seal; however,
they a re de signed to mmtmt ze wate r carryove r into the deck main and
cargo tanks during normal ope ra tion ,
The semidry-type seal (fig. 15-5 ) employs a venturi to draw the water
away from the inlet pipe , permitting the gas to move through the seal with out having to ph ysi cally bubble through the water as in th e wet-type seal.
In the dry-type s eal (fig . 15-6 ), seal water is dr ained away at the start-up of
the system a nd the g as move s through th e empty compartment without
coming into contact with water. Some manufacturers employ a dem ister
simila r to that found in the scrubbe r to physica lly trap the wate r and keep
it from passing to the de ck main . Several checks should be performe d on
th e deck sea l including the following:

Dec k Seal

Several types of deck sea ls are commonly fou nd aboard tank vessels . Re-

I.

gerdleeeortbe design , the deck seal is the principle barrier against return
flow of flammable cargo va pors into th e gas-sa fe a reas of the ve s sel. The
wet-type seal shown in figure 154 is designed to funct ion a s a nonmechanical, nonreturn devi ce, pr oviding virtually fail-sa fe protection in
operation.
The deck seal works on a simple principle whereby the r etu rnin g IG
and cargo vapors exert pressure on the larger water s u rface in the base of

2.
3.
4.

5.

Seal water level (normal water supply)

O\'erboard drain from the seal
Level sensors
Coatings or liners in the deck seal
Heating coils (in cold weather)

"""

Back pre ssure in cargo tankS

Gas

compartment

- - --:;- - - - ~,=,-:-:
. G:.:.> - ---_- :---.-:. - ==---'-~-

Nonllow condition
Figure 15-5. Se midry type deck wster sea l. Cou

rtes Wilson Walto n Inu-matlona l.

INlm T GAS SYSTEMS

, 14
6.
7.

SYSTEM COMrO Nf,NTS

.

,...

Demister
Venturi line and any valves in a semidry or dry-type se a l

In addition to the checks menti oned a bove. the performa nce of th d

Ilealshould be monitored through periodic testin g for the p resence
eck
vapors, using a hydrocarbon ana lyzer j ust aft of the deck sea l.
cargo
enceoffl ammabl e cargo vapors at this point in the system woul d indl pres.
problem with the nonretum devices which wou ld warrant furth er i reate
gation.
nvesn.

T~

315

Nonreturn Valv e
On most systems, immediately forwa rd of the deck seal is the m e h .
I\
.
h k
c amcal
nonreIurn varve.
I A II or ewing c ec val ve is genera lly emplo d. it i .
th
.' ht
. I d d GO
ye , ll ls eler weig . or apn ng- 08 e. tven th e ope rating environmen t .
hi
thi al f
.
m W lch
should be awa re th a t these val ves a re prone
t rue
I Vskive uncnona.operetors
...
or remammg
m th e open position ' thereby permittim g return
flo e Thng h
. fi
I d
ow.. e p otom gure 157 shows anonr etum va lve which wa
aft~t was determined that it was frozen in the open position s rep ace
e nonreturn valve is requi red to b
.d d .
.

~:,"::u';;; ~~';.'iVeIY. a second valv:: :::::d ~e::~I~~Si~~;;:~:::

Figure 1 5 ~ 7. A mechanical nonretum valve that wasreplaced after it wasfoun d to

be frozen In the open position.

Gasflow towart! cargo lanks

Back pressure in cargo tankS

s: DroP-=-

- lank. - --~

,,Lhr--.LE
,,
,,
:,

--~.---::..
. .:....-

~---

B~rllcal .OOpyri ght

-_

e International
.
Maritime Or ge-

Deck Isolation Valve

The deck isolation va lve is generally a manually operate d valve (typically
but terfly or ga te ) that blocks the cargo ta nk area from the after end ofthe
sys tem .
Deck Distribution System
F.rom the deck isola tion va lve, the inert gas is directed to the cargo tan ks
VIa a bra nching deck ma in . This network of piping on deck not only serves
to supply the inert gas to the cargo ta nks but also serves, in many insta nces , 8S th e vent a nd vapor cont rol piping for the vessel (see chapter 5
for details concerning venting and vapor control systems). An alterna tive
piping arrangement less commonly seen for the supply of inert gas to the
cargo tanks is a connection between the deck main and the bottom pipingof
the vessel. This permits th e gas to enter the bottom ofan empty cargo tank
via the bellmouth. The deck main and bran ch lines should be equipped
with low point drains to permit the removal ofany liquid that maycollectin
the piping system on deck . Liquids tend to accumulaw In the deck m~lI~ for
a vari ety of reasons including condensa.tiondue to temperature variation.
water-carryover from the deck sea l, and ca rgo accumulati on due to misting
and tank overfill . Th e smaller branch IinC's off the inert gas deck main

SYST EM (;CIMI'ONENTS

INERT GASSYSTEMS

316
ente the cargotank via the side of th e ta nk ha tch (fig. 15-8 )0'"1
)y verti

Cargo Ta nk Isola ti on
Thecargotanks must be equipped wit h some form of block va lve or b
ingarrangement. Systems vary from those t hat use a single butt Il lank.
in the branch line to those th at employ a spade blank in serted er h y valve
W lere
pipingenters the coaming ofthe ta nk hatch. Seve ral methods of ISO
at i the
cargo tank fro~ th~ rest of th e vess?1 are s hown in figure 15. 10 ng a
tanks are routmely Isolated for a varie ty of reasons :
. Cargo
i.

1.

Ca rgo tank pressure-va cuum relief v I

II vee (for vessels fitted with branch
line vnlvea)

2.

A centrally loca ted preS!lure-vacuu m re\ ief valve

th
bullet va lve for. ve_ssel s wit hout br a nch lime valveson e mas t r iser or a

3.

On
maienor
) more liquid pr essure-vacuum breakers (located on the inert gas

cally

penetrating the deck (fig. 15-9).

317

~lanuaJ gauging, water cuts, sampling , or taking te mp e ra t ures In

. the
tank

Gas.freeing and entry by personne l

Segregation of dissimilar eargoes a nd thei r vapors

Pre ssu re-Vacuum Relief Devi ces

sibilityof the occurrence of s~ru t e

Oneofthe ecnsequen ceaof' an cloe d

.
~~ratlon
on ~ ta nk vessel is th e poe-

inertgassystemsareequipp ed~t~r amage. WIth this in mind, m ost

fth e
following pressur evacuum reliefdevices to protect th e :y
n:.~r
m(ore fi
rem see go re 15 11 ):

Figure 15.9. The branch line off the IG main is connected to the cargo tank via a
deck pen etra ti on . Th e branch lin e shown here is equipp ed with 8 butterfly valve.

J[~~~
blank

ITtbll. IG main in Uti8 ca se e nte rs t he ta nk through

M
t\

spada

nk

0
0

Figure 15-10 . Several methods ofiBolating the cargo tan ks from the inert gaBmain .
Courtesy In ternational Cha mbe r or Ship ping a nd OCIMF .

319
Structural protCclio~ of th e vellsel is imperative as expensive damage
can result from mechanical malfunct~~n8or human erro r such as the failure to lin e up th e sys te m cor rect ly. ~ lgure 1512 shows the damage that
occurre d on on~ vessel '."'hen t he .number one cente r cargo tank overessu rized dunng a loading Operation.(For furthe r detail s concerning t he
::ethod of ope ra tio n and t he typical settings for pressure-vacuum relief de.
vices, cons u lt cha pt e r 4.)
De ck P re lHlUre
One of th e general req uirem en ts of an IG system concerns maintai ning a
positi ve deck pr essure 01.1 the ine~d vesse l to ~revent the ingress of air. To
assist th e operator , a ll Ins tallations a re required to have a gauge which
gives a cont inuo us readout as well as a perm a nent recording of the deck
pressur e. Audible a nd visu al alarms a re required for both high and low
deck pressu re conditi on s. In the bar gra ph , figure 15-13, some typical values for th e high and low deck pre ssure ala rms are given. An opera tor can
expect va ria nces in th e deck pr essur e at sea as well DS duri ng cargo tra nsfer in port.

Normal 0J)8f8b01'l

EJ:cess vacuum

t
.

b inert raa a
heayal.emfrome
yal.ema
are tyPically fitted with e Iiqt
.
.
If re mepfl>lIl1ureorvacuum condl_
~IOn.

f m theoverp l'fllsuriutio n of num ber

Figure 15-12. Damage to th e dl.'Ck resulting ~ilS 8 Cameron. U.S. Coast Guard.
1center cargo tank . Courtesy Lt. Comdr. Doug
.

f.

SYST E M COM PONENTS

INERT GASSYsTEMS

320

321

DECK PRESSURE IN PORT

112"

Dl.lring ca rgo ope rations, t he deck pressur e must be carefully monitored by

he PIC to prev en t the development of any extreme conditions. Following
~rc some typi cal causes of problems with deck pressur e:

99,S"Tank test head

".

Improper lineup oft he IG/vent system

Excessive loading rate
Excessive cargo pumping rate
Mechan ical malfunctions (i.e., faulty PVvalves)
Constricted line [i.e., liquid plug in the line)
Cargo polymerizat ion
Shore vapor recovery problems Ii.e., restricted line or blower assist)

1.
PI/ bfk,r. pressure setpoin l
PV valve pressure setpoint
H,~pf1ISsure alarm

"

lowilfessure alarm

139'

:~F."~7""'PVvalve vacuum
1 ,

setpoinl

PVbOO.vacuum setpOinl

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Alarm and Shutdown Features

The inert gas syste m must have several alarm and shut do...."O features to
protect the system in the event of a critical fault . The required alarm and
shutdown features are as follows:
1.

(In d HPI
SY51 em pressureand
se!pOitlt bar graph

1 ~13

Bar graph aho\lring the typical operating pressur es and setti ngs of
etdfilOOl in an inert gas system.

DECK PRESSURE AT SEA

~e l will va ry cons iderably based u pon changes

F. r: enrnple. the deck pressure ca n be expected to
o n as temp eratures approach t hei r m aximu m;
~ ~ typj cally drop s off becau se of t he cooler
ma r Ouctuations in the deck pressure are
ater temperature a n d 8S a result of
1
v
1 lfrsonnel monitor the deck pres1n
i1 underway . In the eve nt the deck
r; a e
limi , it is gen erall y n ecessary
~ti
.
th e other h and . should
I c e table limit, it m ay be
pr es sure. "Topping
S!i1IIii.ll~.~n k already in the in s r
prevent any

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Low cooling water supply to the BCnlbbing to.....er

High wate r level in the scrubber
High gas temperature-U.SJIMO: 167F t75C)
Blower failure alarm
Power failure to the autoeontrolfeature
Loss of water supply to the deck seal

Sui table in terlocks mus t be in stalled such tha t any fault. condit~n reeulring in a sh u tdown of t he blowers also res~ts in ;h~ clO:l:ft~~ \;:::.
pressure regulating valve. The au tomati c shu own ea ure
ti
tern shoul d be te sted on a regular basis to ensure proper opera ron.
lOG" oxYGEN READINGS

.
.
h PIC may encounter elevated ox
on the discharge side
Dunng the operation ofthe IG system, t e l
ygen readings as sensed at the fixed oxygen ana ~Z;;tennine the source of
u
of the fans . Should t his occur. the oper~tor m h lgh oxygen alann sounds.
h l
t
i
action
belore
te
ful it may be necessary
t h e oxyge n an d ta k e ccrrec we
.
a!ity are an succeee
.
. r b placing th e system 10 reIf t h e efforts to tmp ro,:e gaa.qu
to divert the ofT.s peclficatlO n gas eit he / . al causes of elevate d OXYcircul ation or vent ing to at mosphere. Some yprc
gen readings include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Poor combustion control

Low boiler load
Leaks on the suction side of the fan~
Prolonged recireulation

5.
6.

Failure to secure the ai r lIell ] ll r rangemen t of t he up ta ke vlllv!.'

]acement met hod!'! a re routinely perform d

.
r~P and di spla ce men t . Whi ch method a pa.,~
Ion inerted vesse ls: dilu ICU ar vessel
I
.
tlOn
emp oys 18 dicted by the su pply (entry) a n d ve nt ing (exit)
ta k
ar rangements of the cargo
tan s.

Faulty oxygen a nalyzer

EMERGENCY PROCED UR E S

Dilu ti on
In the event of a tota l failu re of th e inert ga s plant to d elive r the ro .
..,qu1ted
.
.
h d k h

quantityorquahty oflOert gas to t e ec , t eoperator of t he sys te rn

take certain actions. Under domest ic ru les, t he operator is prohibited ~ust

allowing t he creati on ofa l1amma ble a tmosphere in the ca rgo tanks ' th ere
rom
fore, it may be necessary to suspe nd aUcargo operation s a n d hold thO d .
.
rd
e ueek
pressure m the vessel. In othe r wo 5 , th e ope rator mus t n ot comp
.
the inert status ofthe vessel by resuming the ca rgo disch arge wjth:~I:

benefitofthe IGllystem. Several safety concern s, particu la rly in th

crude tankers, warrant this actio n . Also, local a n d terminal requ i e caSe of
hibi h
.
f
remen ta
may pro It t e resumption 0 cargo opera tions . The followin g li t

fth
I ti I ..
IS repro.
sents some 0
e po en ta igmnon sources t hat may pose a th
t
h

safetyof the operation:

I.

2.
3.

The dilu tion (mixing) method is accompli shed throu h th .

.
hi h i ' ,
hievi
g
e introduction of
gas at Ig ve DCI y, a c ievm g maximum penet ratio . to h
and cons iderable turbulence within. the ta nk atmo sp
nhlnere.' Theecar~o
~k
8.100 IS to
.. th e
create a h omogeneous .atmosp
h
.here In the ta nk by thoroughi y rmxrng
existing a tmos p.h ere WIt the mcoming gas . Experience with this method
has shown tha t It ?enerally takes 3 to 5 volume changes ofthe cargo tank
atmosphe re to ac h ieve full gas repl acement. To achieve the he, ul
th d h
a res te usI utr on me 0 ,t e supplyofgas isgenera Uy directedto a limited
ing t h e diluti
numbe r of t anks, prefe rabl y one at a time, there by achievingthe maximum
velocity to that tank.

rea to t e

Pyropboric iron sulfide ignition

Static generation from the IG syste m
Static generationfrom the use of high-capaeity washi ng machines

The risk from an intern al Source of i iti . .

enoughto warrant the SU8
.
f igru Ion IS Ju dged to be significan t
.h
pension 0 cargo operati
Sh Id
WlS toresumeeargooperatiODs the
.
o.ns . ou an operat or
'
only VIable options are (1) to fix the inerr g81l system or (2) to co
Port state inspectors ~ect ~ an
rnal sup ply of IG.
n
are in compliance with the inrart. om1exte
y c?ec k tank ves se ls to ensure th ey
e 109 requiremen ts .

gas replacement
I at osphere in the necessary in order to
e cargo tanks . Two ga s

Di spla cement
In the displaceme nt (layeri ng ) method, th e gas enters th e cargotank at low
velocity, forming a stabl e hori zontal interface between the incoming and
exiting gases . The gas enters the top of th e ta nk and acts like a piston pushing the exiting gas out via a purge pipe or other suitable arrange ment. To
minimi ze turbulence in t he tank a tmos phere, the gas is generally directed
to a number oftanks simultaneously, th ereby slowing the velocity.The displacement method u suall y tak es 1Jhto 2 volume changes ofthe tank atmosphe re to ac com plis h full gas replacement. Figure 15-14 illustr ates the
typical supply and venting a rr a nge ments and th e methods that should be
employe d when performin g gas replacemen t. For detailed guidance concerning t he m ethods and time necessary to perform gas replacement consult t he vessel's in ert gas manua l.
There a re ge ne rally two ways to dete rmine th~ success of ~ gas replacement ope ration . One is by a n experience factor With the partl c.ular vessel.
th e othe r is by te s ting a nd monitorin g th e tank atmosphere WIth portable
instrumen ts . Figure 15-15 illu st rates a typical hydrocarbon analy~er
(model lOOT Ga scope or Tankscope from MSAl com~only used. to venfy
th at a space has been properly purged prior to gas-freel~. A rea~mg on th e
analyzer of 2 percent hydrocarbons or less by volume IS ~eqUired before
ventilating with air. Reducing the hydrocarbon conce~tratlOn ofthe space
to this level prevents the tank atmosphere from becommgflamma,ble when
it is subseq uen tly ventilated with air (gas .freed). An operator s und.er.
h d . th k y to successfully controlling
.
. .
.
sta ndm g of gas repla cement met 0 S IS e e
the cargo tank atmosphere and ens uring th~ ves~ells mamtamed m a nonflammable condition throughout its operatmg life.

INERT GA.'! SYSTEMS

INEHT GAS m :m:RATOH.<;

INERT GAS GENE Il ATO Il S

'ty gas ba sed on the type of fue l employed, Forexam pl, di 1 < d
qU9 II
d
d
a lese -nre
inert sse ge~erator oes not pro uce the 8,oot or corrosives typically encountere d with ~ n~e ga s sysl~m. The bigher qua lity fuel produces a
cleaner burn whi ch In tum requires a much less sophist icate d scru bbing

".

. ~ 8 (lGG) are typically insta lled on vesse ls that d

Inert gas gener8wf
.
I:'.

h
0 not
d supply ofoxygen defiCIent gas lor us e In t e carg-o lank I
possessa res : _ inert gao gene rato rs have been in stalled beciluse Oft'h' ,n
recent times m"" '
.
elf
, ti to ta nk barges a nd t he shift from s team to motor ta nk
I
~~IOO
to"
"
e~
r In Sit uations Whe re Ih '
Owners may also opt for an inert gasiskgenera
tami
0 con
m m a ti on ~ the ca rgo. Ae
quality
of the inert gas may pose a n s . of
properly operat ing inert gas gene rator IS ca pable of producing a s u perior

process.

325

Inert ga s ge nerators a re very compact, typica lly consist ing of a com-

bined combustion a n d sc :ubbi?g uni t as see n in figure 15-16, The primary

function of the sc ru bbe r In a n m ert gas ~ene rator is to cool the gas prior to
delivery to the cargo ta? ks . The bu rner m th.e combus tion chamber is supplied by one or more a rr bl owe rs a nd fuel 011 pumps. An ignitor fires th e

Ine rt ga s ma,n

/ /\
10M gas main

,
c""',

I'""""""
tocargo line

~,

\ 1/

l(

\IW

men gas main

I!.

~ --11 : 1~
\,-~-"1
,

ampl

o Iupply and vemin

DIIP..\.Ilcemen,
h g arrangement8 used when per met od' B. D"I
'
d~ pipln C
I utton method via bott om
,
g. oumsy Howden
en Enei
ngmeenng.

.
ed to verify the 8ucce8B of
I r 6N! n here 16 us
Figure 15-16 . The hydrocarbon ana yze r-. A pl,',nc<'s Compan y (MSA).
"f SS,l'ty P
th e purging operation. Courtesy" me

PR~;CAUTlON S IN

INER T GAS S YSTEMS

,26

32 7

ta nk ves , "... I m a y be required

. due to concerns
. a bout flammab ilityorthe

To atmosphere
I

rue URE OF In RYSn:MR

ona ct of S ns it ive cargoes With oxygen or rnoretur e. Th ese systems a re de contB.

d: 1ive r ni t rogen of hi gh purity (95 to 99 percent N2) a nd d ryness

To atmosphere

'goed to I prot ect t he vesae I a n d cargo.

to properr;he
m ore cost-effective met hods used to gene rate nitrog en is via
o
Oneb a ne se parator (fig . 15- 17 ), whi ch conRists of a cylindrical shell
8 mern ith holl ow fib ers . One or m ore com presso rs supply air to the se para-

Sl

fille:~~re t he oxy ge n, car bo n dioxide , water va por, a nd ?ther gases permetor,

h the walls of t he holl ow fibe r s fa ster tha n nit rogen. Th e was te
ate thro~gh st rea m is bl ed ofTto a t mos phere while th e nitrogen st rea m at
oxygen-In,". d ,' recled through piping to t he tank or tanks protected by th e
the out e IS
system .

Sctubbet' PU~

J..-.

--l

PR E CAUT I O NS I N T HE USE OF IG SYSTEMS

"'"."'"
Figure 1516. Typieal inertgas generator. Courte sy Perm ea Maritime Pr otection.

fueVair mixture whichis surrounded by a fresh wat er jacket . The exhaust

from the combustion process then passes through a series of seawater
spraysin the scrubber where it is cooledto the pr oper tem pe rature. Before
thegas leaves the unit, it passes through 8 demi ster to minimize water-carryover from thescrubber. Inert gas generators differ from flue gas systems
inoneimportant way:thesyetem is under positive pressure while in opera.
tionfrom the combustion chamber to the cargo tanks . As a result they are
lessprone to air leah in thesystem, and they do not recirculate th e surplus
or off-specificationgeeto the scrubber 8 S frequently seen in a flue gas system. On th~ outlet side of th e scrubbe r a ve nt line to a t mo sp he r e is installed to direct th e surp lus or off-spec ifica tion gas. At this point in the
system, th e quality of th e gas is det ermined by an in -li ne tem perature se nI$Or and a fixed oxyge
I
, _.
.
.
.
n an a yeer. nI:I In the flu e gas system t he op e r a tor IS
provided a contmuous 8 dout f
'
.
B d
ou 0 te m pe ra tu re and oxygen conte nt In t he
'egul o~ thes e readings , the in ert gas is either dire cted to t he deck via
egul:~ln ~~n: v: ve or to atmosphere through the vent. The gas p ress u re
r
n be operated manually or automatically through the
ti
c ntroller. From the gas pres sure regulating val ve to the
rt .!j, system is similar to that already di s cu s sed under

:S8.

Several d ecades of operational experie~ce. wit h ine rt gas syste ms have

identified a number of issue s worth ravtewtn g.
O pen ing a "Closed" System
ste m require s the maintenance of a closed
A pro pe rl y op e rated Inert g a s sy . hi h Id a lte r th e a tmosphere in the
syste m to preven t t h e ingre ss of'airw I~ c~u n t he cargo tanks for cargo
tanks . In t he past, it was com mon prs.cll ce hOpe.performing man ual gaug. aI
re sentatwes w e
surveyors and termm rep
and sampling. It was necessary to
ing, te m pe rat ure checks , wa~er cuts, nin the cargo tanks to ena ble perg
vent ofTthe d eck pressure prier to o~e A rdi ng to IMO it is accepta ble
th
e
ope
ra
ltons.
ceo
ecnnel to safely con d uct es
.

'7

Ar

0,

H, O
"Fast"

N,
5 10....

RelallVll permea tion rat"

0",,,,

J __ enoched
stream

AI,

I
Inlet
HolloWlIbelS

rr veesele transporting sensitive parcels

Jl'her control. Inerting of certain parcels

. I nitrogen gen('ra
Figure 16-17 . TypICil.

t r
0

Courtesy psrmee Maritime Protection.

INERT GAS SYSn: /I.t::;

HEVIF,W

329

328

nks (or this purpose provided a positive deck pressure .

tb

~pen. th; ~(erence to the U.S. rules revea.ls t~at a ~inimum deck PresIS

mamtame.. h (100 rom) wg must be mainta in ed In t he carg ta .

ureof4mc ea
.
0
nk
s
I
minded to exercise ext reme caution wh en openi
II.
Personae
are
re
h ld b t ' d i
ng
pre
' . ' -co tanks Crewmerobers S ou
e rame In the prop,
,sunlt:U CS .~ '
. .
r prote
void physical injury when It IS necessa ry to open purge ' .
d
" PIPeIl
durea to
' vent covers, tank elea rung cover~, an so forth . The need ~
u1lsge
caps,
open lnertedcargo tanka was created In. some ins tances by the ina ccura
ofthe _ugingsystem and install ed equipment on the ve ssel. Th e rei' b"l
e,
dern i rted
18 I
it, andaccuracyoftheeqwpment
on rno ..ern tnerte
. .
.. h vessels has imp rOved
tothepoint that urs ncw unnecessary 10 open t I' tanks. Once an ex .
ence Iactor is established with a particular sys tem and all pa rti es agrpe~
accept the readingsofth e installed gauging system. the ca rgo ta nk , caneere.
mainclosed. Oneoft he more popular ways to take reading today is to
portable sonicgaugingtapes which operate t hro ugh a stand pipe and vau~
lock on deck.
po
Another concern involving an "open" deck on an inerted vessel
when water-washing a cargo lank wit h portable machi n es Ideall occurs
. " y.avesse16tied Witith an IG system should also be equippe d with fixed
t a n k cIean109m.acbinee..However. many older vessels cont inue to use portabl ta k
c1e8DI n.~17 machinee, makimg It necessary to open the cove rs on deck I'Whil
n
conducting
.
I I'
tho old the'wash
b ' the strip pmgsystem
must be continuou s ly ope. rated'

in~cobein ~~'.create a negative pre ssure in the ca rgo tank . resultin~

during thegwash ~n t.hroughthe deck openings. To avoid the ingress of air
thecargo tank shoul~ ~ert ~a8 ~ystem s~ould be operated and ga s flow to
is maintained in the ta ~amtamed. Thi s ensures that a positive pressu re
~onal exposureissues f:r t~~mosphere; however. it al so creates occupamvolved in the d e .
~ersonnel on deck. Any personnel directly
anmg toperation
should be provild e d with
wi
'
retora to protect again
i hi'
SUItable reeprown . are addressingethis
in a ahonofth
. .
.
I' exiting vapors and inert gas.
talJajulO offIxed wa.shi
problem ID new construction through th e innla r\9 the atmosphe;~:~~ms, virtu~lly elim inating the need to open
g the was hi ng operation.
Cargo Segregation

adversely
atliected by th e introducti on of water or
SPj)t
be
.'iii pted n, and acids carried in the in ert gas .
Y mI' thcargn own ers to look to wa rd vesse 1e
YIns n a ~h at do not pose a ri sk of contamina t ion to
. "g,n ,locargo owner will opt for a vessel fitted
era r. or a 01" regen sys te m. An other Issue
'
i lie'
BBlbility of cro ss con t amin at ion via the
to must carefully segregate potentiallY
I'

co nwminatin~

cargoes by pr eventing th e movement of liqu ids or vapo rs

via th e IG mem .
Segregation between ca rgoes i s .fr~quent1y maint ained through the use
ofvn lve8, blanks , or se parate IG ~Ipmg to t he lanka in question. Th e PI C
should be aware ofthese segr egati ons and ca refu lly verify t he correctness
of the lin eu p of t he IG sys te m prior to commencing a cargo tran sfer.
Quality a n d Qu antity of the Gas
The efficient operation of a n IG sys te m depends on the qu ality of th e gas
from t he source. A common ope rat ional problem wit h flue gas sys te ms th at
can affect the quality a nd quantity of gas relate s to the boiler load . For example. a low boiler load i~ freque ntly expe rie nced upon dockin g, be fore th e
cargo pumps a re ope rating. The P IC of th e cargo opera tio n ma y wish to
start t he inert gas plant and allo w it to stabilize be fore commencing the
cargo ope rat ion, but t he quality and volume of t he gas coming from t he
boiler is poor. To recti fy t his sit ua tio n, operators often crea te an artificial
load on the boile r by starting a segregated-ballas t pump or by recircul at ing
cargo with a ca rgo pump. Th e boile r load can also be a problem toward th e
end of the disch a rge during the final stages of s t ripping th e vess el. An insufficient load not only affec ts th e quality of t he gas but can result in ai r being drawn down the s tack.
Pyrop horic Oxidation
In vess els ca rrying crude oils wit h a significant hyd rogen sul fide level
(sour), t he forma tion of pyrophori c deposits is a concern . Thi s occurs when
iron oxide (rus t) in th e tanks combines wit h hydrogen sulfide from the
cargo in an oxygen-de ficient at mosphe re to form iron s ulfide deposits. In
th e nonnal operati on of an inerted vessel, th ese deposits do not pose a
threat unless oxygen is introduced into the tank. rf the oxygen level increases, th ese deposits rapidly oxidize to form iron oxide , s ulfu r dioxide.
and considerable heat. This rapid oxidat ion can re sult in individual particles reaching incandescence, creating a potential in-tank source of ignitio n. With this in mind, ope rators of crude carriers are cautioned never to
compromise t he ine rt status of the vessel. It is imperative that t he cargo
tanks remain in a nonflammable condition during the ope rating life ofthe
vesse l u nless th ey are gas free.

REVIEW
1. Th e rul es govern ing th e design and operatio n of ine rt gas systems

wer e origi na lly publi sh ed in whic h IMO conve nt ion?

2. What three types of ine rt gas systems are in common use tod ay?

INERTGASSYSTEMS

330

.
h are owners shifting from traditional Oue g
?
as
. constructIOn, W y
3. I nnew
'1 fi d i crt gas generators .
systems W 01 - Ire nmuat be capa ble of s upplying a gas wit h an OXy
4 Anyinert gas system
?

.
ntenr of what value.
h
gen co
[an i rt d vessel mu st ensure t hat t e oxygen Content of
5 Operators 0 an me e
I ?
.
does not exceed what ve ue .
the cargo.
.h t is the minimum deck pressure acce ptable in an
6. By regulatIOn, w a
inerted vessel?
?
Wh t ia the function of the uptake bellows .
7.
fo~r functions of th e scrubber in an ine~ gas sy stem (flue gas ).
: : List two methods employed to remove entrained water fr om flue gas
beforeit reaches th e IG fans.
10. In a flue gas system, the blowers must be .rate~ to what .ca pa city?
11. In a flue gas system, where is the off-specification gas directe d?
12. What is the purpose ofthe gas pressure regulati n g valve (GRV)?
13. What is the purpose of the deck wate r seal?
14. Whenthe inert gas system is off, mu s t the vent re quired between th e
gas pressure regulatin g valve and deck isolating va lve be open or
closed?
15. What valves are typically found imm ediatel y forward ofthe de ck sea l?
16. Define topping up.
17. List the critical fault conditions in an inert gas system that re sult in
an automatic shutdown of the plant .
18. List the reasons for high oxygen re adings as se nsed on t he disch arge
side of the IG fans.
19. Du~ng a crude-oil cargo discharge and cru de-oi l-wash ing operation,
the ~nert gas syste m fails. What act ion must be taken by the P IC? If
~~e me~ gas system canno~ be rep aired , wh at options does the P IC
With respect to reeurmng cargo operations?
>1Di.i ~ an apparently normal discharge operation (i nert gas system
'l~
".'.~~':h g1 the de~k .pressure begins to fall and is approaching the
I'!l J.!Il. uti cce fable limit. What action s hou ld be taken by the PI C?
I ns that could adversely affect the performance of a liq1!lE.1'G cona
P:
ure-vacuum breaker.
I~ ,,]Jmir;]~~ .
Wliht reading by tankscope (hydrocar bo n a nalyzer)
ITiji:lI! Q-,..: tIll1!I<t.;~,: ,.
fUI)Yllurged tank?
~Jj 'I'..~TJ1~~,l.t:m~
_;
~:h ~~r;','J[[}'::"J.:JIill~-, ot a replacement? Describe them in det ail.
~ l":r.l':Htk m.'uftr'tlht f ' I- ~ n itrogen generator work?
n
d de osita form in the cargo tanks on a
r'i-.rr:I ' !Jilr"h_o't'(~)~1:
operator be concerned abo ut th e
I'-ci
aifi 'jT r;}-1f::oLjil~m

C H APT E R 16

Emergency Procedures

Lis:

his ch a pter addresses the actions to be taken in various emergency situ at ions that are s pecific to t he cargo a rea of th e vessel. The reader is
cauti on ed that the information contained herein is generic in natu re and
not necessarily a pplica ble to any particular vessel. Personnel are advised
to develop emergency action plans dealing with various casualties that are
specific to the ve ssel and the peculiarities of the operation.
Practica l demonstrations and drills following t he developed plans
shou ld be regularly conducted t o fa miliarize a ll hands with emergency response. The first pr iority in any cas u alty is th e sa fety of th e per sonnel an d
vessel. The sections that follow address some of the situations t hat may
arise on a tank vessel and list t he typ ical actions to be taken in response.

PUMPROOM R E SC UE
If the person in the pumproom is un conscious, th e cre w s hould respond in
the followi ng way :
1.
2.

Sound emergency alarm. If alcngeide, notiJY dockto secure al l cargooperations and call for medical assista nce.
.
under the direction of a eemor officer responds to the
.'
E mergency Ieam
s taging area with the followmg equlpmen.t:
.
Self_contained breathing apparatus WIth spare cylinders
Communications equipment
Atm08phere-testing equipment
First aid kitlresuscitator/lltretcher
EmergeJlcy escape breathin g apparatus
Fire-fighting gear

GHOUN DING
EMERGENCY PROCED URE S

,"

room \lcntilation.
d [if r oc permanen tly rigged at t he top nfthe p
Prepare bernese an 1 e 1
lllTlp.

Cht'Ck pump

5.

room.
h re uling a sample tube pe rm a ne n tl y rigRed in th
Tel t the etmosp c
e
pumproom.

If the atmosp here

. 'mme dia tely da n ge rou s to li fe and h ealth (IOLlI )

IS I

go ~~ :~?re6is a physica l probl em (i.e., h eart a ttack or fall), go to s te p

6

2.

12.

Rescue personnel properly outfitted ~th .breat hin g apparatus de!lCend

into the pumproom with the harn ess (lifeline tended from th e top of the

pwnproom).
Rescue personnel place unconscious person in h arness secu re ly a nd acti_
vate th e emergencyescape breathing apparatus.
8. On signal from rescuers, personnel outs ide th e pu mp roo m hoist the pe rson out. Use taglines to guide person d ear of obstructions such as platfonns, valves, and ladders.
9. Once clear of the pumproom, adminis te r first aid to the victim. Check
pulse and respiration. Administer CPR if nece ssary. Cons u lt the MSDS
for medical guidance concerning exposur e to the specific cargo.
10. Get medical assistance IMedEvaclambulancel as soon as possible.
J 1. Determinethe cause of the incident and take correcti ve action .
7.

4.

5.

6.

7.

For physical problem:

12 If atmOllphere ia safe, rescuers proceed to t he vict im wit h t he necessa ry
~~lcal equipment and ass ess the problem . Administer fir st ai d and eta -

biliee the patient for transport .

Lo,weretretcher and board to the pati ent using the lifeline ri g at t he top of
t
umproom.
P.I
thll.patient securely in the stretcher
a
j from the rescuers .perecnne l outer
outeide the pumproom h oist th e
1
ut lng taglines to cIear 0 batruettons
.
such as platforms, va lves,

the water has occurred during 8

:[cl'IIQW this procedure:

333

Secure nil valv es in volved in the opera tion to limit the extentofthe spill.
If tan k overfill. ta ke ste ps to Rhift. th e exceea cargo to other tanks.
If pi ping failu~e, isolate the affected sect ion by immedia tely closing
th e app ropnate valves.
For h ull fa ilure (weep) , identify th e location of the leak . Tak e action to
reduce the h ead pressure in the tank(s}by sh ifting the cargo to an
in tact compa rt ment(s) a nd reducing the inert gas pressure in th e
space above t he cargo. Drop th e cargo level in the affected ta nk below th e waterline of the vessel. Verify that the leakage has
stopped.
Not ify vessel personnel , shore facility, a nd engine room. Restrict access to
the area of th e spill to essential personnel. Consult the vessel response
plan and commence notification to the proper autho rities in accordance
with th e instructions .
Eliminate potential sources of ignition and have fire-fighting gear read ied .
Vessel personnel with prope r protective clothing and res pirators should
commence cleanup ofthe oil contained on deck. Use the equipment in the
spill respon se locker including portable pum ps, shovels, absorbe nt pads,
squeegees , ra gs, saw dust, brooms , plastic bags, and so forth.
U pon notification, shore facility perso nnel should begin deploying the containment boom (spill ba rrica de) around the vessel (if not previously
rigged) to lim it the movement of th e spill.
Consult the company representatives concerning coordi nation with the
cleanup contr actor , qualified indi vidual ofthe company, media , an d etate
and federal authorities as outli ned in the vessel response plan .

GROUNDING
In the even t ofa ve ss el grounding, the following a ct ions s ho u ld be taken:

1.

Asse se the condition oft he vesse l. Care fully inspect the water around the
vessel to determine if a ny compart ments are damaged, allowing cargo to
leak or water to flood.
Check the cargo level (ullage e) in each tank . Record the ullages.
Take soundings of balla st tanks and compartments that are normally
empty (voids/cofferdam s).
Monitor the vessel for any changes in trim or list.
Maintain positive stability of the vessel.
.
.
t the vessel reaponse plan and make the necessary notifications
ul
_..
Ith the
.
Cons
to the appropriate authoritit'B in accoruance
wit
t e itnetrucuons.
Display rhe appropriate signal (day/night) for a vessel eground and notify any vesllel traffic of the situation.

FlR E-CAltGO MANU'OLO

EMERGENCY PROCED URE S

335

334

2.

3.

. I king cargo identi fy the dam aged tanka that are I '
If the vesseI IS ell.
'
08lng
cargo k f
h.n<ring cargo levels nrllagee) in the ta nh and dr op
Cbec or c
..'
I
Pln l;'
deck pressure readings , On dec~, personne sh~u l d be alert for any
signs ofa vacuum bE.'in g~rea~ed In the tanka,(alr leaks or PV ValVes
lifting) as well as distorti on In t~e ~~ck plating.
Eliminate all potential sources of tgmtt cn on or ne ar th e vessel and
have fire-fighting gear rea died.
If the \'essel has a high deck pressure, reduce the inert ga s pr es sure (deck
pressure) to a minimum positive pressu re in the ves sel . Doin g so will reo

duce the outflow of car go.

Isolate the tanks that are leakin g cargo by closing all valves in th e cargo
piping system.

e.
6.

If it has been determin ed th at it is safe to do so, transfe r ca rgo from the

damaged compartmenttel to other intact compa rtments until the leak age
has stopped.
Take soundings around the vessel (forwa rd, amidships , aft) to determine

"here the hull is touching bottom.

Determine the range and the present stage of th e tid e in the locality .
Determine the direction and velocity ofthetidal curren ts for the loca lity.
Obtain a weather report that includes wind speed and directi on, sea state
and swell.
10. Determine the type of bottom around the vessel.
ll . ~onrult with company/salvage experts concerning the m ost prudent acncn to ta ke to main tai n vessel stability and minimize hull st resses while
a~un d. Hneceeeary, take appropriate action to prevent the vessel from
goingfurther aground an d sustaining greater damage. Do not attem pt to
I'1lfloat th e veeeel or move the vesse l un til the extent of the damage has
been determin ed
'lJ\nact iona ta ken on th e vesse I s h0 old be approp nate
. to limit
. . the environ.

7.
8
9.

~ta.J da.mage resulting from the grounding whil e at the same time enthe lIl.fety ofthe crew and the veeeel.
t He In
spill reeecnee
00 n t ractora a nd salvage peopl e by provid ing the
""
rY.
rmeuen concerning the vessel and its condition.

In II collis ion between two vessels , peraonnel should immediate ly assess

th e ex te nt of the dam age to each vessel.
Chec k cargo ta nk levels (ul!agea) and BOund ballast ta nks and voids
(cotTe rda ms ).
Maintain positi ve stability .
Isolate th e dam aged cargo ta nks to minim ize th e out flow of ca rgo .
Imm ediately notify the USCG and th e company. Consult the vessel re4.
sponse plan for s pecific gu idan ce in thi s situa.t ion.
5.
Do not attempt to separate the vees ete until the condition and stabi lity of
each vessel ha s been assessed. Consult company/salvage expertsconcerning the most prudent acti on to be taken to maintain vessel stabi lity, movement of the ve sse lte) , or anchori ng.
6. Monitor th e vesse l for un controlled flooding an d any change in trim or list.
7. If there is loss of sta bility and a threat of sinking, the best action may be to
intentionally ground the "e asel.
B. Assi st fire-fighti ng and spill re sponse contractors by providing the necessa ry information concerning the vessel and ita condition.
9. Obtain weather forecast, tide, and tida l curre nt infonnation.

3.

FIRE-GENERAL GU IDELINES
By the very n ature of the cargo being transported , a tank vessel poses a significant fire ri sk. Vess el personnel must be eve r-vigi lant to minimize the
possibility ofa fire during cargo ope ra tions and at sea. Should a fire occur,
early detection and prompt action by vess el personnel is essenti~l for the
safet y of aU h ands and survival ofthe vessel. Regular demonst rations an.d
drilla s houl d be conducted to ensure that all personnel are aware of their
responsibilities in a fire and are familiar with the .Ioca ti on and operation of
fire-fighting equipment. In general,. the .folloWln g steps should be addressed when dealing with any fire sttuatton:

1.
2.
3.

Sound the alarm and muster.

Evaluate the fire.
Establis h the method of attack (direct or indirect).

4.

Ge t th e fir e und er control.

Exti nguis h th e fire.
Guard again st re ignition,
Overhaul th e fire and investigate th e eeuae.

5.
6.
7.

FIRE-CARGO MANIFOLD
the cargo manifold a n d containment area (t r ou gh)

t
In the event 0 r a fiire
. 1
inga connection or removal of the hoeea or mcc h amce

on the ves ee I d un
'
.
hou ld follow these s uggee tlo ns.
a r ms, personne1

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

"6
I.

2.
3

6.
6.

7.
6.

8 t he word "fire. ~ Mu ster th e er ew lin d RecOunt,

"'_ d th l!Atnrm an d pa '
.
or
Sh t d wn all cargo and ba lla st ope r a ti on s . Sec ure all en
all perso nnel. U 0
rgo
t
and vent valves.
sy' em
.
m a nd dock . Requ est the assistance of th e IIho Tl.' B' d
N f (ylhe engme roo
.
e
o1
F" .fi,hti ng systems s ho u ld be readied.
fire department . Ire
. b
.
d
B ~d on the type of substance (ca rgo) th at 18 urmng, etermine th e a p.
', b;n, a, eo 8) tcbe employ ed and t h e method of at ta ck .

propriate en Ingu l
. fi hti teem s in full gea r "hauld a pp roac h the m a n ifold a rea from
Fire- g b og <'<"
. d '." h,', h-velocit y fog (wa te r ) a n d lew- velocity fog a pplica tors if
upwm UBI. ...
a ppropriate.
Verify that all cargo v8h 'e810 the manifold are secu r ed .
Cool the manifold piping, containment a re a , a n d deck. ~fwater s pray is in capable of exti nguishing the fire , ,u se ~e wa~r s hi eld to ~ rotett the
firefighters s pprosching the area With SUitable tt.e., dry-ehemlt al) POrta.

=""

ble extinguishers.
trthe spilled cargo (from th e pipelines) has spread the fir e ever the deck,
employ the deck monitors to blanket the area with foam .
Whenthe fire is out, continue tocool down the piping and deck in the vicin,
ity of the fire. Main tain a fire watch .

FIR~~ARGO PUMPROOM

5.

Th e cargo pumpro om is withou t a doub t t he most potent!

t' V
ra11y h a zar dou s
compartme n t on a lan k vessel.
The
pu
mp
room
contain,
all
tb e necessary
.
eIem ents to s ta rt a n d s us tain a fire . Given the con fined nat
d
hi
fi
b
.
ure a n complexity a f t 18 s p ac e, Ig hng s uc h a fir e is particul arly ch 11
. P
decid e if di
'.
a engrng, ersonne I must ec~ e I a rect or indirect a ttac k is a n a ppropria te cours e of
act ion to d eal WIth s u ch a fire .
I.

2.
3.

5.

In the event of a vent fire at the top ofa mast or king pos t duri n g loading operations (i.e., due to a1ightning strike) the PIC s ho u ld di rect t he following
actions:
Sound the alarm and pass the word "fire." Secure all ca rgo and ball ast opereuona. Secure alJ cargo flystem and vent va lves.
Notify the engin room and dock. Reque st the assistance of the ahoresi de
fi department.
uater vessel peraonnel and account for all crewmembere .
uate the situation and decide on the best course of action to attack the
i><f'ii~a"f"~ ~n .ll may be included:
the Ulting cargo vapors (fuelJ by closing the valvet e) at th e base
t v
m tJking post). Should the fire continue tc bum {i.e.,
v leftksl, use portable dry-chemical extinguish'
P.!.l: iti n
ootid the vent stack.
r I t
h v adequate reach to ..xtend to the top of

Wlw n t he fire is out , continue to cool down th

".
.
.
e vent piping Wi th water
8prays. M ain tain a fire watc h in the area.

F IRE-CARGO P UMPROOM

4.

FIRE-MAST OR KING POST VENT

337

6.

7.

6.

Sound the alarm and pass th e word M

fire: Notify the engine roomand dock
ofth e situatio n . Request the as sistance oft he sboreside fire departm ent .
S hut down al l cargo and balla st cpera ticns. Secure all cargo system and
vent valves.
Must er the cre w a nd accoun t for all hands . Verify that no personnel are in
th e pumproom .
Fire-fi gh ting teams cool the entrance to the pumproom and secure the
pumproom ventilation.
In a n indirect attack, continue to cool the espceures . seal all doorslvent
covers and activate the fixedextinguishing system (carbon dioxide. water
s pra y, or foam ) from outs ide the pumproom. Maintain the pumproom in a
sea led condition and monitor the effect on the fire by taking temperature
readings ove r time. Ensure the surrounding compartments are cooled or
inerted to elim inate the sp read of the fire .
In a direct attack. coolth e entrance to the pumproom and use low-velocity
fog a pplicators to s hield the firefighters. Most likely the fire is located in
the bilge of th e purnproom; th erefore continue to a pply wate r spray and
foa m from portable extin gui shers to stifle the fire through a combina tion
of cooling and smoth ering.
Continue cooling s urro unding are as unt il the fire is out.
Maintain a fire watch .

APP ENDIX

Convers ion Factors

To convert from:

To:

Multiply by:

(Numbe,..

ill boldface
type a n rmct L'Olurs.)

barrels
barrels
ba rrels
barrels
centi meters
centimeters
centimeters
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic in ches
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic met ers
cu bic m et ers
fath oms
fathoms
feet
feet
feet
feet

cub ic feet
cub ic mete rs
ga llons (U.S.)
liters
inches
mete rs
millim eters
barrels
cubic inches
cubi c mete rs
gall ons tU.S.)
cubic centimeters
barrels
cubic cent imeters
cubic feet
cubic inches
ga llons lU.S.l
lite rs
feet
m eters

centimeters
fathoms
inches
mete rs

339

5.614583
0.15898729

"

158.98284
0.393700 79

om
10
0.1781076
1,728
0.028316847
7.4805195
16.387064
6.289811
1,000,000
35.3 14667
61,023 .74
264. 17205
999.972

1.8288
80 .48
0.166667

,.

0.8048

340
1b rom-ert from:

gallons (U.SJ
gallons (U,S.)
inches
inches

inches of water (4C)

inches of water
inches of wa ter (4 C)
kilograms
kilograms

kglcrn z
kgIan'
kgIan'
litera
lite rs
litera
lite rs
meters

meters
meters
meters

meters
millimeters
millimeters of water (4C)
millimete rs of water
millimete rs cr wete r (4C)
peunda (avdp)

,;

To:

cubic in ches
litera
centim eters
millim eters

kglcm2
millimeters of wat er
psi
pound s (avdp)
tons (met ric)

inche s of water (4C )

millimeters of wa ter (4C)
psi
cubic centimeters
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons (U.S,)
centimeters
fathoms
feet
in ches
millimeters
inches
kgI",,'
in ches of water
psi
kilogram s
in ches of water (4C)
kglcm2
millimeters of water (4C )
kilograms
pounds (svdp)

tone (metric)
kilograms
pounds (svdp)
tons (long)

Mu lt iply by :
(N umbers i ll h oi (I'ftce
t ype are exact v I
Q Ues.j

231
3.78 5306
2.54
25.4

0.002539927
25.4
0.03612 625
2.2046226
0.001
393 .7122
10,000.28
14.223343
1,000.028
6 1.02545
0.00 1000028
0.26417 94
100
0.54680665
3.2808399
39.370079
1,000
0.039370079
0.00009999709
0.039370079
0.00 1422293
0.45359237
27.6807
0.070306958
703.089
1,016.0469
2,240
1.1060469
1,00 0
2,204.6226
0.98420653

Glossary

ACGIH. American Confe rence of Oovernmentel an d In dust na

. I Hygtemsta
. .
acu Ie exposure. Exposure to a toxic substance which causes Immediate
.
.
effects
.
sue h as b rea thl essneee: irritability' eu phoria ' irri tation to
d
thro at . h d h d i .
'
,
eyes, nose an

, ea. ac es; iennese: nausea; an d appea ra nce of drunk ennes s. In the

wors t case It can lead to convulsions , coma, or death .
A[rama.:c. A system of sizing and freight ra te assessme nt used by the London
Tanker Brokers Panel Ltd. known as AFRA (average freight rate assessment). It is used to determine th e average cost per ton for various size vessels
on a monthly ba sis . An Aframax-eize vessel is in the range of 75,000 to
120,000 dwt, either crude or product carri er .
ANSI. American National Standards Institute.
API. American Petroleum Institute.
API gravity. An a rbitrary expression of the weight of a product created by the
Am eri can Pet roleum Ins titute . API gravity is equal to
1415

-131.5

SG@ 60'F
API ta bles. Eleven volumes of ta bles developed by th e American Pet roleum Insti tu te to deri ve the necessary information to perform a cargo calculation.
arrival ballas t. Also known as "clean" ballast. The term is tra ditionally used on
crude carriers to describe seawater introduced into cargo tanks that have
been cru de_oil_was hed a nd water-rin sed. When discha rged to th e harbor
through an oil content monitor, this ballast should not produce a visible
sheen. The oil content of such ballast must not exceed 15 ppm.
ASTM. American Society for Testing Materia ls.
ballast. Seawater introduced into compartments on a tank vessel for the return
leg of a voyage to the loa ding port . It is th e a dditional weight necessary to
bring the vessel to a suitable draft and t rim and to redu ce stresses and improve stability.

341

GLOSSAR Y

342
bar"" rMlJ. Stan d a

rd

"1o( volumc com mo nly u s ed on U.S. la nk ve RRell! F

um
. -quiv_

alent to 42 ga llons (U.s.>.

.
" me of ca rgo a t th e observed tem pe ra t u re In the tank
barrel , gross.TTh
e \0 U
d
to
a sta d d t
'
h'
.fcargo correc1e toasl,.<ln ar e mperatureof60F
barrtl,nrt.
e voume
.
fSh ' C

.
BeH Code ( Of th e Constru ction and Eq Ulpment.a
Ip S
Ilrrymg Da ngerous
.Chemical s in Bulk. These ru les a p ply to che ml C81 tan k e r s constructed bt>fo re
1 July 1986.
..'
h
k h
btllmouth. The termina l end ofthe bottom pl pl~g In eac ta n t rough whi ch t he

tank is loaded and discharged. Its shape IS usuall y flared to a pp roximately

I \oi: times the original pipe diame ter.
'
.
beruJin,g stress. The stre sses res ulting from a concentration o~ Weigh t at a certain
location in the hull (uneven load l a s well 8S from th e motion of the vessel in a
heavy seaway. On a tank vessel bending stress is comm onl y referred to as a
bogging or sagging condition. .
. .
.
benrene. An aromatic hydrocarbon WIth the compos it ion C6Hs. It I S a regulated
cargo (refer tc Title 46 CFR Part 197 ) th at req uir es special handling and
safety measures designed to minimize the ri sk of expos ure to vessel person.
nel.
MonA (blind (lange). A solid stee l disk or plate used to cover a nd seal the end ofa
pipeline such as the cargo manifold.
blind {lange. See blank .
boiling point. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a substance is
equal to atmospheric pressure.
bonding. The connectingof metal pa rts to provide electrical con t inu ity.
bonnet. The top housing ofa valve typically bolte d to the body. This sec tion of a
valve usually contai ns th e packi ng gland, bonnet bushing, a nd open ing for
th e Item.
bph. Barrels per hour .
bpt.
Barr els per ron.
BS&W. Bottom sediment and water.
bullet valve.. ~ high'velocity ventin g device which is d esign ed to achieve a specified.mmlm~m efflux velocity of th e atmos phe re exiting from t he cargo tanks
dunng loadmg and balla sting operations.
bursting pressure. A pressure rating typically a ssigned to cargo a nd vapor hoses .
Butterworth. A br~nd name of tank cleaning equipment. It is a te rm commonly
used to deaeriba porteble hcank cIearang
' equipment
,
and the proces s of we1;-~a8hID~ ("Bulterworthing") tanks.
O'nesty le ofquickconnect coupling used to make a secu re connection
veaeel and the facility. It consists of several r otatin g cams and a
sl)1 that holds the two fla nges together at the manifold.
~Jedrochemical method of preventing corrosion on veeua Uyemploys sacrificial zinc anodes attached to th e aur-

re'

ratibllofa pump that occurs when the pressure

o h iI
pressure of the cargo. Vapor pockets
'ngto the pump. The vapor pockets colregion of the pump, resulting in un -

GWSSARY

343

due noise a nd vibra tion . Thi s condition is frequent

d h
"
h
y cause w en cargo
vapors, a ll' , or inert gas ente r t e c8sinKof an opera
ti109 pump.
I
. A apace on a tank vessel thnt
._ '
h
CeR. Cargo con tro room
'
d
con....l ns t e necessary
equi pment to momtor an cont rol a cargevballasl 0
t
ti
pe re IOn.
Ki ne re-type pump u Flually r eferred to
'
ccntrifuga I pump.
.
.
w 8S a ma m cargo pump
Centnfugal pumps have a high-volume output and
'
_
.
,
c
h
d
.
require a conti nuous
pnme lor smoot an efficient operation.
CFR. Code of Federal Regul at ions (U .S.).
CGI. Combustible-ga s indicator. A portabl e instrument UBed '- d teet th
nJ'
.
..... etec e pres'
,
ence 0 f exp Ios rve ga al l' nuxturee. It usually measures the concentration of
hydrocarbon vapo rs a s a percentage ofthe lower explosive limit (LELl or percentage by volume in t he space.
chicksan. A mechanical ann constructed cf eteel used at modem shoreside fa cilitie s to connect the shore man ifold with a tank vessel's manifold.
chronic expos ure. Long-term exposure to a substance that msy cause latent defecta to an ind ividual's hea lth , such 8S liver disorders , chronic skin rashe s,
blood disord ers ranging from anemia to leukemia , an d so forth.
clean ballas t. Refers to water ballast in a tank which has bee n 80 cleaned that efflu ent from the tank does not produce a visible sheen on the surface of the
harbor a nd the oil conte nt does not exceed 15 ppm.
clean ing cha rt. A publica tion that contai ns written guidance for vessel personnel
regarding the proper prep aration of a cargo tank and associated equipment
prior to loading th e next cargo.
clingage. Cargo adhering to the internal surfaces of a ta nk upon completion ofdis
charge.
cloud point. Th e temperature at which wax and other solid substan ces begin to
sepa r ate from the liquid when an oil is cooled unde r specified conditions.
coatings. Protective paints or linings applied ttl the surfaces of a tsnk ttl ~nd
the service life of the steel. The use of coatings has been found to facilitate
cleaning and reduce the quantity of Beale in cargo tanka .
cofferdam. A void or em pty apace used to physically separate the cargo an d
ncncargo a reas of 8 tank vesse l.
COl. Certificate of inspec tion .
.
tank or
commingling. Th e blend ing of two or more .petroleum products III a cargo
pip eline eithe r inten tionally or by accld.ent. tentia! reactivity between difcompati bility cha rt. A cha rt used to d.etemnne po

ferent chemical cargoe.sor ma~e~a~~~t surrounds a vessel durin g a cargo

containme nt boom. A 1l.oatmg ba~ It is designed to limit the movement of a
transfer or bunkenng oper:tlon'. d tally dischar ged into the water .
spill should cargolbunkers e acct ntable quantities of solid residues , rust ,
contamination. The presence of ~aceep t minant resu lting in a cargo that is
water, previoUB cargo , or ot er con a
,
off_specification.
. II
rf
ed on portable tank cleaning hoses prior to
continuity test. A test t~lca~~~:~y of the ground wire in th e hose. The test
their use to dete~me ( h ~hroUgh the bonding wire in the hose from
meesuree the resistance 0 ms
coupling to coupling .

G LOSS ARY

GLOSSARY

345

344
method of venting the a tmosphe re of a ca rgo tank with the

~. the .lICC'umulati on of cargo vapors on deck and aro und

objectof mml~~~~iC.ll1 method s oh en ti ng include ma st venting a nd the

ronlroJltd I'f'ntinl!'.

the superstru.c
' . d with high-velocity vent va lves .
.
I '
f standpIpes equrppe
use 0 de-oil
hing A fixed tank washing sys tem emp oymg th e cru de'oil
COn: Cru e-o,
'ng' medium. This method of clea nin g takes ad vantage of
CQ....OBSthe creeru
.. h
1 f 'I I '
-0
,, ',. ,fcrude oil to as sist In t e rem ove 0 0 1 C mgage a nd

,w,"

the solvent prope

dl'posits from the tank.

'" .
. .J to interconnect different cargo systems or groups.
cros60ver. ,,-,Plflg usee
. '
. f
,
.. > to indicate cargo quantity). Metri c uni t 0 volume mea.
cubic
meter (h
ur en usee
surement equal w 6.2898 bbls .
.. .
.
111 1'OC('1lll of controlling the Ini tia l loading rate of a tank when han .

CUI h1011.
eP
""- , _
d
th
I hin
dling a known static-accumulating cargo. .l l lUI re uces e sp as
g and agi o
tation of the cargo, thereby minimizing the development of a significant
static charge. This reduced flow to the tank is u sually maintain ed u nti l the
bottom framing in the tank is immersed in the liquid.
cyrlt time. The length of time it takes a tank washing machine to move t hrough
all the angles withi n the tank durin g a wash. Reference to t he man ufac.
turer's manual will give th e time necessary for a particular tank cleaning rna.
chine.
cud girder. Primary (foreandaft) st ructural fr amin g member of a vessel de.
signed specifically to support the deck pla tin g.
chell prruure alarm. An audible a nd visual warning system for the vess el opera.
tor, designed to activate at pred etermined settings (highllow) of pressure and
vacuum in the cargo tanks.
chell water seal. A nonmechanical, nonretum device in the IG system designed to
prevent the return flow of cargo vapo rs in to the no nhazardous a reas of th e
v el.
'2. u: b {rom~ Primary transvers e structural member u sed to support the shell
p'1ahnga.nd previde support against aide impact.
p l . rtl'calll/rpins) pump. Cargo pump de signed s pecifica lly for in stallan th ta..nl<J. The pump i8 located at the bottom of the tank a n d is conid drive unit on deck via a long shaft. Particularly suited for
e~sel8 ~hat require enhanced cargo segregation.
nl!'iJ.t 0
e 8crubber in an IG system: designed to r emove wa ter
~1:.!'Q!~r.er for time exceeding

layttme.
rriera to describe seawater ballast incrude-oil-washed and stripped dur-

. I ement method. A method of atmosphere replacement utilized in th e car go

drsp a~nks of an inernd tank vessel. Low.velocity entry of gas and minim al turbulen ce create a l~yered ~ffect between the incoming and outgoing gases.
Decla ra tion of m spectl0n . A pretransferchecklist that must be completed by
DOT. yes "" a nd terminal
personnel.
.
double.h ull con structIon . A method of vessel construction in which the cargo car ryi ng compartments are separated from the sea by an inner and outer hull
(t w o pieces of s te~l).
Dresser coupling. A shp.~n collar used to connect two nonflanged ends of pipe.
Thi s type of connection allows for movement of the piping due to thermal
va riances and vessel st res s.
drip pan. A portable containe~ commonly placed unde r a manifold to collect any
leak age fr om the con nections .
dwt.
Deadweight ton nage. The amount of cargo, fuel, wate r, and stores a vessel
can carry wh en fu Uy loa ded, expressed in either long tons or metric tons.
eart hi ng. The electrical connection of equipment Ii.e., portable gauging equipment) to the hull of the vessel which is at ea rth potential due to ita contact
with the se a.
eductor. Ajet-type pump commonly us ed to stri p th e cargo tanka . An eductor
quires a driving (power) fluid th at is delivered at high pressu~ ~ a sma,J1 onfice cresting a vacuum (vent uri) whi ch enabl es .ita use as a.stnppmg device .
EEZ. Exclusive economic zone . Th e area extending 200 null'S offshore of the
United States .
. .
entry permit. A document issued by a responsible person prior to permitting the
entry of personnel into an enclosed apace .
epory. A special two-part resin or paint (hard coating) us,ed to prou:e,ttankm::i
faces from salt-water corrosion and attack by certain aggresBI\e che

,_I

n:

cargoes.
. .
explosimeter, See com~ustible~ga8md:;~~~~ed as "explosion proof"when it is enexp los io n proof. Elect nc&:1 eqUlP::e n~withsta nding an internal explosion ora hyclose d in a case th~t IS ~apa e~ device must alao prevent th e ignition of a
drocarbon va~or/alr mlx~ure.
e ee eith er from a spark or flame resul~ng
flammable mixture oU~lde thfe c; th e temperature rise of th e case followmg
from the internal explo sion or TO l
t nonnoUy eperete at such a temperar~
.
.
The ""u lpme n roue
such an exp 1oaten. .~..
bl atmosphere will not be Ignited.
ture that a surrounding flamm a e
explo siv e range. See flammable ran::~hiCh a liquid gives off sufficient ~sp?~ to
fire point. The lowest tampereture th rellence ofan ext.emal source oflgrntion.
'"; d mbustlOnm
. h t h e eye han..'. .
supporrsusteme
.
ffie p d'n the vessel WIt
to ing WIres a txe w
.J
the
{ire wire. Emergency WI
mh
ide They are gene.rally loca\A<U near
above the water on tho 0 s ore ameble towboats to move the vessel
d t the quarter to ena
c whilll docked at 11 facility.
forecastle head an a
quickly in theevE:,nt of an 4merge~ ~r roaming under th o. manifold nne(uedcQntail'f'll nt A perma nb ug _;llage.t!.urLnl:l'tli co.nnectingaoiidl

to II t ny~ari08y,.a!
..
tl a d 81
~

GLOSSARY

347

GWSSARY

34.
.
( II lar tu bular. or other construct ion de aign ed . ADy deVIce
0 ce u
,
w
{/omt arrrstor.
f fl mea into an enclosed space .
prevent the pa~saged' "
nsisting of fine corrosion-resi sta nt wir e mesh
A portable eVlce co
.
fiamf'scm. ". dlo preventspark suor th e passage of a fla me mto a tan k. According'_
w
deslgne
. I
must be constructed of3 0 x 30 (squa res- pe r_inch)
ti a smg e screen
guI
re a ron,
t have at least 20 x 20 mesh s paced n ot less tha n ~
mesh ; two screens mu~
. h
ore th an 1* lllches apart.
.
inc or m
The area between th e minimum and m axl m u ~ concentra _
flammable rongf'.
.
. which form 11 flammable or ex plosive mixture
tiona of vapo r 10 a ir
.
.'
d VEL
.
,
I bb . ted LEL (lower exploBI\'e limit ] an
(upper explo_
Usua l y a re vta
etve limit ).
. I gth f . .
Raised flat end of piping used to connect s ~ccesslVe en
so prp tng. The
{/all8f!~anifold is us ually flanged to permi t connectIOn ofthe cargo h oses or loading

=:.'

The lowest temperat~ a.t v:hich a liquid gi ves off sufficient vapors,to
form a flammable mixture WIth mr m the presence of an external so urce of Ignition. The vapors will ignite momentarily but are not capable of sus tai ning
combust ion.
{lut ga& system. An inert gas system in whi ch the oxygen-deficient exhau st gas is
derived from a mari ne boiler; typicaUy foun d on steamships.
fret slll"{aa. fUofen to th e free movement ofliquid (such as cargo or ballast wa ter)
in a tank which has a negat ive effect on the stability of a vessel .
FWA. Freeh water allowan ce.
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act .
g(Uro~. Sn tankscope.
8tu fm. A tank or othe r enclosed s pace is consi de red gas-free w he n sufficient
fresh air hall been introduced into the space to lower t he le ve l of fla m m able
and toxic vaponand incre ase the oxygen level for a s pecific purpose .
gtu{rwlhg. The pl'CJCeo8S of ventilating a s pace with ai r to prep are t he space for
various operations such as entry, dryd ock , h ot work . and so on . Before
gas-freeing an inerted cargo tank, the operator must en sure the s pace has
been properly purged of hydrocarbon vap or s to pr event the crea tion of a flamaol atmOllphere.

(huh

, neoJITgne, or teflon ring inserted between two flanges to prevent

om the tank. Gauging of the

opening).
v I in 8 tank by means of
ghere. An example of
H a s ndpipe and vapor

V. Ga s pr essure regulating valve. The va lve in an IG system that controls the

OR flow of in ert gas to the deck .

ide ribs. G rooves o~ chann~ls in the bod.y of a valve th at keep th e operati n disk
gu tn alignme nt wh ile openmg a nd cleeing.
g

Hi gh -capa cit y was~ing mac hi ne. Any fixed ta nk washing machine with
a th rou ghput of60 cubic meters per hour an d above.
h ' h jet . A device u sed to ve nt the cargo ta nks in a controlled fashi on on modem
18 lank vessel s . It is classifie d as a hig h-velocity venting device, which is one
that ac h ieves a speci fi~ d mini~um effiw: velocity ofthe atmosphere exiting
from a cargo tan k du nng load m g an d ballas ting operations.
hO/J.
Bending stress caused by th e un even distribution of weight on a vessel. A
hog con d ition is created wh en there is a concent ration of weight at th e ends of
th e ves sel ; the deck is subjected to te ns ion and th e keel is under compression.
S ee also sag.
hot work . Any fire-p roducing action or activity capable ofi ncreasi ng te mperature
to the point of ca usin g th e ignition of flamm able va pors. This typically includes work suc h as welding, burning, solderi ng, grinding, and 80 on.
HVV. High-vel ocity vent valve. A venting device that results in a high exit velocity of the tank atmosphere. usuall y exceeding 30 meters per second. Example s include bullet valves and hi -jets .
hydrocarbon. Any compound made up ofhydro~en and .carbon ~xcl~sively .
hydromt'ter. A device used to measure the Specific gravity of a liquid .
.
h)'drostatic tables. A tabular fonn ofthe curves deriv ed from the.hydrostat~c data
of the immersed portion ofa vessel. Entering the hydrostatic tables WIththe
displacement ofthe vessel, it is possible to determine a numbe r of key valuet
that a re needed to perfonn a cargo calculation, for example . mean draft, MT

HeW;"

LCB, and so on .
.
(Shi C
"..
In terna tion al Code for the Construction and Eqwpment o.
ps arT)'l
k Th
I apply to chenucal tanken conDa ngerou s Che micals in Bul k . ese ru es
structed on or after 1 July 1986.
lCS. In terna ti on al Chambe r of Shi pping.
tration of a toxic subIDLH. Immediately dangerou s to life or health-t~edc.o:::l'slife or health.
stance that pos es an immediate ~hre.at to an 10 I
[MO . International Maritime OrgaOlzatlon:
. rt condition when it isinca .
d"
An a t mos ph er e issaid
to behox
lO an lOe
. 0 f gas
In ert con It/ on .
.
en deficiency. It eonetsee
pable of su p po rt ing combustion throug
: gf8percent or leas by volume.
or 8 mixture ofgaeee with an oxygen ~~teni:sufficient oxygen to support the
inert gas. A gas or mixture of gases contalOmg
combustion of hydrocarbons.
I
t in which inert gas is introduced
inerting,primary. The process ofg8s rep 8~~~? g IlJ1 inert condition. Primary
into a space with the object of e8~ ~~IlI:hiPyard.
.
inerting ie typically perfonned leevtng
d to prevent chemical reactions.
inhibitor A substance, generally IlJ1 additiv.~ ~st' tank (the distance from the surinpage 'A measurement ofthe depth ofliqUi
a
J
f~ce Q( ~e c 0 to t.he bottom of the ~n ~led
between the vell8elllJ1d the
insul
ilo
n d joint. usually. ms,y .....ro......-b"h"hoBestrings and loadip.g
ci i
~
ectncal eonunur UJ, ''''''''

IBC

I:

G).O S8AIIY

GWSS An v

, 48
f a 9JK'Cial inllulatin g gas ket. bolt lllee Vl's . a nd wuah(' r9 de.

"nnll. It C(ltJlIillUi Dan meta l.la-meta l contact aCTO!!!! t he fla nge fan's.
lJiRJ1ed to prevent
y ,cBlinstn
....ent capa ble of dete cting the bounda,..,b
An{',ectn
In , .....
.~
(! .
jnttrfare dttedor.
.r la er9 in a tank.
Y t ' ne l Association ofIndep t'nd ent Tanker Ownt'r.
tween 011 and
"R.T.u'KO
. '

lcal lv
s nfe lf
t anYflpark'
INT",
..... . . The ntema
I t 'cal10circuit is considered
m tnnslca
Yllafe
t
50
m tnlU1Mll, f . <rAn e _~ nred in nonnal operation (i.e. by ope ning or d os ing th
. . or rrau ln
orlhe rmal effectprocu
ld . _" (i I' by shortCIJ"C'Ult
t irs mcapa hl e o f "IgTu tine
circuilloraCCi en.... y , .
rt'lICribe-d flammable mixture .
.
.
p
IS.'ely Guide tor 0,1 Tankers a nd Terminals,
ISG01T. InlernotlOM
/.
I'
"-_, unit Accord ing to the USCG. ITB refers to a tug a nd
ITB. Integra ted tug-.......
.
.
tank barge with s mechanical aystem th at allow~ t he ~nnect1on of the pro
pulsion urutltug) to the st~m of t he cargo carrymg unrt (ba rge) s o that th e
two vessels function as a single self-propelled vessel .
Jumper. Flt xible hose used to interconnect (cross over) t wo ca rgo sys te ms or
groups st the manifold.
. '
loytime. The a mount of nme allowed for cargo loading and di sch arge as specified
by the charte r part y.
LCB. l.<Ingitudins l center of buoyancy.
LeG. l.<Ingitudinal center of gravity.
LEL. Lowerexplceive limit. The mini mum conce nt ration of hydrocarbon vapo r
in air that forms an ignitable mixture in th e presence ofan external so urce of
ignition. Below the LEL there is insuffi cien t hydrocarbon va por (lean mix ture ) for combueticn to occur. Also referred to as the lowe r fla m m a ble limit
(LFL).
lightening holt,. Holes cut in the framing of a tanker to save weig ht without sacrificing structural st rength.
lighten ll{J. ~etrans fer ofbulk liqui d cargo from the vessel to be Iig hte red (VT BL)
to ~ service vessel. Ligh teri ng is usually necessary in areas wh ere dra ft limitatlOns or local regulations preven t th e VTBL from proceedi ng directl y to a
dock.
light , hip. The weight of the empty ship. (Dis placeme nt of a vessel with no ca rgo
stores, fuel. water, andballast ; usu ally ex pressed in long tons or metri~

z:

::'i

;lImber holfll. Small openings t i

h
.
Jow tht' free f1
f li .~u Into t I' framing m embers of the ve ss e l to a lI
I pe'fmit a ~:nok t~q~~ a {ca rgolb allas t! through a s pace. Thes e o pe nI cHarge.
thoroughly drained (s t r i ppe d) at the e nd of a

rm a, A formula. used to die

'
I' rrmne the quantity ofcargo remain-

COffipl~Lion of discharge on a vessel with a considerabl e

349

T l.oad-on-to P An ~p erntional techn~qu e devi lled by the tanke r indu st ry to

LO . ret.a in oily /wate r mi xtures on b.oa rd In order to reduce sea pollution.

ollifold. The v esse~8hore . c~nnectlOn point on a ta nke r. usually located a mid.

ships . Th~ mamf?ld ~lPlng .exte nds e thwartehl pe, thereby permitting th e
vcs sel to Ill' up With either Side to the dock. Each mani fold is equi pped with
its own valve frequentl y called a "header."
, ,chemist . An individual cert ificated by the Nat ional Fire Pro--""on A _ a ""'; _
morlll
.
U . dS
"""U nil........
stion (NFPA ) l~ the mte . ~tes to conduct the necessary tests and inspections to dete n m ne the condition of ecmpartmenta on a vessel prior to ent ry
(irl6pection) or repair (hot work ).
mast riser. A method of controlled venting ofcargo ta nka in which the at mosphere
is piped to one or more masts or kmg posts.The use of a ta ll slac k directs the
ca rgo vapors aloft, t hereby mi nimizi ng potential accum ulations on deck and
arou nd the superstructure during losding and ballasting opera tions
,\fAWP. Maximum a llowable working pressur e. A preeeure ra ting us ed for cargo
a nd vraper h oses.
mechan ical loading a rm. S ee chicksan.
mechan ical seal . A method of preventing th e lea kage of cargo from the openings
in the casing of a pump. ~I echanical sea ls a re used wherethedrlveshaft penetrate s the casing of the pump.
mixmaster . Fixed piping in stalled at the vesse l's manifold thst serves as a crossover between two or more cargo system s or groups .
MPM . Multiple-point m ooring.
.\iTl . Moment to change the trim ofa vessel one inch .
mucking. The physical removal of cargo residues, scale: sludge , mud, etc., ~m a
cargo or ballast tank using shovels and buckets. It IS a necessaryeperenc n to
prevent the robbing of cargo space, clogging oflimher holes, an d .conta~a.
tion of ca rgo . It ie also ca rried ou t to prepare the vessel for repa ir work m a

"'

f r
nfined or uns hi pyard.
naked lig ht s . Open flames or a ny other pote ntial source 0 rgru 10 0 CO
confin ed.

NFPA Nation al Fire Protecti on Associa tion.

NLS. Nox ioua liquid s ubs tance.
NO R. N otice of readiness.
he mi
m energy t he liquid must possess
NPS H Net posi ti ve s uction hea d. T e muumu

.
fi r the pump to operate.
_u
at the inle t ofa pump 0
l d
mbination carrie r. A "'eslIelspecllluy
mer Also ca I' a co
.
Oil/b IW
I
U ore ea
'.
licui d nd solid cargoe s m bulk.
const ructed to ca rry venous IqUi II
OBQ. Onboard quantity of ca rgo:
Iarine Forum.
OC1MF. Oil Companies IntematlOnaltJl.ation ofa gas that can be detect ed by an
odor thre sh old . The. minimu~:e~r~s~aIlY express ed in pam per million by velav erage person s sense 0
ume.
troleum whether in solid, semisolid. emul~ified. or
oil . Defined by the US~G (IS pe t limited to crude oil. fuel oil. sludge, Oilrefuse.
liquid form. including but od: ts
d without limiting the generality of the
oil res~due, .and refin~~::ub~~an:~s 'Ii att'd in Appendix I of Annex I of
foregomg, mcludes
MARPOL 73fl8.

aBO .

GWS8ARY

GLOSSARY

950

351

".J
Defined by th e USC G as a ny re sid ue ofoil cargo w het he r in lin] .
oil cargo N' SIU!lc
.
.
.
k
d
I ,
llemisolid, em ulsified, or liquid fonn f:om cargo tan 8 a n cargo purnproorn
bilges, including but not limited to d ra m ages, lea kages , ~l(h " u ll ted oil, muck ,
d ingage, sludge, botto ms, paraffi n (wax ), and a ny conshtu.en t component of
d

oil. (The term o il cargo re sidu e" is also kn0:m 810 "ca rgo ~ I I re8 i d ue . ~ )
oily mixture. Defined by t he USCG as a mix t ~re. m a ny (ann wl.th a ny oil con te n t,
including but not limited to slops from bilges, slops from oil ca rgoes (s uch a e
cargo tank wash ings, oily waste. and oily refuse), oil residue, a nd oil y ba lla "'t
wate r from cargo or fuel oil tanks.
oulage. See ullage .
ot'f'r(i// ala rm. An a udible and visual warning 8Y8te ~ th at a~tivate 8 when the Iiq.
uid level in a eargo tank reac hes a pred etermin ed POint. Accordin g to t he
USCG, th e al ann mu s t be se t to gi ve th e PIC ample warning to pe rmi t the
shutdown of loadin g before th e tank overflows.
o:cygtn analyr erlmeter. A portable in strument used to determine the pe rcen ta ge
of oxygen by volum e in th e atmos phere of a space.
padi"ll gland. The area a.rou nd t he etem ofa val ve in which packing m ateria l is
wrapped to provide a leak -free openi ng in t he to p of the bonnet . The gl and is
tigh te ned do....n to squee ze th e pa cking material, t hereby pre ve n ti ng le aka ge
from the valve.
Panamas. A tanker between 55,000 and 80,0 00 dwt (t he largest vessel capable of
transi tin g t he Pan a ma Canal ).
PEL. Permi ssible exposure limit. The maximum lev el ofexposure to a toxic substa nce th at is a llowed by a ppropriate re gul a to ry a uthority. The PEL is usua ll y ex pressed a s a tim e we igh t e d ave rage (T WA)- t he a i rborn e
concen t ra t ion of a toxic s u bstance averaged over a n S.hour period us u al ly
expressed in parts per m~lIi.o n (pp m) . PE L may a lso be expres s ed according to
a ehc rt -te rm exposure limit (ST E L}-the ai rborne concentration of a toxic
subs~~ a vera ged over any IS-minute period , u sually ex pressed in pa rt s
per mIllion (ppm).
petrochemlculs . Organic chemicals manufa ctured from pe troleum .

p.ft1'Q~~~a~ compo~d cons is t ing

of a mixture of hydrocarbons . Crude oil is a

c
bYhoccu~ng petroleum fr om which other products a re d e ri ve d
u1ro.Yg t e refining process.

.. ar

lil,..~:.rI. .."" 'f hg ds eVO}vbo

fid from petroleum. The main cons tituen ta of petroen

tid rocar
ID8
' butitmayai
. so con teiIn at h er s u bs ta nc es, s uc h as
n ead alkyls, as minor constituents.
in~ividu~1 possessing the proper USCG endors eme nt
el'lnvolvmgd.ng eroua licuid
iqur e or Iiquefied gases on a

H.

~ff~j

1OiIO~ ~
.~t, "
ri ~ p i ng pump, it is
ii.~!f'
ng up a tank at tho end

of II disch llrge . E xa m ple s of pOMit ive-displacement u

.
.
p rnpe Include renprocs t,
ing p umps a nd rotary pum ps.

ur poin t. The lowe s t te~ pera tu~e at which a liqUid will re

[l ui

~S$ure surge. A s u d de n Incre as e In t he liquid pre88urein ~alD. a wd.

P
change in the velocity of t he liquid. Thi s can be b
ahPlpehne ca~ by a

val ve agains t the liquid now in th e pipelin e. The V:lu~, t ',hohut .by .c1oslDg a
. is converte d 0Cl
y o t e liquid goes to
zero, an d th e e ne rgy WIithiIn t h e I'iquid
to
.f I
An
.~
ti
1
pressure.
pump relle va ve.
~ u,",:,m a IC va ve (s pri ng-loaded) that protects the s ste m
from overpres sunZaliOn j commonly found on the d,"harge Slldee cf
y
0 a cargo
pu m p . In the even t of overp ressu rization the valve 0""011
.
I' ~ . ~ th
.
..~ , peruu 109 u,e
ca rgo to r ecircu a "" .'-U e sucnon si de of th e pump , thereby preventin an
further pres sure buildup.
g y
purging. A form of gas replacement in which inert g8.11 is introduced into a tank
t hat is in an in ert co ndit ion. Th e object ofpurging is either toreduce the existing oxygen content and/or to reduce the existi ng hydrocarbon vapor content
to a level where s u bsequ ent ventilation with frellh air will not resul t in the
creation of a flammable atmosphere within the space. A tank is considered
properly purged when the measured hydrocarbon level is found to be 2
percent or le s s by volume in the space.
PV breaker. Liq u i d fi lled pressure-vacuum breaker. It is a nonmecbanical
pressu re-vacuum re lie f device com monly foun d on the IG/vent main designed to back u p the mechanical PV valves instelled on the ta nks. It is a
containe r fille d to a p re s cri bed level wit h a liqu id of a certain densi ty (usua lly a n a n tifreeze mi xture ) t ha t is set to rel ieve excess pressure or vacuum
in t he t anks .
PV valve. A m echanical pre ss ure-va cuum relief device th at provides s~cturaI
protection of the ca rgo tan ks on a tank vesse l. It consists of a dual disk valve
(pressu re -va cu u m) utilizin g spri ngs or weights which a~ ~esigned to open at
. t h e tan k . I n a ddi ron
lOproV1d.i ng lltNcturalp~
a set press ure or va cuum 10
I
. .
..
. ..
sl ed ca....... ta nk th ereby II11DIte ction. these valves a s si st ID mllllltalDi ng a Be
- .. mi ztn g loss of cargo vapors an d inert gall deck press ure . ulfid
hid>
.
.'
.
d s give off hydrogen s
e gas w
pyrophorlc OXIdatIOn. Certain sou r ~ e
d fi . nt a tmosphere to fonn
co m bin es with rus t (iron oxide ) ID an O~ygen- e ~e th recess is reversed .
ir on s ul fid e. When oxygen is introduc~ lD~ the de s~rur oxide. and hea t.
o:
Ir on s ul fide combine s wit h oxygen to o~ I~n 'f a n~mmable atmosphere is
This heat may be en ough to cause a n exp oercn 1

,, .c

pres ent.

ed to connect a valve s ituated some dis.

land 'wheel) typi cally on deck.
lth n operatmg S
.
tance from the operator WI a
tank(s )capableofreceiving cargoreslreception fa cility. Usually refers to a shore I ps from a ta nk vessel. In the ebdues (oiVnoxious liquid ac bs te ncee' ~r 8 O't can s] so include the use of tank
sence of suitable tanks or capacIty uck ore, I uier mobile facilitie s.
tank true e. or OUI~
. 1 d
barges, railroad tan k ~o.rs, . lacement piston-type pump. Types I.nc u e
reciprocating pump. A poslt1Ve-dls~
They are particularly suited as
. catlng pumps.
simplex and duplex rt'ClP~
riming ability.
stripping pumps due to their lIelfp h
QI manifold when the flanges on
etu . r. -A fitlllll:coIJlUlonly i~talled onht e ~ the cargo hosesor loading arms.
n e a differ in dtmenaron from t oae

reach: rod. A s te e l rod or een ee of rods WI

GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY

353

352
evtded by the man ufactu re r of a t mos phere lelllin"
Ch a,> pr
nn iulHt ru ml'nt,
bl t heuserto convertt h e mere r ree dim g o f an
equlpmea t to ena e
.
to the actual concentra tion of a part icular ga~ III II llpllce:
-O n

rt's""n.ff' CUn~s.
Y -

_mo,";",

on board" a t th e eompleticn of the disch arge ope ratio n.

RO8 , Cargo ..,
hi h tT
. te
h'
rotary pump. A positive-dis plaCt'ment pump w IC u I rzes m rmes m g lohl's,
gealll, vanes, or screws to draw suct ion. . .
runaround. A temporary (Ushape dl piece ofplpm g used to crOSHover cargo sye_
terns or groups at t he manifold.
. .
.
R~'P. Re-id vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of a hq wd ~s determined by us ing
a stan dard Reid a ppar at us. The test involves m easu~ n~ t~ e re s ulta nt vapo r
press ure in a closed contai ner when a sample of t he hqwd IS hea ted to a sta n,
dard temperat ure of lOOF I3S,B'C ). It proVIdes a measure of the volatility of
U

. .
a liquid.
soddl... A fairlead or support used to preve nt a hose from kinki ng and chafing.
mg. Bending etrese caus e d by th e unev en distribution of we ight on a ,' e Mel. A
sag condition is created when th ere ia a conce nt ra tion of weigh t in the
midsect ion of the vessel; the deck is subjecte d to compression and t he keel is
und er tension. See also hog.
SCM Self-contained brea thing ap paratus.
scMdul... Refere to the thickness of th e wall of a pipe . Differ ent sched ules of pipe
are used dependin g on the intended use ofthe line (ca rgo, vapo r, hy d raulic,
water, bunker).
~ru bbeT. The primary processin g unit in an inert gas system. Its fun ctions in clude cooling the gas, re moving solids (soot). and removing corrosives and
physical water droplets from th e gaa.
(Jup/Hr!weathurhd:drain . Drain lines leading from the main deck ove r the ves sel's side. These openings must be plugged before ca rgo operations commence.
1M cM, t. The n~me given to the re inforced openi ng in t he h un of a tank vessel
th rough which seawater ballast can be loaded or disch a rge d
grega::;.baliru/ 6yBte". A system on a ta nke r cons isti ng of ran' ks, piping, and
/U'
'c uJ'dl use~_ exclUSIvely for balla st service. A segregated-balla st system
hoda...,0 not nav e any mte nnI' CtiIon '0
w t he cargo system of t he ve ssel
,
j~~:;:he Th
tank
l' inte,m~ sUrface.sof a ca rgo tank s hielde d from the impingi ng
I' eamng ma chm t s.
' Mar f Orrf The result of 0
. f
aChn~ at a particula rpo~~ng orcea (such aa buo yant ver eua gravitational)
l lop tonh
k deei r oca Ion upon th e bull of a vessel.
elIlgnated on a vessel for th
.
f
.
~inis aod. Ilopl.
e receipt 0 tank wa shings , pipeline
. '" /

ationaI Con.vention for the Safety of Life at S ea

~;~""
~~;d~ OII CQD,taining.
5 cant amount of .s ulfu r and s ulfur
"d
etgm
o ro

!mAuJ' I e w ) whoreh iIS c haracterized by the obj ectioneg.

s io

f .
.a g'lveo volume of a substance at a stan1'1
the weight of an equal volum e of

a fl e

Ous com bustion . The ignit ion of a ma teria l t hat occurs by the genera tion

.'
h e mu teri
sPOfl / of hea t WlthiD.t
annlth rough a n .intern al chemical reaction. The mate -

.81ign ite s Wit h ou t t he need for a n exte rnal source of ignition.

n. ,.., A s hort s ection of fla nged piping.

poe!I pieces drench. An open-ended wre nch with a tap ered spike handle used for align .

~ng the bolt holes in two flanges when maki ng a connection.

,pll

t 'c ~ccu mulator oil. A poor cond ucting cargo that ia capable of developing and

sta

retaining a sign ifi ca nt electrostatic charge.

tic electricity. The electricity prod uced by dissimilar materials through physical
sta contac t and se pa r a ti on such as the flow of cargo throu gh a pipeline.
static nOflOccum ulat oT oil . A good conducti~gcargo that read ily gives up anyelectros tati c charge through the shell platin g of the vessel to earth.

STCW. Standards of Training, Certification a nd Watchk eeping for Seafarers.

STEL. S hort-term exposure limit . Th e max imum concent ration of a substan ce to
wh ich workers ca n be expose d continuously for a 8hort period of time. provided t he daily TLV is not also exceeded.
strainer. A fitting installed on the suct ion s ide of a cargo pump to pr:event any ~or
eign objects or debris from being dr awn into the pump and possibly damaging
t he internals.
. .
stripping. The final dra in in g of the conte nts of a cargo tank o.r PI ~\.Og system" .
, ubmerged pump. A pump specifically de signed for inB~ahon 10 a tank. It IS
pa rticularly suited for multigrade vessels that requ ire enhanced segrega.
rion. The pump and d rive unit are located at the ~:m of the tank .
Suez max A tanke r in the range of 120,000 to 200,000
f'
.
.
I d i ta k todam"nthe mo\'ement o rqswash pla te. Framing member instal e IDa n

uida.
'd
. bulk
tanker. An y ves se l des ign ed ~ carry Iiq~ ~;~~hat ~r'\'e8 as th e opening for
tank ha tch. Th e raised eoarrnng of a hate on
access to a ca rgo tank .
h t i capabl e of measuring the ccacentank scope A com busti ble-ga s indicator t 8 ~s . ~ _depece It isparti cul
. arly
.
.
b olume 10 an lDeI"WU
f t h purging operati on pri or to
t r ation of hydrocar bon vapors yv
u s eful wh en determining t he succesS 0
e
ga s-freeing a tank .
tank top. S ee tank hatc h.
fl water in a cargo tank throu gh th e
.
) Th mea surement 0 ree
t hl elJage (water cuts.
e
fi di g paste on a bob.
"
us e of a n ins trumen t or wate r- ~ n In . hted average- The m8Xlmum err TLV-TWA. Threshold limit value- tl me ':I~hich it is believed that nearly al~
bo rn e conce ntrat ion of a subsumc e
rm el g.hour workday or 40ho u
r
workers may be rep ea tedl y expose dsfo al: " nu issible eJlposure limits .
. h t d ersc effect. eea
workweek , WIt ou a v
d ' 1016 kg).
. f
. ht'2 240poun s ,
ton fong A urnt 0 weig . ,
d. (1 000 kgs).
"
. f
. ht 2204 poun
'
tall, metric. A unit 0 werg . ,
und s (907 kg).
ecilied ulton, sho rt, A unit of weight; 2,00, 0 ~ the loadingofs ca rgo ta nk to a epee
th e
. ff. The proce ss of comp eh ng
. ' th e transfer of cargo gIVen
toppml~;e. lt is considered a critical op:r::~o~.~ regulations, a ny critical operaheightened potential for a spII~. ~ fthe peraon-in-charge (PIC).
uoo ~ui re8 the direct s upervtSlon 0

GLOSSARY

'54

' rod '

( 'n,rtgas into a tank alrea dy in the in ert condition
Them t uctlono I
h '
.
( . .
the tank pressure to pre vent t e mgresa of air.
with the obJect 0 ralsmg
. p ' onGUS to human life.
I . ( the concentration of a known or suspecte d
tone- 018
. -t t t A measurem en v

1tuU'1 Y est ,
.
b tance in the atmosphere of a s pace . It I S usually a
health.threatenmg tlU s
. .
gas.specifictest that is ~easured in parts per nulhon (pp m ).
TPI Tonaper inch ImmerSIOn.
.'
. .
.
tro~I"!"I't bulAheod. A solid bulkhead runnwg m the athwartshl p direct ion uau_
aUy 8eparating cargo tanks.
trim arm The numencal difference between ~B and.LeG. .
h A fixedcontainment area (coaming eqwpped WIth gratmgs ) permanently
troug installed under the cargo manifolds ofthe vessel, design ed to collect any s pill.
age that 0C"CW'8 when connecting/~sco nnecti ng ho~es or arms.
UEL. Upper eaplceive limit. The maomum concenrrancn of hydroca rbon vapor
in air that fonns an ignitable mixture in the presen ce of an extemal scuree of
ignition. Above the UEL the concentration of hydroc arbon vapors is too great
(rich miJIture) to support combustion. It is also known as t he up pe r fla mma ble limit (UFL).
ULCC. Ultra large crude carrie r.
tJlo8r. The measurement offree space above the liquid in a tank. It is t he distance
from the surface of the liquid in the tank to a reference datum on deck , nor mallythe rim ofthe ullage opening in the hatch. Reference to th e ull age calibretion tables for the vessel will give the volume of liquid in the tank (gross
volume).
ullage Oprnmg. Small opening in the tank hatc h on deck that serves as th e reference point for measureme nt of liquid (cargo) in the tank.
lJQ~ A gsa belowita critical temperature.
I!opqr tonJrol I)'Itt m. Pipmg an d equipment on 8 ta nk vessel that is necessary to
~ntrol certem cargo vapor emissions during load ing an d ballasting operatypical Installation includes vessel/shore vapor collection piping,
tl
!l<Iu1pment, control devices, and vapo r processing units ashore.
nl
t ontactor. A multipli er deri ved from the API ta bles to cono lime
me in th e tanks to a standa rd (net) volu me.
r. A factor deri ved afte r compa ri ng the ship and

loppl ll/l up,

,.nUlnbe~.voyages.

ri

I s~ction of a tank vessel und er conaidlI.tance to flow. It is useful wh en dewell as the need to hea t it.

GLOSSARY

355

can resul t in the admiss ion of atmosphere into the suction line reaching the
pump.
VRP. Vessel res ponse pl an .
It'l!dge, liquid . The cargo rem aining in th e tank aller stripping. Due to the trim of
the ves sel , the rem a ining ca rgo appear s as a wedgeot hquid against th e afte r
bul kh ea d of the ca rgo tank.
well/sump. A recessed area below th e bottom ofa cargo tank (inne r bottom)which
houses th e bellmouth or pump suct ion.
Yokoham a fender. Large fenders commonly placed between two vessels during
lightering ope rations to pre vent the hulls from makin g contact.
nn e anode. A sacri ficial metal used in ballast tanks to minimize corrosion of the
steel ofthe vesse l.
zinc silicate. Pain t loaded with a high percentage of zinc, used to protect the steel
plat ing of a ta nk from corrosive sttack.

IlJRLIOGHAPHY

357

-CongrcS!l Dictates Double 1I ~1I ~ . - Marine LoR, October 1990: 39

cOlltroUmg Hy drocarbon Em IssIOn, from Tonk Ves8t'1 Load ' .
~1arine Board of the NationallU-!K"an:h Council) W8Bhi~ng /p,;;pared hy t he
Acade my Press , 198 7.
.
gto n, .C.: Nationa l

Crude Oil Washi ng S y stem s. Lond on: Intf'mationaIMaril,m ~ . .

e .... l5amza tlOn, 1983.

b
.
"Cru de Tanker P0 IIutIonA ateme nt (Exxon position pape r ) H to n-E
Co
poration, 1976 .
. OWl on. Doon r-

Bibliogr aphy

Andersen, Stetner. "Inexpensive Bulk Nitrogen Production." Shipb uilding Technology Internationa l, 1989 : 157-1 58 .

Angelo, Joseph J. "AStalus Report of CoeerGua rd Impl em enta ti on ofOPA Double

Hull Related Requiremen ts ." Presen ted a t Murine Log 's T a nke r Legi sla tion
1991 Conference. Washington, D.C., September 24, 1991.
Baptist, C. Tank er Handbook for Deck Offi cers. Glasgow, Scotland: Brown, Son, &
Ferguson Ltd., 1991.

Beaver,Earl R 'PermeaGas Separation Membranes Developed into a Commercial

Reality," Paper delivered to Seventh Annual Membrane Technology Plannin g
Conference. Cambridge. Md ., October 1989.
Berry, ~f G. Optrotwn and MointenonCf! ofInert Gas and Crude Washing S y stems .

8 MSllhtone. Engl~d.: Inte.rlink Inert Gs a Ltd . 1981.

I.nb y, NltJ.1ol8.8. ~VUlg with t he Law," Morine Log, Feb ruary 1981 : 34-37.
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Brneron,
B "Human Erro r T rmea
'
Tw o.' Pr oceeding
. s of the M ari ne
,I.
COouglu
,.
~:"" c:J t4 OU1U."il.. OcWber-November-Oecember 1989 ' 132-135
G.17W$/Za~=heSafe Handling ofln{lammabl~ and Co~bU8tible L iq uids
6
r
U8 Products. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Coast Gu ard , 197 5.
19 . nI Gwde to Chemical Hazards. Wa shington , D.C .: U .S. Coast

~"",I"""auid fJ

Bulk Shjpment by Water (former CG.388 ). Wa shingd, 1994.

nfor tion System (CHRIS). Waahington, D.C .: us.

a tG

Crude Wash ing of Ta nk ers. Goth.enburg, Sweden : Salen & Wicander AB, 1976,
Double ~{ull Tank Vessels : A R~v few of Current Regulatory Efforts, Design Con.sidemtlOns, and Related T opice of Interest. Paramus, N.J.: American Bureau of
Ship ping, 1991.
- Fede ra l Oil Pollu t ion Act of 1990.- Su mmary of provisions prepared by Che'lfOn
S hi pp ing Co m pa ny , San Fr ancisco, 1990.
Fighting Poll ution: Preventing Pollution at Sea. London: Witherby & Co" 1991.
Fitch , Robert, and Gordon Ma rsh. -Coas t Gua rd Requirements for Mari ne Vapor
Con trol System s," Marine Technology, September 1991: 270- 275.
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Te xa s , 19 82.
Ga rd ner, A. Ward, and R. C. Page. Petroleum Tonk shipSofr/y. Luton, England :
Lome & Maclean Mari ne Pub lish ers , 1971.
Guide for Cargo Vapor Emission Cont rol Systems on Board Tank Vessels. Paramus,
N .J.: Am eri can Bureau of Shipping , 1990.
"Guideli n es for Marine Cargo Inspt>ction.- Manual of Pe/~leum Mea.sureme~t
S tandards, chapter 17.secncn I. Washington, D,C.: Amencan Petroleum lnstitute, 1986.
H I?" '"
I ~ -
Hodgson, Brian. -A1as ka'a Big Spi ll-Can the w ijderc ese eo. HOIIOM unt'"

graphic, J a nu a ry 1990: 4-i3.

. l Ch be
Horrocks , J . C. S. 'V.S. Oil Pollut ion Act of 1990: Letterto Interoa~on~
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of S hi in me mbers. London : Inte rn ati ona l Chamber of Shi ppmg. 1991.
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S
0 rating and Malfltenance Manual, volume 1.
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.
. Ltd 1983
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EngJneenng
.,'
..
E
I
d:
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Or ganization ,199O. .
re ored by the In tern at ional Cham bf'rof Shipping
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I Marine Forum). London: Witherby & Co.,
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' S Ilabus. Linthicum Heighta, Md.: Maritime InstiInert Gas lCrude OIl wa sd"G"" dY ate Studies 1991.
i
avon
ra u ""
.'
90
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Inert Gall SYf;fems. Lon~ ~ s Marine SafelY Manual, chaptt'rl5. Wsshmgton,
"Inspcrtion offnert GIIS ya em '
.
D.O.: U.S. '-;01l8t G~~o~~~ction and Equipment ofShips c~~ng DangerIn~rnatumal Co<!e.for Ik (IBC Code) London - International Mantime Organll.aous
c Is In)3u
.
IJ n
94.

IIIRLIOGRAPHY

35'

"d fi 0 "[ TankefS an d Terminals (/SG07T) . Pr ep a red by

I! or "Sh'
'ng Oil Companie s In ternati ona l Marine
ationa! Chambt-r 0
lpp l ,
d II b
the Iotero
.
1 Associat
ion of Ports a n
ar or a. Lo nd on_.on and th e Inter nat lOns
'-" ,
6
. Wither~y & Co~: E'vo!ut ion of the Load Line." SU': lJeyOf, May 19 76:.7_ 11.
Jun eo!.'l, :~~~E .A FoiluT'fModes (lnd Effects Anal-!'sis o( Vapor Coll eetl oll Sys .
Keu hwn,
. T . ,,_ thwest Research Ins tit ute, 1988.
tuTIS San Antomo, ex.. ecu
0
'
d 'f '
- ' T'he Constru ct ion. perotlon, an .. tUnlen a ncf> of
King. G.,A. B. .t an , er Pra, ,, ..
.
Thnken London : Stanford Ma ritim e Ltd., 1971.
.
, c , IS , "mB" Fi nal Rul e. ~ Federal R eg is ter, June 2 1, 1990 .
-Mann e v epor on 1"0 Y"' .
.
I'! "
AfARPOL 'l3 / 78 IConsolidated Edition ); London: Intern a tt una .. a ntlme Or gani.
I nfim ati onal Soft/yOu l

.'0-

Index

18tioo,I991.
-M
l I P,
I
\
":\ft'asurem ent of Cargoes on Boa rd Tank Vt'ssels . . anua 0 etro eu~, (ea l!Ur e
ment St andard" , cha pte r 17, section 2. Wa shm gton , D.C.: Am encan Pe t roleum Institut e. 1990.
"Mid-deck Tanker Can' t Spi ll." Marine Log, J a nu a ry 1991 : 40.
Our Petroleum Ind ustry. London: Bri t ish Pet roleu m , 1977.
Pende:rter , L. A , an d W. G. Coulter. Clrusifica tion S ociety Ollroiew for COfUl/r uc
tion, Inspection, and Repair of OPA 90 Double H ull Tankers. Paramus, N .J.:
Ameri can Bure au of Sh ipping, 1991.
PocJut GuitU to Chemical Haz atYh. Wll8hin gton, D.C.: U.S. Dep a rtme nt of Hea lt h
an d Human Services, Jun e 1994.
"Rebuilding the Euon Valdez ." Marine Log, Oct ober 1990: 36-38.
Ruth erford , D. TanJt"Cargo Hand liflll. London: Charle s Griffin & Company Ltd .,

1980.
ScUJb Ma C/ 501 Tan . er Moni torin g and Con trol Sy st em , Te ch nica l D es crip ti on.
Gothenburg, Sweden: Saab Marin e Elect ro nics , 1991.
5tamJard /rJr 1M Control ofGa, Haza tYh on Vess els rN FPA No. 306). Boston, Ma:
Nati onal Fire Protection Associati on, 1997.
TanJeerCleanIng Manu a l. San Francisco: Gamlen C hemical Company, 1976.
Tanker Safety Course Notes. Kings Point, Ne w York: Gl obal M a ri ti m e and Trans.
portation School at United St ates Merchant Marine Academ y , 1999.
TOM" Split. P~l'tntUJn by Del lfn (pre pa red by the Marine Board ofthe National
11 ReBe~ Council). WlI.Iihington, D.C.: National Academy Preas 1991
f!f:

~/lJ-.riPt/(,,,, Soob TanJrRadar. Gothenburg

Dietl

Sweden' S~ab M~rine Elec1i9.1

'
.
'Menace'
"PQCJre I GUIUC<
'J,
.
. n.
to the Atmospheric Hazards of Con fine d
ttl
h: Bacharach, Inc., 1989.
rm g Ul we with OPA 1990: Marine Log, March 1991 :

ABS. 8u American Bureau of SJ'lipping

ACGlH (American Conferen ce of Guvern
men tal and Industri al Hygienists )
expceure levels, 293-4
Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships. 296-7 .
5u ailIO Polluti on
Acute exposure. &e au o Cargo haUlfds
defined ,46
telltale eign e, 288
tYJlf'a of exposure, 45
Alabama Shipyard, 16-7

AN'SI (American National Sundanb huti

tute), 72
ARCOE" dl'tll'ouf , 6,6 , 21

Arrival ballut. 8ft 8al1ut

ATRS (Ameriean Tanker Rate Schedule),
227
Alloomated cargo c:onll'Ol
bridge- eoetrel, 148
cargo control roolIl (eCR) 145, 147
schematic, 128. 146

A1.~

autoC'Ont rol feature lIGI, 321

blower failure (lOl, 321
cooling wate r to scrubber IIG I. 321
deck pressure, 111, 319
deck water seal UGl, 321
high gas tempe rature (1m, 311
high level (t.ank), 109-1 0, 206
high oxygen con~nt lim, 311, 321- 2
high water le"el scrubber 11m , 321
overfill (tank), 109-1 0, 206
Ameri can Bureau of Shipping, 147. 8N 01110
Load lines
American Petroleum Institute (APII
convention table , 143-.1
gravity, 33, 34, 142-3
manual of petroleum measurement
ata ndardll. 121
sta ndard temperature. 142
table ' , 143-4
Am..rico1l Prall"'" 7-8

359

Ballast
arrival . 2-10, 247
clean. 240, 247, 299
oompresaion.2-6
oonfigl1Tlltionl,246- 2
departure. 240, 247
dirty, 240, 243
fair weather conditinn, 240
free water, 137
intem llllranafer, 2
MARPOL requirements, 239
oil content of, 240
plan, 207
procedure, 243-6
quant ity, 239
routine operational dischargH , 239
aea auction valve", 243
8l'gregaLed, 239, 243, 299
al.o nn . 240
underbelleeted conditinn, 2311
vapor control, 243-4

INDEX

361

'60
B8'1t'r .

double hull , 16-7

.i nji:le h uH, 16
!.)'JJM I. II. m. 18
SarTiN'll

l'quiulentll, 18
iIIUltnltl'd, 18
iou t pllf.ll"l1l , 3 11-2

phYJIio:<A.l sep. ra tion, 18

BCH. Sn Code for t he Call1ll rutl;on a nd
Equipment orSh i~ eaming D angel'lllUChemitlil. in Bulk
~lJmouth , Sn oW Piping
bran d! piping , 66
ODTllll ructi on. 66
~Dding

.treesH
eeeted lanD, 259
definfd , 154
dwing cargnobaJlul O~T1I tiOIlll. 20 7-.9
hClll' mndition. 155
mini.mizin,.238
Iilil oondition, lu-6
Wlderballuted oondition. 238
Btonu ne
cbfmi~

data guide, 38

th PlDica.lhuanb ~POIIIe information

l)'1Itf' m lCHRl S,. 39
ebrorue t ffed.l ore.pOUl'l', " 6-7
pr~ble eJ:ptWte limIt, 38
regul ated eatJO.n
ern all.din,. 122,222 , 22t
Ittwrr;Jindemnity lLOI 1224
,5lanb

bUfId fl8llF 72-3

k.wlllll' Pna.\IlillM. 96

I. "

.. "

ti "n 96

) llertrBU

flnm ma bility , 26
petroleum, 24
opecia l liqu ids , 25
Bullcrlly Yah-e . Sff Valve.

Ca libra tion ta bles

defi ned , 125
meas ure men t prcc ed u rea, 129-,30
trim COJTPC: tiona, 133
wlllt'r me asurement , 135
Cam-Locl . SrI' Coupling.
Cargo eelculation. S~ also Wt'ig ht
ccmpute r eoft wa re, 145-6
ecnrerston fa cto n, 143-4
information needed , 14 2
purpost>, 142
eemple, 143--4, 198
terms, ISO
uni te of measure, 14 2
volume correction factor, 143-4
Cargo hazan:i9
cotroll ivit y, 5 0
t'~~, 45

fire and explosion, 40

Oxygen defi cien cy, 4 7-8
reactivi ty, 49
toxicity, 35 , 45
Cuga informat ion
chemical cedes , 40

CMmical Dala QuUk for B uIll S hipTrn!fl t by Wa ter, 37

CHE MT REC, 37
CHRIS, 37, 39
Goth of FtderoJ Rl'8 ulatio1Ul, 40
Material Safet y Data Shee ts , 37 , 278

Poltet Qui rk to Chemical Haz o rW, 40

Tanker Safety Guid e Data Sheets, 37
Cargo measurement. See also Gauging
accuracy of, 125, 131-6, 141
calibration tables, 125, 129-31
final gauging, 113, 12.
fr,e water, 129, 134, 137, 141
l[I'Oh ohaerved volume, 129
ins~ct(pn company, 122, 133-4
lightering, 137
ne tandard volume, 129, 143
quanjity, 129
ta,219_2Q
in onbg
IUly 13

term S, 125--9
total ca lcu la t ed volu me, 129
tota l obsl'rved volu me, 129
tri m corred;on s , 133
typica l equ ipment u sed , 123
,.U 8t'l list , 13 1
vl'8111'1 trim , 13 1-3, 136
visco us cargOt's , 136
vola ti le cargoe s , 137
wllt er-in di cat i ng pa ste. 135
wed ge calcula tion , 135, 158
Carg o plan ni ng
com pu te r pro gr am , 146
det ermin ation , 144-6
loadin g to rm al draft, 16S-7, 202-3
pre etew , 14., 156
Cargo report, l3 8
sa m ple, 139
Cargo tanks
Indepe ndent tanks, 12
integral tanks, 12
gravi ty tanks, 13
pre ssure tanka, 13
Cargo t ransfer
agreemen t to begin, 189
bonding cable, 191
cargo hoeee, 183--6
cargo i nfo rmatio n , 19 1, 193
ca rgo pl an , 182-3
cofferde me, 196
com m u nicat io ns, 187
eer mecnen a, 186, 190
cont a inm en t boo m , 196-7
de clarntio n cfinapection, 191- 2
d isch a rg e containment, 186
documen ts, 2 16-7,219-24
doo n an d porta, 196
draft re st ri cti onll, 196
200
emergency sh utd own , 187-8, 199emergency towing wires , 191
federal regulations, 18Z-91
nre-fighting gear, 191. 194
nro safety, 190
name screens, 194--0
7 202
freshwater nllowanctl, 196- ,
goal, 182
inert Ifns system, 191 194....5
lnaulaung OanjCt!, 191,
lighting, 189
londln.ll:lI
a
monlti,j
_n..d i
rn

portahl e elect ric equi pm~ nt, 196

pretro nl fer confe rence , 189
pum proom vi:>nti liltion, 196
repai r work , 190
118fe smoki ng are u , 190-1
n fety matches, 196
ICU Ppel1l, I86--7
lea v IIIVI'S, 191
lIt'grtgated-ballut Ir l tl' m, 196
I pill respollJle equi pment, 196
sufficient penonnel, 188
tranafe r pl'OCl'durn manual, 188
unauthorized craft 194
vapo r contro l opera tions, 191
vessel moorinp, 182, 184
warning signals, 189-90
Cavitat ion. S alIo Pump .
caURll, 168- 9
effect , 168
-ga ss ing",I68
loas oh uct ion, 17.
prime tank use, 169
~ntrifugal pum ps , &t PumPI

CG-38 See CMm.CGI Data G"j,u for Butt

SMprMni by Wall'
Charte r party. 5 alto Cha rte,",
ATRS (Ame rican Tanlr.tr RaI l'

utel, 227
bill of I. ding, 122 , 222. 2201
cargo h OlIeS , 2 18
cargo quantity, 2 16
cargo Ia Dlple8. 222
d ea n tank certi ficate, 222
dem~,211i

dry tank cert ificate, 222-3

fre igh t rate, 226-8
laytim e, 2 15-6
let ter of indem nity CLOI I, 224
lum psum , 227-8
nonce or re8dine.., 11 15-B
pricing,220h5
prote st- , 2 19- 2 1
pumpingclauae , 2 18- 9
rate per ton , 228
role oftankennnn, 211i
811f" berth, 219. 222
terms, 211i--201
time challfl' equiv.lsnt, 228
Worldacal., 22lHl
Charteror, 121-2, :l12
Chart...r ing department, 2:M
ChllcWDt
A..'>BATANKVOY, :1)3

Schtd-

363

INDEX

362
Cbarh'nl ft(}/Itinutdl
bil~boal, 212-3
BPEEVOY. 213

chart<!r party . 213-4

('(Illtract ofalfreiglltrnent (COAl, 2 1

EXXONVOY, 213
tinure. 213
sHELLVO'i, 213

TANKERVOY. 213

~rm-or~mtllt . 213
tinle,212
1~.:n2-3

VtI)~,212

.p.Cl!'.

"lI lry into enclOMd

286-7
prior to carp transftr, 192
lp<lr control. 116-a
Cbll valve.S olio Val vH

lift. 91
l0C8tioo, 9 1

mng, 91
Chemial~

compatibility. 49
cotTOSi"N, 50
nIlIctlVlly, 49

I labi lity, 49
CAtrnil:oJ DoIa G" itk for BuIlt S'llp ~nt by
Wottr, 37
CMDlIeal DiJllJibUtiOD hulitu~ (COl). SN

Sa.

Vett ing

cban&.S Meehataiealloading anna

I J.

deck seal (lG), 3 13

hard. 271
ins pection or, 272
objective . 50, 211

polyure thane, 271

88arifirial an ode8, 273

Ch<'ClIiJt

defined ,37

radar , 124. 128

sonic tape8, 124-6
ty)l('lI, 124
va por con tro l requirem cn tll,lOS--9
Closed loading. Su Vapo r oont rol
Coal-tar e poxy , 27 1. Sn olIo CoatinKJI
Coat ings
da mag e to, 25 9

Cugo infonnation

scrubber, al O
atainJ eas steel, 272
tank cleaning, 259
Code (or the Con struct ion and Equi p m ~nt
of Ships Carrying Dange ro us Ch~mi .
cals in Bulk (Be m , 10 , 3 00-1
Coils , heati ng
coated Lanka , 259
deek seal (lG), 3 13
flus hing, 25 1
leaking, 13 7
limitations of, 259
ope ration of, 198-9 , 20 9
Com bination carrie r. See also Con struction
edvantagea of, 15
CTOllII section, 15
defi ned , 13
disadva ntage8, 15
Comb ustible-gas indi ca to r
catal yt ic se nsor , 289-92
hydrocarbon analyzer, 3 14, 323, 325
LEL meter, 290
limitation8, 281 -2, 290-2
method of operation, 281 -2
LankBcope, 323, 325
type8, 282-3, 288-90
wheatstone bridge, 290
Compression ballasting. See Ballaat
Con,trnction
rge, l6-7
beM ica l carrier requirements, 13
u lombi Egg, 7, 9
iloubl
ull,n

" i

durin g cargo t ransfe r, 182, 199

th rough cro8Sove rs, 64 , 78 , 85
thrOUgh IG sys te m, 3 13, 3 16, 324, 328-9
thro ugh va por con t rol system, 105--7
C trolled venting. S ee Ve n ting
CO~trolling zone . Se" Load lines
c~t , Insura nce, F re igh t (C.I. F.!, 123
Coulombi Egg . See al.so Con st ruction
cross sec tion, 9
du ign , 7
Couplinp
Ca mL: ks ,74--5
Drelllle r, 68 , 70- 1
quick con nect, 72, 74--5 , 83
COW. S..eCrude-oil washi ng
Cl"08llOve n . S..ealso ~t anifold
bottom pi pi ng, 65
described , 77
d oubl e va lve segrega tion, 78 , 85 , 87, 172
iIIus t rated,77-8
j u mpe r, 78
miml aster, 71-8
pumproom, 85, 170-2
runaround , 71
Crude carriere. Sf'e VLCC , ULCC
Crude oil
classification, 56
composition, 25
grade, 32
hydrocarbon compound, 26
solvent prope rties of, 264
Crude-oil washing. See aha F ixed tank
cleaning machines
atmosphe re control during, 268
bene fits, 264 , 30 5
eltn ga ge , 264
cyel l's,2 66
d ropping a nd st ri p ping lines , 266-7
"d ry" bottom, 266
final draining , 266-7
fixed piping 264-6
goal,267
68
inert ga s system requiremenlll, 2
.
LOT pro'u, 247
minimum tankage to COW, 268
muck,264
muills
operatl
00

rea llOn8 for, 262

ROB, 264
Ilt'lfdrive machines, 264
sha dow ar",a8, 2~2
slop ta nk use, 268-70
small diam"'~r h ne , 267
8top valves , 264--6
strip ping capacity , 266
DangeroWlli quids ,3
Deadfre illh t. Set Protests
Dudweight_Sn Weight
DO"baIJlISti nll
ballllSt water tlchan lle, 248-9
disp088I, 245
EEZ, 249
load on top (LOTI, 245-8, 268-70
pollut ion rtgU!ati ons, 299
reception facility, 245-8, 270
reduction of M'a pollution. 245. 248,

268-70
retention in slop tanka, 268-10
Decltdistribution syJt#m t1G).8ft IDtrt gag
branch lin ee, 315-7
ecnnecticn to bottom piping . 315
dt<k. main , 307, 315-7
low point draif18, 315
tank isoll tion, 315-7
Dt<k isolation valve IIGJ, 31U. Sn gUo
Inert gu
Dt<k Pl"l!lliure. 8ft olio Inert GIIS
at SU, 320
a lann Bettini', 111
bar graph of. 320
cargo pumpilll, 168, 311
crud e-oil.wu hing requi rements , 268
during entty, 277
puging, 124
inert g-&s l"l'quire m",n ts, 308, 319-21
in port, 321
minimum. 328
opening inerted tanks, 327-8
opt'ra ti ng range, 112
pennanent TE'COrdingof, JI9
tank cleRnilijl. 328
"topplOg up ," 320
va por oontroloperlltlon, 111-2
DllCk 8~1 . $rr 0160 Inert FloS
d~mi lt",r, a l S
dry el, S1~"'"
locatIon
307
fopuati
f '3121:

""

~;duct"rH , See also Po~ i t i ve d i Mp luc" Il't' 1l1

D<-ck &f'sl(Nln/;nul'd'

..midry ...a l, 313

l)'PH . 3 12-1
,',nturi.313--4
wet ".41. 312
Offlllmb on of in~ p..euon . See

0/110 Cargo

l.l1Inllf~r

c:lrgo trllllsfl'T, 19J

u.rnpJ.., I92

"llpor control ,nlnfOs. 114--S

nc...epweJl pump. Sf'f'ab o Pumps
Ildvan tBge a. 164-6
application. 162
barrel, 164

CTOH-sedional view, 164

dri,'e unit, 163
Ill(:lIuon, 162-3

Dilution method flOl. Sff GlI.'I eepleeement

Dip. S G8Uging
Dixhal'f(' llUIilUl . 70. S aw Piping
lfuchlllgi! operation. St.'toJ.oCargo transfer
cargo pump SLut-up, 204
diJchargt' plan , 205 , 207
dropping pipe linN, 209
elJll'rgency . huldown, 188, 208
huting coil opera tion, 209
Rwt gH.8 syl tern, 208
line nWlh, 209

Iineup,2G4
mooring linM, 209
P~UtiOIUl at atart-up, 197-8, 204

P",tran8fer che<:kt, 197, 204

P~ure,

INIlEX

INDf;X

205-9

rare., 198
.hutdown, 199-200, 206, 209
,lop tank Itv(>l,208-9
~halll' J'8Uo. S~ Loading rates

DUlplaremenL Sf'f'Weight
Dapl'Cl!'ml"nt m"lbod (lGl S. GaB noplaa>m'nt

1
" .
ubI4 hbtlltom 5. S. tJUp <AI"a' ru..ron
tern iv d

pum ps
adv antogl's , 180
lTO",,-..ctiona l view, 179
dislldv llllto gl'S, 180
je t ty pe pump, 179
OpHll tio ll, 179~0
to nk cll'a ning cpem t fcn , 258, 266
Ell'dros totic ho unl s
cause , 42, 322
inert 1I'Illl syste m, 322
precaution s , 43 , 113-4, 19!1
s tot ic accu mula tor cargoes , 4.1
stat ic 1'Irct rici ty , 42
use of HC WM , 259, 3 22, 305--6
EI Segundo, Calif , S..e OfTsh nre moorin gs
Emergency procedures
collision, 334-6
drills a n d d emonstrat ion s , 33 1
fire, 335
ground ing, 333-4
man ifold fire, 33fH)
mast vent fire , 336-7
oil spill, 332-3
p umproo m fire, 337
pumproom rescu e, 331-2
Em ergen cy s h u tdo wn. See Cargo tran sfer
En clOlled space entry. SIT aha Tl'sting
eq uip ment
acute eXposures, 288
atm osp hl'ric h azarda , 2 75-8
cargo properties, 27 8
effects of oxy gen de ficien cy , 277
l' vacuate, 288
fint l'ntry, 28 8
ga s .fl"'l.'('ingproee se, 27 8-80
hydrogen Ilutfide, 277-8
fMO, 274
inhalati on of cargo vapors, 276, 277
ISCCYrT,277,280,282
leakage of vapor/inert gas. 277
MSDS, 278
NFPA. 274, 284
oxygen content, 281 -2
oxygl'n deficient inert gas, 277
periodic teating, 288
permit to e nter, 47, 286-7
physical hazal"lill, 274-6
J?OCketB of gaa, 277, 28B
ll'f'QCedure,284, 288
P~r readinp, 282
em tive clothing, 276, 288
,27.1

rem ute IIllmp ling , 280- 1

rescu e from , 28 8
pfe for hot wor k , 28 2
safe (or work ..re, 282
slI(ety Pqu ipm e n t, 284, 288
te !ting otm osph e re s , 47, 280
te lltin ll'eq u ipm 'llt , 280
tes ting pipc lin es , 28 1
tes ting p roced u re , 28 1, 288
Envir onme nta l Protectio n Ag..ncy IE PA),
104 ..0
Eposy, 271 , S ..e al so Coat ing s
Evon Valde: , 5
Ftderal Wate r P oll u tion Co nt rol Act
(FWP CA), 296 . See also Polluti on
FiJ:ed lank cle anin g m acbines. See olso
Tank clea n in g
cont rol unit, 25 9 , 261
eov..rage req ui reme nts , 262
deck mounted , 25 9-60
double- hul l veseele, 262
Ilxed piping, 259
HCWM , 25 9, 305
illustrated, 260
inert gaa system us e, 259, 328
no n programm abl e , 259
permanent inatnllatjon, 259
programmable, 259-62
shadow areas, 260
ling le-h ul l vessel, 260, 263
s u bme rged ma ch in es , 259
Flammability characteriltics
eutc-igniticn te mpe ra tu re, 27
c1a88 ifica tion by grade, 32
fire point , 27
flammable limita, 27-8
flammable range , 27
Ilash point , 27, 32
lower expleeive lim it , 27 , 290-1
Reid vapor pre ssure. 27, 32
true vapor pre88ure, 26
upp.-'r exp lOllivelimit, 27, 291
vapor d e nait y, 29
volatility, 26
Flammable range
avoidance of, 29
Illustrated, 28
FllLDgl'll
ANSI, 72
blanking, 73
belted, 72-3
OC IMF,13

365

proper tighte ning, 73

S(>e(i fic.atioM, 72
Fro>e on board IF.O.B.I, 123
. 'ro>e IUrf~. 8ft oUo Stability
defin~, 5
red uction, 3, 5
simulta ne-ous c.aTll'O discha rge and bal.
Illlit , 207--8
single-h ull tons truct ioo, 3-4
Free water . SN Cargo mealureml'nt
Fn' ight rate. Sn 0 1&0 Cha rte r pa rty
ATRS, 227
defined,225
lum,",UlD, 227-8
ra te per ton, 228
time cha rte r equivalent, 228
Wor llb caJe, 225-6
World5ca1e CIllcuiation, 226-7
Fn'Shwatu allawance . SH Wa d lines

GM free
candili on, 29-.10, 282
flammable rang.. disgram , 28-9
gu-flfting operation, 3 1
purging prior to, 31, 278
safe ",ading, 29-30, 282
Gas flfting. Sn o/s(, Enclosed space entry
l'lfP03ures during. 47
fadars aJJl'CIing, 279
rued fans. 278
gasfIft mode, 278, 310
inert gas faOll, 278-80, 3 10
mechanical Wi sh ing, 278
numbe r of\'illume changl'll, 279
proCl'U, 278
purging prior to, 278
time rl'quired to, 279
Gu ketB, 72, 83. St'l aiI/O Manifold
Gaa pre55ure regulating valve lORY>. Srl'
alsoInert po
a utomati c mode, 3 11
barriee, 311- 2
function of, 311
inert gal genl'rutor, 326
intt'rlocu, 321
location 0(, 307
main to ntrol valve, 311
medea of operation. 311
shutdown, 321
Gal ",placement. ~ oW Inl'rt 11:"
dilution [lI"tbod. 323
dilpt.cement ml'thod, 323
p i (rl!t'ing, 31, 27&-80, 310, 322

INm:x

INDEX

366
G ill TfplftCl'P'ltnl t(Onti" udJ

primary inerting. SO, 322

purgi ng. 31. 218. 322

rr irn'rti ng.322
n1PpIyand Vl'Dtlng arT1lllgt'menu , 323-4
Gauging. S oUo Cargo meB!W't'P'll'n t

bob. 13()-2. 137

d.-d. 124
cut, 130
dip, 126
tquipmenl UM'd. 133
~1....~r. I29.134 . 137-a, 141

inn'g!!, 126, 130

loxalion of, 131-a, 136

rubber, 78--9
ata in le steel, 80
lui la bility,78
s upport of, 8D- l
Hot work
adjaren t speeea. 282 , 284
fire producin g actiona , 282
ma rin e ch em ist, 284
ma rin e (h erniat >rt incate, 47 , 285
mu cking , 270, 282
preparation for, 270, 282
Hyd roge n sulfide
haza rds , 46-7, 277-8
sour crud e, 26, 58

mlJl ual, 130,137, 316

IBC. Se e In tern a tion al Cod e for t h e Const rud~on a nd Eq uipme n t of S hips

Ca rr ym g Dan ge ro u s C he m ica ls in
Bulk
ICS , See I nt ernation a l Ch amber of
Shi p pi ng
Im m edi a tel y Dangerous to Life an d Hea lt h
(ID LH) ,36
IM O. sl~e In ternati on al M a ri ti m e O rga n iza-

ebeerved referenceheight, 126

opE'n. l 24
outaie, 126
reference height, 126
I't'ference point, 126
re peaw bility,13lJ-l
8OUnding, 126
8Wp Il'auge,202
tank i&Olalion riO), 316
Iape., 130-2
th ieving, 137-8
lopping off, 2011-1
u1lac'e. 128. 130,14 1
.'!for CIlt.a, 137-8
Grevi l)' tanka. S Cargo tanh

""

Hand hOililll:. 270. 8ft aUoTank clean'

HiJb-level -.lann

mg

taUMI, 109

,lf ltiDJ , l09

eempcnenta , 308-22

tank overli1l. 109

tGItilll 115
rh . 11'111lt \'alV'e 1HVV) S
Vtn tilli
.
a

~vtJto.. lO l-.1

".1Jl2
10\

Impell er. See Pumps

I ndepe nd en t tanks. See Ca rg o ta nka
In ert gaa
a tmosp he re con t rol , 3 05
avoi dance ofthe flam m a bl e r a nge
29-31, 308, 322-3
'
harrie r, 3 11-2
block di agram , 307
boiler e xh a us t , 307

z.o

crud e-oil -washing requir em en ts 268

deck press ure, 30, 114 , 124, 3 1~2 I
327--8
'
emergency procedures , 3 22
t n lry i nto enclosed spaces , 27 5, 277
e xplo aion a , 305--6
eate rne l eu p ply o f, 322
ll"811 fre eing, 31, 278-8 0, 31 0 , 322
ll"811 quality , 3 08, 32 1, 324, 329
11"811 replacement, 322-3
gauging tanka, 124
general requirementa , 308
ullrrls a ssociated with, 48, 274--6, 277
}n l:rt gae gene rators, 308, 3 24-8, 328
Itroge n eyetema, 326-7
apecification , 311 , 321
content 2 9-30, 114 , 116 , 118 ,
91268, 308,321-2

pad dinK With , 49

port s ta ll' in sp edion , 322
pf1"(:Buti on s , 327-29
primary in erting. 30, 32 2
pumping operar icn e, 168, 208
purKi ng , 31
purging proces s, 3 1, 27 8, 322-3
pyrophoric oxidation , 322. 329
~nerting, 322
ru in , 305--6
&egreglltion of cergoes , 32 8-9
SOLAS, 306, 308
sources of , 307
atearning tanks, 270
ate llms h ipa, 259
ta nk cle ani ng 259
"to ppi ng u p", 320
Inert 11'118 fene. See al so In ert glls
d ri ve unit, 3 11
inapection , 3 11
i nte r locks , 32 1
numbe r of, 3 11
positiv e d ec k p ressure, 3 11
ra ted ca pa ci ty , 3 11
rin ain g , 3 11
s h u td ow n , 32 1
Inert gas genera to rs Hoo). Setalso Ine rt gllll
a ir b lowers, 32 5--6
a pplica tio n, 308 , 324
combus ti on ch amber, 325-4)
contamin ati on , 328-9
ga s qualit y, 308, 324-5 ,
peaitive pressure sys te m, 326
scrub ber, 325--6
s u rpl us ge e, 326
Inspection company
ca rgo meaa urerne nts. 141
eq ui pme n t use d. 133-4
functio n of, 122
aamp lin g, 138--41 , 222
the nnom ett'ra. 13 1
In tegral tanka . Sce CllfllU tank
In tern ation a l C h am be r of Shi pping (leBl,
264
Intern ati onal Code for the eonstnacUon an d
Equipm ent ofShipll CIlf1YIIIS Dangt'fo ChemicaIa in Bulk f1BCI, 10, 300
Inwma:naJ Maritim" Organir.llu on elMOl
harri ..r betw.... n CfltfU llfld noncargtJ

afll ''', III

Co ulom bi Ep, 7, 9
d oubl .. bottom tanker, 6
doubl hull ~U1l'1'm ..nl

367
~IARPOL 7anB, 29B
nlld-deck de aign, 7, 9
pollution Iegi"la tion 298

Sa lAS 74, aoe-e, 30s

J typea 1.11,111 containm..nt 10 13

nl "nlGl/.01IIIl Softly Guide for'Oil' TOM ""

orui T..nnlll4ll (/SGOTTJ

~ndoaed

" paDe "ntry, 27., 282. 2&1

llmmabl" range diagram 28
guldelinu for handling ~~t '
ton,44
ICIlCl'llmula

aBO CTOM section, 15

alf" ru dinp prior to ..nt ry, 282
telItmg tank lltmO!l phefl'8 280
INTERTANKO. Sn alto VettiOll:
A Guide to 1M V..llitll Proceu, 232-7
Kindic pump" . Sff Pum pa
Kong Hookon V11, 305-6
Layt lme. 2 15--8. Set oUo Cha l1er pal1y
Lighteri ng
cargo measurement, 137
vapor balan cing, 114, 118- 9
vapor control, 114
VLCCa, 22-3
l one". 204
Line l1ush. S~ DiKbllli" opera tion
Loading opera tion
checiul 1.1 "tart-up, 197
cloud loading, 191
commencement of, 197
cornminiling,203
critical operati on,197, 200-1
finiahingth e, 201-2
gauge information. 197
heating coil operati on, 198-9
line dUplaceOlent, 202
loadingrste, 167
properl1 ow, 197
proper " enting, 197
.ailing ca rgo, 20 1
8Ilm plin g. 198
secu ring for eel, 202
ehutd cwn of, 199-201
sta tU8 of manifold valv ..", 197
to pping ofT, 200--1
t ran arer fa te at s ta rt- up, 197
va por contro l opera tion, 191
Loading f8 1ea . S N ,d.., Loadini Opl' fllt ion
ca lcula tion of, 167, 198
facton influenci ng, 167
pro IMta , 2 19

INDEX

INDEX

368
L<>/Id line'
ADS, 141
C'llitroUinll'!(lne .148

definl'd, 145--8

di,pJft~rnent . 141, 160

dock waler ,lJ o,,an('l'. 153-4
freih", alef _1I0"'8I1re,141, 163-4.
196-7.202
iIIUlllr'8 lcd.l50
Wile allowance, 14S-9
LoadontoplLOTJ

definl'd. 2-45. 304

f.elor1l.lTectin,. 247, 270
pl'OC'f'.S8, 247, 26g..70
Lon,(iludinaJ bulkhead, 3

LOOP. S OlTMor!! mooringll

Midd.'ck tanker. S ee a l flu Cnn ~ truction

des ign , 7
cro~a sec tion , 9
Muckin g. Se e cdso Tank dcnninK
defin ed, 270
effect on ta nk a t mos phe re, 279
pote nt ia l hazard s, 2 70
prep ara tion for hot work , 282-4
NFPA S ee a/so Enclosed apace e nt ry

infcrm etion , 274

Manu al 111 306 , 2 84

marine chemis t, 284

marin e che mist certificate. 285
Nit rogen syste ms . Sff Inert gss
Nonretum verve (l G) . 3 14--6. SF(' oho Inert
g~

Manager. 212
Manifold. SN oho Piping
eargo, 70, 165
l.TOUingo,~r I t. 77
llangN, 72-4

gmetl,72
Jumper, 78

OC I~fF.

tnWll&lIter, 77-8, 165

quicka mnfd. couplings, 72, 74

nduern, 74, 76
1'WWtIund. 77
~ng o(

Not ice ofreadiness (N OR). See 01.0 Cha~r

party
commencement oflaytime, 2 16, 2 18
laytime.215-6
sample. 217

70,201-2

Ip:lOl preee. H . 96
V8por, 10741
annr chrml.t, 284 Set alsa Enclosed
spe~rnlry

L 7ana, :llI8-303. Sn ah a Poilu-

See also Vetting

oombination arrier. 15
fla mm a ble range diagram. 28
oil tan ke r manifol ds. 72
S IRE,230-1
vetting, 230-1
Offsh ore moori ngs . See 01.'0 Lightering
multi point moori nga , 203
platforms, 204
single-poin t m oorings. 203-5
Oil expl oration . 52-5
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OP A 90). 6. 7, 16,
297-8. See also Pollution
0iJ Record Book, 298-300. S~e also Pollut ion
Oil tanker, 3-10. See also Con structi on
Onboard quantity (O BQ I, 129, 141
Operational dischargell at sea
crude carriers, 262
Load on top {LOT), 245-7
"pefllislent- oil, 262
quantity, 264
reduction of, 246
s.$gregatcdballaat eysteme, 239
iftfI'tea, 295-6
r I;jslls,~ 262
u e See Gaujing
erfl.lI a .;See 0/110 AJarrIu!I
08
199 207
ntrol 110

f109

t" Htinll. 115

Oxygen conten t . Sf'C Inert gas
OXyJo(cn dt"fici('ncy
h nt ar d from ine rt gas , 40. 48
impa ir mt"n t due to , 47-8
normal level in air , 47
POrn' 1 lanke r
oonstruction req uirement8, 13
de scribed , 10
d rupto re " vessel , 10
e xte rn al fra ming. 10-1
la yout, 14
tank types, 12-3
types I, II, III a m tainme nt, 10-3
P'>nni Mible expo sure limit. SN 0 1&0
Threshold limit value tTLVl
de lined,36
measurement. 282 . 292-3
Permit to Ente r, 286-7. See also EnclOMd
s pace e ntry
Pe rao nin-eh a rge (P IC)
cargo calculat ion, 33
ca rgo cha racteristics, 24
com mence me nt of cargo tlllllSfer , 197
commercial impact, 211
dirty ball asting, 243
fini shing cargo loading. 201-2
loading s ta t ic accumulators, 43
personal supervision, 197
s hutdown ofcargo transfer, 199-200
top ping olToperation, 200- 1
tracing pip ing, 64
Pi peli ne, 2 11
Pip in g
bottom , 64
br anch , 6 6
classifi cation , 64

cons truc tion, 68

d eck piping. 70, 165
direct piping system, ~
Dre sser coupling, 68, 70-1
drops !loading), 85,165-7,207
Ilanged connection, 68-70
hydrostatic testing, 58
loop (ring mainI67-8, 163
main linea, 64 .
70
piping conned~one'8~ 197-8,206
pumproom pIpIng,
'
lies la ne, 87, 172, :l(;!243-li
vapor contrtll, J05-7,
..
9~104
vent plpln(,
/ ~-:'d)i e.
PlimAlll\;mllrl/:, S#ii 4.'!'!

369

POllution
Annex 110m , 298-300
Annn II (N1.8),3Q0.-.4
s Wlren(>IlS, 295
C11"K0 !le(ord Book, 303
UIoaualtiea,296
te rt ificalel, 299, 303
dispoill of cargo rt!lIidue 301-2
linN lind penalt iel (U.S.), 296-7
llltel'1l.ltionallegitllltion.298-303
IOPP,299
~IARPOL 73178, 298
nsti onal legiailltion. 296-8
NLS catl'goriea, 301
Oil Record Book. 298-9
plleard,297
f>rrxtduru ond AI'ru'lgemm u ,\Iollual
IP&-'l, 30Z-3
rNIuction of, 245, 248. 270, J(H
I'fgUiltio",,299
llOUrttt of, '2%-6
Ilpeaallll"l'lI,299
l W"\'e).. ,302
v_ I ~ponae plan . 297-8

Peouve duplacement pl,lfllpll . S oUo

Pum ..

esparity,177
doublfIlCting .l77
dropping lines , 175, 180.209
duplex . 176
operation, 176-9
I"I'cipl'(l('ating, 176-7
rotary, 177-9
lel tp riming, 177. 179
It ripping 162. 175, 179,208-9,268
tank clean ing, 258, 266
Pour point
delin ed, 35
cargo meeeurement, 136
ht"lIting roil openl tion. 198-9
Prelllure-vacuum relief device. Sn llhtJ
Valvps
capacity, III
CI'O.5ll s eetion. 93
inert Il'nB syelem, 316-9
inapection and maintenance, 93, 95, III
liquid PV bn'aker, 311-8
locntion, 93-4, 317
operation. 92-3, 318
pUrpoIIl!.92
atrudural damage, 110-1. &16 3ll
typical aettinge 95, 111-2
Pricing, 224-6,
aUu Cha~p!rty

s-c

INDEX

370

INm:x
S toll Innovation, 10-1

s lane. Ste P iping

ProI..~t8. Sn a/MJ CharU r party

d"finPd, 219

I'l'lUIOll8 tor, 219

8&D1 pJes, 220-1

vioJal.iolll of charte r party. 219

PumplOOm. Sn a/MJ Piping
bilgt alarm . 196 , 199
cargotraJUJer, 191-8

t;TOSJOvtr.85, 170-2
deri ption,85
forward. 169-60. J 79
iJUpeoction of, 206
location. 85. 159-61
loop (ring main ) 'Y.urn, 68
rf$('\ll',87,172

eealane, 87, 112

li m ple drawing. 66
ventilation, 196, 206

"""'po

automatie pri ming lyBu rn. , 171-3

cavitatio n, 168-70

comtrifugal , 161-7
cont ro b . 175
c:nIU1lli over , 170- 2, 201
deep well, 162-6

dift'uHr, 162
dri ve Wlita, 162
nuahioll' .251

pu.g 175
h..d condition , 167-8
Impeller, 162-3
klndu:, 161-7
lift oolldition, 167_9,177
location, 159-62
mam cargu pUIllIM.161
mam~lIli a prime, 110

Operllt,on, 167-75

overhull:ng, 170-1
Jlfrfonn.JACe under (hartt'r 218-9
Yea, placemeot, 181 '176-9
me 162 170
'

..e'

. e tink ~. 169

hn

"

ube,162

Qual ity assura nce . S f't' S a mp li ng

Quick-conn ed co upli ng . 5 1'1' Couplinll"B

Reactivity. ~N! aUo Chemica l ca rgoo.

compattbl llty ,49
de fined,49
In formatien , 37-40
stability, 49
Recei ver, 122-3
gedueer . SeeM a ni fold
Rt'fini ng proce ss
alkylation, 62
blendi ng , 63
cracking, 26 , 61
de&eribed , 5~
di6 tilla tion, 26 , 60
fra ction a ti on , 60
fractiorlll, 26 , 60
h)'drogt-na tion , 6 2
polymeriza tio n , 62
p rocessi ng , 55
l"t'fonning. 6 2
Rem a ining on boa rd IRO B ), 129 , 141 - 2
165-7. 264
'

Saah ~ radar. See Closed. gauging sya terJ\ll

Sampling
all level sample . 140
close d ope rations, 124
eqwpme n t, 139-40
grahIJin e sam ple, 140 , 198
procedure, 138-40
purpose , 121 , 138, 198
quali ty ees ure nce, 138 , 2 22
retain sa m ple, 139
ROB ,142
nmning sam ple, 140
s pot sa mp le , 140
Scrubber
coatinill,310
CYcl~ne separator, 309-10
demlster, 309-10
deterioration of 310
efficiency of, 310
~lI/Jhing, 310
!Dert ga.s generator, 325-6
Pl"OCeqlng of gas, 309
PU~,309

;,utine inspedion, 310

0n.ell eeperetor, 309-10
wet" tt1lm, 309-10
_die
7,172,243,253.8"eoho
m

se ud ion va lvNI, 87 , 172 , 24 3

sea ' alt>d bal la s t . See als o B all a s t
se~~lI'l desi~s, 2 40-2

balhu t educto r , 179-80

balla t wa U'r ('J.ch ange , 24S-9
debllllasting, 2 45
defined , 24 3
MARPOLrequirements , 2 39
procedure. 243
pro tectiv e location , 23 9-40
rtd,udion of s e a po ll u ti on, 2 39
, tri ppin g tanks , 179
Shear forn'& S ee Bendin g st res ses
Ship In &pec t ion Reporting Exehenge
{S IRE) . See Vetting
Shu tdo wn . See Loadin g Operation
Simulta neou&car go di &Charge and ballasting, 2 44
Single hull. See olJ Construction
con &truction,3-5
"dry tank.: 266
tan k. cle anin g , 260, 263
Slop tank
arrangementa, 268-70, 246
crude oil washing, 268-70
di &pCI&a1 of alc pa, 269-70, 3()4
du al slop tank s, 26 9
loa d on to p (LOTl, 245-7, 269-70
precautions d uring discharge, 208-9
protesting of sl ops, 268
reduct ion of alope, 264
use of, 179 , 247.258, 269-70 ,
Sounding . See Gauging
Spills
causes, 64 , 7 1, 80-2, 109
di sch a rge contain me nt, 186
preventi on , 182
respon se equip ment, 196
Spoo l piece . See M anifold
Stability
baUnsting, 238
ca lcu lntion of, 142
cargo plan, 144-6
during bnll llst operatiolls, 207-8
during caT1l"0 discha!1t"c, 207-8
fro" surfncll, 3-6, 207-8 0180 Electrosteue nceumulRtor cargo. $ff
etotic hllw rda
cargoi"e. 4 :l
recaulione, 43, 113-4, 199
c<l.lI,lro l
cleanil1i'

~l\por

371

optlr~~ ~~

SIN-miNI, :27G--l 305.

Strapping tables . See Ca libra tion tables

Su b me rged pumps . See aho Pumps
a dvnn l.ages, 167
np plicntion, 165
crouing over, 207
eross-aectionel view, l 6G
rRMIO , 165-7
hydraul ic dri ve, 165
loa ding through, 167
location , 165
piping arrangement, 165
portable s ubmers ible, 167
repa ir, 167
lltages of ope ra tion, 167
Supertanker. SN fd., ULCC an d VLCC
developmen t of, 23
Sup plie r
de fined , 122
delivel"fd, l23
Swash plate, 5
Tank ~. StteaUo CGrutl'\lction
colUltl'\lction. 16-8
de fined, 3
Tan k cleaning
ad ditio nal cleaning, 253
bll't'der valve, 256
Butter....orth plate . 135
chartll,25 1- 2
c1eanini action, 2.54
coa tin gs, 259
connl.'CtiolUl ,256
continuity test, 2M-ti
cycle ti me, 254. 267
dra ining h08t , :l56
dro pll, 256-7
"'d ry " bottom , 258-9
liJ:ed machines, 263-4, 269--62
fixed pipillR. 263
heater, 263-4
hOlle, 254
inert gU . y,tem u.ee, 328
j et length, 264
numlHlrofmachine s.257
optlninlf deck. 135
pipt'lin lO8,262
p!8n, 251
portable machin .... 2!i3-9
I
prtpllretion (or nut earvo, 224, ~
pump, 2<'13. 262
reallOn Inr , 261
eaddle. 266-67

INDEX

INDEX

TaJ'l. cll'llnillJ/ fronll n uroJ

Ha ch~l.

253
. ... dow areal. 254, 260
.poU.ing maehine, 254
.tripping capacity, 258, 260
.uppl efflenr.aJcleaning, 270-1
tag line 256-7
I)-pical f'rron, 257-8
T. nk hatch. ~aboTank top
puging, 129-36
ullage opening, 98-9
I'lIporplume from, 99
venting through, 98-9
Tanbhip , 8ft abo Ccnstructton
defintd,3
Tank top. Sn 01", Tank hatch
gauging, 12!h'36
ullage opening, 98-9
vapor plume from, 99
venting through, 9S-9
Tank vessel, Sf'f'01.0 Construction
defined,3
Temperalure meesurements
atturacyof,131
cargu calculation, 142
..nic U1pee, 126
Ihermometefl, 123, 131, 133-4
TllItill( equipment . S~ oho Encl oS('(j apace

'"'"

aorutacy of, 280, 289

1..I&nllI, 280, 288
batt.1)' chk. 280, 2S8
bfIlJ01J1 pump, 2n-3
C'.I.1J~lIonJu,~

~ytit'~ 281, 239-91

_ _ b~.. Uldicator, 281_2, 2~2

... "'"", 292-3

,~9 o2ll1-,J

measu re me n t of, 282 -3, 28 2-93

odor, 37
s hort term exposure limit IST";Ll 36
time weighted o\'t.>ra gt.> ITWA), 35'
'rc nnege. S,... al so We igh t
dead ... eight, 19
long, 19, 34
metri c, 19 , 3 4
Topp ing off. S ee Loading operotion
Toxicity
acute effects, 46 , 288
chron ic: e ffects of expoaure, 46
defined , 35
effect o n pers onnel, 45-6
exposure to vapo rs , 46
measurement of, 28 2-3 , 292 -3
preca utions , 47
Transverse bulk hea d , 3
Tri m. See also Cargo ca lcula tion
calculetlon of, 151-3
ca rgo transfer, 202-3, 206
defin ed ,151
during COW, 266
longitudinal cen ter of buoyancy, 151- 2
longit udin al ce nte r of gravity, 151- 2
mom en t to change tri m I inch, 152-3
tipp ing ce nte r, 15 2
trim a rm , 152
t ri mming mom en t , 15 1
him tanks ,1S7, 202-3

ULCC
cluaifi cation, 19
trade routes , 23
lnlage re port. Set Cargo re port
Ullage tablea. S n Cali b rot ion tables
Valves
ball, 90
butterfly, 90
Cll.tegoriell, 87
check,91_2
gate, 88-9
glpbe,90
)lartll of, 88
PIUK,91
-veeuum relief, 92-6, 31&-7

blI11a.tinJt' , 243-6
carRO IOlld ing ral e a, 112-3
carg o &E'jfreKation, 105, 10 7
check liAt, 116--$
do~ed opera tiena, 104 , 124
Code of Fede ra l & gufatW1J.S, 105
componf'n ta , 10 5--12
deda ration of ins pection, 114-6
final gauging, 113 , 124
inert Ras lly8tem, 104--6, 109. 114,3 16
lighwri ng, 114-9
10lldin g ra te curve, 113
ma in tenance, 119--20
overfill control, 110
pressure -vacuu m protectien , 110-2
purpo se of, 104
re gulated ca rgo es, 104
shore va por sys te m. 1M
vapor balancing, 114, 118--9
vapor control hose , 107-8
vapor cont rol piping, 105--6
vapor mani fold, 105-8
volatile organic com poun ds (VOCal, 104,

29'
Venting
bu llet va lve, 10 1-3, 3 17
conccmll,98
controlled, 98, 100-4
design ccneideretiocs, 102
gUo re placemen t, 104
hig h je t, 101
hig h velocity, 100-1
mast rise r, 100--01,317
objecthe,98
open, 98
standpipea. 101 , 103
vapor plum e, 99
vent pip ing, 98, 100
Vent line,UG1.5n a b o Inert gas d .
chec k ing in te grt ty ofnonn-turn e\1cH ,

312
locati on of, 307 , 312
purpose, 312
SOLAS amendment, 312
etotue of, 312
vent valv~, 312
&r De<!pweJl pumps
verucal turhine pumpe.
' (V1Q l S,.
Veoe! inApoclion qUf'.tion na1re
.
Vetting
2
Veot'l operllwr, 122, 21

373

Ve~ae! owner, 122, 21I-2

Vl'A!II'1 particular que! lionnaire ~ vPQ). See
Vetbng
Vl'tting
COI,231
c:rrw'a roll' in, 231-2
defined. 229
guide to vetting Proe:e.e, 232- 7
IDllpection, 229--30
n.IE RTANKO,23 2
inte rvab,230
OCIMF,230-1
oWDe r/maaagl' r, 23O
prior to cha rter, 229
riBk management, 2'29
SIRE, 230--1
vessel history, 230
Viarosity
defined,34
cargu measurement, 136
cargo pumping, 174, 179
heating coil operatio n, 198--9
VLCC
claseifleerion, 19
crude oil w&llhing, 262-a
uplosionll,305--6
Ko"6 HaM on VII. 306
trade routee, 23
Volume correction factor, Stf C.fli:O ealcu-

teuee
W. tl'r cuta. Sn Cargo me8lluremenl
Wtd ge e.kul.tion, IS:;, 158 Sn tWo CIIlJU
me8llUJ1'men l
Weight
API gravity, 33--4. 142-.1
bending an d .tre_, I ~
ealc:u1ation, l ol3-4
dud ....eight, 150
denaity,33-I
di.placemellt. 147, 160
hydrometer, 34, 202
lightahip, 151
long ton, 42
fflt'lric ton, 42
.pt'('iJ'ic gravity, 33---4,142
Ion. per inch immeTIIlon ITPIl, Ifil,
163

About the Author and Contributors

. a gra duate 0 r t h e State UniversityofNew, York
Mariti me College a t
Mork Huber 18
d
.
.
He received 8 master s egree In environmen ta l
Fort Schuyler, Bronx, New Yor k.
. 1 h

ty He ha s worked exte nsive y In t e ta nk er intudi es from Long san d Umvers l .

.
' .
.

. .,
ith Gu lf Oil Corpora ti on, Mil ita ry Seahft Com_
dustry in a seagoi ng
" capac y WI
to tan
Company and as a,consultant
mand, and Keystone Sh lppmg
.
. ker com panies
and legal firms. He h0 ld8 an u nlimited master s license an d I S end
. orsed . as a
Tank enn an PIC fDL) Dangerous Liquids . A member ~f th e Nauti cal ~ n 8t1t ute ,
Huber is curre ntly a professor in the Departm ent of M~nne Tran sporta t IOn at the
U "ted States Men:hant Mari ne Academy in Kings Poin t , New Yor k .
mScott R. Bergeron, a graduate of the U.S. Merchan t

~arine ~cademy

is cur-

ren tly the chie(opera ting officer for the Liberian Inte~atJonal S h ip and Corporate
Registry, the world's second largest sh ip registry. He IS a member of t he Chemica l
1Tansportation Advisory Committee, which provides advice and co ns ultation to
th e U.S. Coast Guard on water transportation of hazardous material s in bulk.
John O'Connor is a gr aduate ofth e State Unive rsity of New York Maritim e College at Fort Schuy ler , Brons, New York. He holds a U.S. Coast Guard unlimited
tonna ge license as chief officer an d has served on nu mero us vessel s including prod.
uct, chemical, an d crude-oil tankers. A member of API's Committee on Mea sure.
ment Accountab ility, he ha s been active in the field of pet roleum measurement for
over fifteen years . He is currently pre sid ent ofl nte matio nal Ma rine Consultants.
Richard Beadan, master marin er , is currently the director of the Seamen 's
Church Institute Center for Maritime Studies in New York, whi ch offers courses in
marine operations, including those with a focus on tankships. While a t th e United
~tates Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, he served as senior sh ip s im ulation cons~tant at the Computer-Aided Operations and Research Facili ty and also as
deputy director of the department of continuing education.

Rober~ Stewart is 8 professor at the California Maritime Academy . A graduate

of the United States Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point he has se rv ed on
numerous tanke frei h
d
'
._" , .
rs, elg tera, an ocean towing vessels. He holds an unlimited
meete

rcenae.