Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ESSENTIALS
ONE
PARTS OF SPEECH
I. THE VERB
A verb is a word that expresses action or otherwise helps to make a
statement.
Verbs are divided into two main categories:
verbs of being or condition (helping verbs) (1.) and action verbs (2.)
Action verbs are the more common verbs, and they are easy to spot. Words
such as come, go and write are action verbs. Sometimes action verbs express
an action that cannot be seen: believe, remember, know, think and
understand.
The four basic forms of a verb are called the principal parts of a verb.
The four principal parts of a verb are:
The infinitive
The present participle
The past
The past participle
Examples:
I do my homework after supper. (short infinitive)
I am doing my homework now. (present participle)
I did my homework yesterday. (past)
I have done my homework. (past participle)
The way a verb forms its past tense determines its classification as regular
or irregular.
A verb that forms its past and past participle forms by adding d and
ed to the first principal part (infinitive) is a regular verb.
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Examples:
INFINITIVE
Use
Ask
Suppose
PRESENT
PARTICIPLE
Using
Asking
Supposing
PAST
Used
Asked
Supposed
PAST
PARTICIPLE
Used
Asked
Supposed
You will observe that the present participle of many regular verbs ending in
e drops the e before adding ing.
A verb that forms its past and past participle in some other way than a
regular verb is an irregular verb.
Irregular verbs form their past in past participle in various ways: by
changing the vowel, by changing consonants, by adding en, or by making
no change at all. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past
participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
Examples:
INFINITIVE
Begin
Bring
Sit
PAST
Began
Brought
Sit
PAST PARTICIPLE
Begun
Brought
Sit
A.
THE VERB BE
to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
Present affirmative:
I am
You are
He, she, it is
We are
You are
They are
Im
Youre
Hes, Shes, Its
Were
Youre
Theyre
Present negative:
I am not
You are not
arent
He, she, it is not
We are not
You are not
arent
They are not
arent
Im not
Youre not
I ain`t
You
He isnt
We arent
You
Theyre not
They
Past affirmative:
I was
You were
He, she, it was
We were
You were
They were
Past negative:
I was not
You were not
He, she, it was not
We were not
You were not
They were not
I wasnt
You werent
He, she , it wasnt
We werent
You werent
They werent
Past interrogative:
Was I (not)? / Wasnt I?
Were you (not)? / Werent you?
Was he (not)? / Wasnt he?
Were we/ you/ they (not)? / Werent we/ you/ they?
Present participle: being
Past participle: been
THE VERB DO
to make negatives (I do not like you.)
to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than
she does.)
Present affirmative:
I/you/we/they do
He, she, it does
Present negative:
I/you/we/they do not/ dont
He, she, it does not/ doesnt
Present interrogative:
Do/ Dont I/ you/ we/ they?
Does/ Doesnt he, she, it?
Past affirmative:
I/ you/ he/ we/ you/ they did
Past negative:
I/ you/ he/ we/ you/ they did not/ didnt
Present affirmative:
I/ you/ we/ they have
He, she, it has
Present negative:
I/ you/ we/ they have not/ havent
He, she, it has not/ hasnt
Present interrogative:
Have/ Havent I/ you/ we/ they?
Has/ Hasnt he, she, it?
Past affirmative:
I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ you/ they had
Past negative:
I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ you/ they had not/ hadnt
Past interrogative:
Had/ Hadnt I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ they?
B.
What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal
verbs. Here are some important differences:
Modal verbs do not have to in the infinitive:
can, may, should, etc.
When we need to use this, the modal substitutes are used instead of the
modals.
Do not have all tense forms.
For the missing tense forms, substitutes are used:
To be able to (for can)
To be allowed to, be permitted to (for may)
To have to (for must)
To want to (for will), etc
Modals are followed by a short infinitive:
Mary can swim.
They form the negative by simply adding the negation not:
You cannot accept such an offer.
Modals form the interrogative by inversion:
May I come in?
Do not get -s in the third person singular indicative present:
Tom must be back before five o'clock.
Can
Can is one of the most commonly used modal verbs in English. It can be
used to express ability or opportunity, to request or offer permission, and to
show possibility or impossibility.
Examples:
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Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
can
1. I can speak
German.
2. SHIFT TO
COULD
I could speak
German when I
was a kid.
3. SHIFT TO
BE ABLE TO
I will be able to
speak German by
the time I finish
my course.
1. I cant speak
German.
2. SHIFT TO
COULD
I couldnt speak
German.
3. SHIFT TO BE
ABLE TO
I wont be able to
speak German.
be able to
1. I have some
free time. I can
help you now.
2. SHIFT TO
BE ABLE TO
I had some free
time yesterday. I
was able to help
you at that time.
3. Ill have some
free time
tomorrow. I can
help you then.
1. I dont have
any time. I cant
help you now.
2. SHIFT TO BE
ABLE TO
I didnt have time
yesterday. I
wasn't able to
help you at that
time.
3. I wont have
any time later. I
can't help you
then.
be able to
GENERAL
ABILITY
can
OPPORTUNITY
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can
PERMISSION
can
REQUEST
can
POSSIBILITY,
IMPOSSIBILITY
1. I can drive
mom's car when
she is out of
town.
2. SHIFT TO
BE ALLOWED
TO
I was allowed to
drive moms car
while she was out
of town last
week.
3. I can drive
moms car while
she is out of town
next week.
1. I cant drive
mom's car when
she is out of town.
2. SHIFT TO BE
ALLOWED TO
I wasnt allowed
to drive mom's
car while she was
out of town last
week.
3. I cant drive
moms car while
she is out of town
next week.
may
Cant I have a
glass of milk?
Cant you give
me a lift to the
airport?
could, may
Anyone can
become rich and
famous if they
know the right
people.
could
Learning a
language can be a
real challenge.
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Could
Could is used to express possibility or past ability as well as to make
suggestions and requests. Could is also commonly used in conditional
sentences as the conditional form of can.
Examples:
Extreme rain could cause the river to flood the city. POSSIBILITY
She could swim like a pro by the age of 11. PAST ABILITY
Tom could see a movie or go out to dinner. SUGGESTION
Could I use your computer to email my boy friend? REQUEST
We could go on the trip if I didn't have to work this weekend.
CONDITIONAL
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past
3. = Future
You can
also use:
could
might,
may
1. NO PRESENT
FORM
2. You could have
spent your vacation
in Hawaii.
3. You could spend
your vacation in
Italy.
NO NEGATIVE
FORMS
POSSIBILITY
could
SUGGESTION
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could
PAST ABILITY
could
POLITE
REQUEST
be able
to
Could I have
something to drink?
Could I borrow your
pen?
can,
may,
might
May
May is most commonly used to express possibility. It can also be used to
give or request permission, although this usage is becoming less common.
Examples:
Clare may be at home, or perhaps at work. POSSIBILITY
Johnny, you may leave the table when you have finished your dinner.
GIVE PERMISSION
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Modal Use
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past
3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past
3. = Future
You
can
also
use:
may
might
can
NO NEGATIVE
FORMS
can,
might
POSSIBILITY
may
GIVE
PERMISSION
may
REQUEST
PERMISSION
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Might
Might is most commonly used to express possibility. It is also often used in
conditional sentences. English speakers can also use might to make
suggestions or requests, although this is less common in American English.
Examples:
Your purse might be in the car. POSSIBILITY
If I didn't have to study, I might go with you. CONDITIONAL
You might visit the botanical gardens during your visit. SUGGESTION
Might I borrow your pen? REQUEST
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past
3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
You
can
also
use:
might
could,
may
1. If I entered the
contest, I might actually
win.
2. If I had entered the
contest, I might actually
have won.
1. Even if I entered
the contest, I might
not win.
2. Even if I had
entered the contest, I
might not have won.
POSSIBILITY
might
CONDITIONAL
OF MAY
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might
SUGGESTION
might
REQUEST
(British form)
3. If I entered the
contest tomorrow, I
might actually win.
Unfortunately, I cant
enter it.
3. Even if I entered
the contest tomorrow,
I might not win.
1. NO PRESENT
FORM
2. You might have tried
the apple pie.
3. You might try the
apple pie.
1. NO PRESENT
FORM
2. PAST FORM
UNCOMMON
3. You might not
want to eat the apple
pie. Its very
calorific.
could
NEGATIVE
FORMS
UNCOMMON
could,
may,
can
Must
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Examples:
This must be the right address! CERTAINTY
Students must pass an entrance examination to study at this school.
NECESSITY
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
You
can
also
use:
must
1. That must be
Tom. They said he
was tall with dark
hair.
2. That must have
been the right
restaurant. There
are no other
restaurants on this
street.
3. NO FUTURE
FORM
have to
CERTAINTY
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must not
PROHIBITION
must
STRONG
RECOMMENDATION
(Americans
prefer
the form
should.)
must
NECESSITY
(Americans
prefer
the form
"have to.")
1. You mustnt
smoke so much. It's
not good for your
health.
2. SHIFT TO
SHOULD
You shouldn't have
smoked so much.
3. SHIFT TO
SHOULD
You shouldnt
smoke in front of
your father when he
arrives tomorrow, he
thinks you quit.
should
1. SHIFT TO
"HAVE TO"
We dont have to get
a permit to enter the
library.
2. SHIFT TO
"HAVE TO"
We didnt have to
get a permit to enter
the library.
3. SHIFT TO
"HAVE TO"
We wont have to
get a permit to enter
the library.
have to
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Have To
Have to is used to express certainty, necessity, and obligation.
Examples:
This answer has to be correct. CERTAINTY
The soup has to be stirred continuously to prevent burning. NECESSITY
They have to leave early. OBLIGATION
Using Have to in Present, Past, and Future
Use
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past
3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. = Past 3.
= Future
You
can
also
use:
have to
1. SHIFT TO MUST
That must not be Tom.
They said he has blond
hair, not dark hair.
2. SHIFT TO MUST
That must not have been
the right restaurant. I
guess there was another
one around there
somewhere.
3. NONE
must,
have
got to
CERTAINTY
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have to
NECESSITY
must
Ought To
Ought to is used to advise or make recommendations. Ought to also
expresses assumption or expectation as well as strong probability, often with
the idea that something is deserved. Ought not (without to) is used to advise
against doing something, although Americans prefer the less formal forms
should not or had better not.
Examples:
You ought to stop smoking. RECOMMENDATION
Jim ought to get the promotion. IT IS EXPECTED BECAUSE HE DESERVES
IT.
This stock ought to increase in value. PROBABILITY
Mark ought not drink so much. ADVICE AGAINST SOMETHING (NOTICE
THERE IS NO "TO")
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Shall
Shall is used to indicate future action. It is most commonly used in sentences
with I or we, and is often found in suggestions, such as Shall we go? Shall is
also frequently used in promises or voluntary actions. In formal English, the
use of shall to describe future events often expresses inevitability or
predestination. Shall is much more commonly heard in British English than
in American English; Americans prefer to use other forms, although they do
sometimes use shall in suggestions or formalized language.
Examples:
Shall I help you? SUGGESTION
I shall never forget where I came from. PROMISE
He shall become our next king. PREDESTINATION
I'm afraid Mr. Smith shall become our new director. INEVITABILITY
More Examples of Shall
Modal Use
Positive Forms
Negative Forms
You
can
also
use:
shall
I shall be replaced by
someone from
abroad.
I shall be there by
10:00.
will
FUTURE ACTION
(British form)
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shall
VOLUNTEERING,
PROMISING
(British form)
shall
INEVITABILITY
(British form)
should
will
Should
Should is most commonly used to make recommendations or give advice. It
can also be used to express obligation as well as expectation.
Examples:
When you go to Rome, you should visit the Vatican.
RECOMMENDATION
You should focus more on school and less on your friends. ADVICE
I really should be in the office by 7:00 AM. OBLIGATION
Tom should be here by now. EXPECTATION
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Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
You can
also use:
should
1. Sarah shouldnt
drink so much. It's
not good for her
health.
2. Sarah shouldnt
have drunk so
much. That's what
caused the car
accident.
3. Sarah shouldnt
drink at the party
next week; one
might think she is
an alcoholic.
ought to
I should be in bed
before 9:00.
We should return the
books before the
library closes.
NO NEGATIVE
FORMS
be
supposed
to
1. Tom should be in
Bucharest by now.
2. Tom should have
arrived in Bucharest
last week.
3. Tom should be in
Bucharest by next
week. His new job
starts on Monday.
1. Tom shouldnt
be in Bucharest
yet.
2. Tom shouldnt
have arrived in
Bucharest until
yesterday.
3. Tom shouldnt
arrive in Bucharest
until next week.
ought to,
be
supposed
to
RECOMMENDAT
ION,
ADVISABILITY
should
OBLIGATION
should
EXPECTATION
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Will
Will is used with promises or voluntary actions that take place in the future.
Will can also be used to make predictions about the future.
Examples:
I promise that I will write you every single day. PROMISE
I will make dinner tonight. VOLUNTARY ACTION
He thinks it will rain tomorrow. PREDICTION
More Examples of Will
Modal Use
Positive Forms
Negative Forms
You
can
also
use:
will
The school
principle will not
be replaced after
all.
Fred will not be
there. He has a
previous
obligation.
shall
shall
FUTURE
ACTION,
PREDICTION
will
VOLUNTEERING,
PROMISING
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Would
Would is most commonly used to create conditional verb forms. It also
serves as the past form of the modal verb will. Additionally, would can
indicate repetition in the past.
Examples:
If he were an actor, he would be in adventure movies. CONDITIONAL
I knew that she would be a very successful model. PAST OF WILL
When they had a dog, they would always take him for long walks.
REPETITION
Positive Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
Negative Forms
1. = Present 2. =
Past 3. = Future
would
PAST OF
"WILL"
would
REPETITION
IN PAST
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You
can
also
use:
used
to
2. ACTION VERBS
Action verbs are the more common verbs, and they are easy to spot. Words
such as come, go and write are action verbs. Sometimes action verbs express
an action that cannot be seen: believe, remember, know, think and
understand.
VERB TENSES- allow us to talk about time, to place an action or state of
being in the past, present or future. They also allow us to talk about
intention, what would, could or should be done.
Simple Present
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE
Short infinitive + s/ es in third person
Verbs ending in -o add es:
to go => goes
to do => does
Verbs ending in -y (if preceded by a consonant) change the y into i
before adding the ending es :
to try => tries
Verbs ending in -y (if preceded by a vowel) simply add the ending s:
to stay=> stays
Verbs ending in x, s, ss, z, zz, sh, ch add 'es' to the infinitive in
the third person singular:
to wash => washes
NEGATIVE:
The negative form of the present simple is formed with the help of the verb
to do which is found in the short infinitive in all persons except the third
person singular, and the negation not:
do (does III) + not + short infinitive
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INTERROGATIVE:
The interrogative form of the present simple is formed according to the
following pattern: do (does III) + subject + short infinitive:
Examples:
You speak English.
Do you speak English?
You do not speak English.
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Present Continuous
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE
(am / is / are + present participle)
the present of the verb to be + verb + -ing
Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by short stressed vowel double the
consonant before adding the ending. One-syllable verbs always double the
end consonant:
to sit => sitting
Two (or more)-syllable verbs double the end consonant only if the final
syllable is stressed:
to begin => beginning
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but
to differ => differing, to refer => referring
Verbs ending in silent '-e' drop the '-e' before adding the ending '-ing':
to make => making
Verbs ending in -y keep the 'y' when -ing is added:
to try => trying
Verbs ending in -ie change the ending into -y when -ing is added:
to lie => lying
Verbs ending in -ic change ic into -ick before adding the ending -ing:
to picnic => picnicking
NEGATIVE:
the present of the verb to be + NOT + short infinitive + -ing
INTERROGATIVE:
the present of the verb to b'+ SUBJECT + short infinitive + -ing:
Examples:
You are watching TV.
Are you watching TV?
You are not watching TV.
USE 1 Now
Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that
something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to
show that something is not happening now.
Examples:
You are learning English now.
You are not swimming now.
Are you sleeping?
I am sitting.
I am not standing.
Is he sitting or standing?
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31
meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put
the words always or constantly between be and verb + ing.
Examples:
She is always coming home late.
He is constantly talking. I wish he would stop.
I don't like them because they are always complaining.
Simple Past
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE:
Short infinitive + ed or irregular verbs
The regular verbs form the past by adding the ending -ed to the short
infinitive:
to happen => happened
Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by a short vowel double the
consonant:
to stop => stopped
Verbs ending in '-y' preceded by a consonant change the y into i:
to try => tried
Verbs ending in silent -e drop the e before the ending -ed is added:
to live = lived
The negative and interrogative are formed with the help of the past tense
form of to do (did) both for regular and irregular verbs.
! ! BE CAREFUL, DO NOT PLACE AFTER DID THE
AFFIRMATIVE PAST FORM INSTEAD OF THE SHORT
INFINITIVE.
NEGATIVE:
did + not + short infinitive of verb
.
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INTERROGATIVE:
did + subject + short infinitive of verb
Examples:
You called Susan.
Did you call Susan? ( Did you called Susan?-not correct)
You did not call Susan. (You did not called Susan.-not correct)
Used To
FORM
used to + short infinitive
USE Habit in the Past
Used to expresses the idea that something was an old habit that stopped in
the past. It indicates that something was often repeated in the past, but it is
not usually done now. (also see modals/would)
Examples:
Mom and dad used to go to Italy in the summer.
I used to have breakfast at 9 oclock.
My sister used to eat meat, but now she is a vegetarian.
Past Continuous
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE
was/were + present participle
(past of the verb to be + the short infinitive + -ing)
NEGATIVE:
past of the verb to be+ NOT+ the short infinitive +-ing
INTERROGATIVE:
past of the verb to be+ SUBJECT+ the short infinitive + ing
Examples:
You were writing when I called.
Were you writing when I called?
You were not writing when I called.
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was
interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past.
Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.
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Examples:
I was watching TV when mother called.
While we were having dinner, the lights went off.
What were you doing when the earthquake started?
I was listening music, so I didn't hear the bell.
You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
While father was sleeping last night, someone broke into his house.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption
In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter
action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an
interruption.
Examples:
Last night at 6 PM, I was watching TV.
At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
Yesterday at this time, I was writing a letter.
Present Perfect
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE
has/have + past participle
(present simple of the verb to have + past participle (III form of the
verb)
NEGATIVE:
present simple of the verb to have+ NOT + past participle (III form of
the verb)
INTERROGATIVE:
present simple of the verb to have+ SUBJECT + past participle (III
form of the verb)
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Examples:
You have seen that movie many times.
Have you seen that movie many times?
You have not seen that movie many times.
36
c. Accomplishments
We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals
and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.
Examples:
Man has walked on the Moon.
Mary has learned how to read and write French.
Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
Scientists have discovered a new planet.
37
Past Perfect
FORM
AFFIRMATIVE
had + past participle
NEGATIVE:
had + NOT + past participle
INTERROGATIVE:
had + SUBJECT + past participle
Examples:
You had studied Romanian before you moved to Bucharest.
Had you studied Romanian before you moved to Bucharest?
You had not studied Romanian before you moved to Bucharest.
39
NEGATIVE:
had + NOT + been+ verb + '-ing'
INTERROGATIVE:
had +SUBJECT+ been+ verb + '-ing'
Examples:
You had been walking for more than two hours when you saw a
house in the distance.
Had you been walking for more than two hours when you saw a
house in the distance?
You had not been walking for more than two hours when you saw a
house in the distance.
40
Tom had been studying at the university for more than a year before
he left for London.
Simple Future
Simple Future has two different forms in English: will and be going to.
Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often
express two very different meanings. Both will and be going to refer to a
specific time in the future.
FORM : Will/Shall
Although shall and particularly will are the closest approximation to a
colorless, neutral future, they do not form a future tense comparable to the
present or past tenses. They do simply refer to future time.
AFFIRMATIVE
shall/will + short infinitive
Shall/will may be abbreviated in the affirmative: ll:
NEGATIVE
shall/will + NOT + short infinitive
Shall/will may be abbreviated in the negative:
will not => wont, shall not => shant
INTERROGATIVE
shall/will + SUBJECT + short infinitive
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Examples:
You will come later.
Will you come later?
You will not come later.
FORM: Be Going To
AFFIRMATIVE:
the present simple of the verb to be + going+ to +verb
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NEGATIVE:
the present simple of the verb to be +NOT+ going+ to +verb
INTERROGATIVE:
the present simple of the verb to be +SUBJECT+ going+ to + verb
Examples:
You are going to meet Susan tonight.
Are you going to meet Susan tonight?
You are not going to meet Susan tonight.
USE 1 Be going to to express a Plan
Be going to expresses that something is a plan. It does not matter whether
the plan is realistic or not. It expresses the subjects intention to perform a
certain future action. This intention is premeditated and there is also the idea
of some sort of preparation for the action that has already been made.
Examples:
We are going to spend our vacation in Italy.
Im going to be a doctor when I grow up.
What are you going to do when you get your degree?
Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
They are going to drive all the way to Paris.
USE 2 Will or Be Going to to Express a Prediction
Both will and be going to can express the idea of a general prediction about
the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In
prediction sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future.
In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.
Examples:
The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.
The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.
John Smith will be the next President.
John Smith is going to be the next President.
The movie Avatar will win several Academy Awards.
The movie Avatar is going to win several Academy Awards.
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44
Examples:
By this October, I will have graduated.
By tomorrow, I will have been studying for 11 hours. (progressive
form)
! People often mix their tenses or use the wrong verb form when speaking.
Although these errors may be overlooked in conversation, they are painfully
evident in written communication! They often confuse the reader and affect
the tone of the message.
Learning to use the right verb tense is important to convey intentions and the
time of an action or state of being accurately and clearly. The various tenses
in English are formed using the basic elements of a verb.
a. use the correct verb form with each tense;
Incorrect: He checked on the order and has went to pick it up.
Correct: He checked on the order and has gone to pick it up.
Incorrect: I done the work last night and handed in this
morning.
Correct: I did the work last night and handed in this
morning.
Incorrect: The book is fascinating reading. It provided a
detailed study
of how cultures were created.
Correct: The book is fascinating reading. It provides a
detailed study of how cultures are created. (the writer refers to
the present tense in the first sentence; all references that follow
should also be in the literary present tense)
b. when describing two events in the past that did not occur at the same
time, use the past perfect to refer to the event or action in the more
distant past;
Incorrect: I suddenly remembered (past) that I left (more past)
my wallet at home.
Correct:
I suddenly remembered that I had left my wallet at
home. (leaving the wallet at home preceded remembering the fact)
c. do not use would have in if clauses that express the earlier of two
past actions, use the past perfect;
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46
47
plural noun
my childs dog
my childrens dog
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Number
When a Noun denotes a single object, it is said to be Singular or of the
Singular Number: man, rose.
When a Noun denotes more than one object of the kind, it is said to be
Plural or of the Plural Number: men, roses.
The Plural of Nouns is formed from the Singular. In the oldest form of the
English language, several plural endings existed. Of these one only remains
in active force in modern English, namely the ending -s or -es. Hence when
a new word arises, we at once, and as a matter of course, form its plural in
this way: telegram, telegrams.
A, An or The?
When do we say the dog and when do we say a dog? (here we talk only
about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called articles. We divide them into definite and
indefinite like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the
a, an
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When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are
talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So
normally we would say:
I saw the moon last night.
I saw a star last night.
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Irregular Plural
For most irregular nouns, the spelling changes to form the plural. Because
these changes do not follow a general rule, the forms must be memorized.
a. Nouns ending in -f, -fe, and if:
These, as a general rule, change the f into v before the plural ending:
leaf, leaves; wife, wives; wolf, wolves; life, lives; half, halves; calf,
calves; knife, knives; elf, elves; shelf, shelves; thief, thieves; loaf,
loaves; leaf, leaves; self, selves
But nouns in -ief, -oof, -ff, -rf, usually take simple -s:
brief, briefs; chief, chiefs; grief, griefs; (but not thief, thieves)
hoof, hoofs; roof, roofs; proof, proofs;
cliff, cliffs; skiff, skiffs; whiff, whiffs;
dwarf, dwarfs; scarf, scarfs; turf, turfs.
Staff however makes staves ; and wharf, scarf, turf, sometimes take a plural
in -ves (wharves, scarves, turves).
b. Inflexion by change in the body of the word:
man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth;
louse, lice; mouse, mice.
c. Plurals in -n or -en:
ox, oxen; brother, brethern (where there is internal changes besides)
child, children (Old English, childer)
To these may be added:
cow, kine (=cows); hose, hosen.
d. The plural the same as the singular; in some cases owing to the loss of
final vowel or other sign of the plural distinction:
sheep, sheep; deer, deer; swine, swine.
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Gender
There are two genders properly so called: Masculine and Feminine. The
distinction of male and female in nature is called sex. The distinction
between Masculine and Feminine in words is called Gender.
The English language, unlike most others, applies the distinction of
Masculine and Feminine only to the names of persons and animals: man,
woman; boy, girl; lion, lioness. Nouns which denote things without animal
life are said to be Neuter or of Neuter Gender (i.e, neither masculine nor
feminine): iron, stone, river. The only exception to this rule is when
inanimate things are represented as persons.
Note. Collective Nouns are Neuter though denoting collections of male or
female objects: army, committee, sisterhood.
When the same name is used for male and female, it is said to be Common
or of Common Gender: bird, fish, parent, sovereign, friend.
There are three ways of indicating difference of Gender in Nouns:A. By inflexion.
B. By using a word indicative of sex.
C. By distinct words.
A. THE GENDER DISTINGUISHED BY INFLEXION.
1. The feminine is usually distinguished from the masculine by the
ending -ess:
Masculine.
abbot
actor
adulterer
master
author
mayor
duke
monitor
baron
marquis
Feminine.
abbess
actress
adulteress
mistress
authoress (or
author)
mayoress
duchess1
monitress
baroness
marchioness2
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murderer
enchanter
prophet
god
emperor
founder
governor
seamster
host
elector
sorcerer
tiger
traitor
viscount
lion
benefactor
negro
canon
patron
count
peer
dauphin
poet
deacon
proprietor
preceptor
protector
prior
giant
heir
shepherd
hunter
priest
songster
instructor
inventor
Jew
murderess
enchantress
prophetess
goddess
empress
foundress
governess
sempstress3
hostess
electress
sorceress
tigress
traitress
viscountess
lioness
benefactress
negress
canoness
patroness
countess
peeress
dauphiness
poetess (or poet)
deaconess
proprietress (-trix)
preceptress
protectress
prioress
giantess
heiress
shepherdess
huntress
priestess
songstress
instructress
inventress
Jewess
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Masculine.
he-ass (jack-ass)
he-bear
cock-bird (male-bird)
bull-calf
bull-elephant (maleelephant)
dog-fox
he-goat
boar-pig
buck-rabbit
man-servant (maleservant)
cock-sparrow
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Feminine.
she-ass
she-bear
hen-bird (female-bird)
cow-calf
cow-elephant (femaleelephant)
bitch-fox
she-goat
sow-pig
doe-rabbit
maid-servant (femaleservant)
hen-sparrow.
Feminine.
maid, spinster
sow
girl
bride
sister
doe
roe
hind
cow
heifer
hen
filly
bitch
duck
bee
countess
mother
gammer
goose
lady
mare
wife
queen
lass
lady
woman
nun
niece
momma
ewe
dam
slut
daughter
aunt
witch
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Common
hog, swine, pig
child, youth
sibling
deer
deer
deer
ox, neat
ox, neat
fowl
foal (also colt)
dog, hound
duck
bee
parent
goose
horse
spouse (poet.)
sovereign
man
sheep
child
When we want to use two color adjectives, we join them with and:
Many newspapers are black and white.
She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
The rules on this page are for the normal, natural order of adjectives. But
these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order
for emphasis.
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can compare them. We can see if they
are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and
different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the
differences.
old, fast
happy, easy
old older
late later
big bigger
happy happier
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
expensive,
intellectual
modern more
modern
expensive more
expensive
b. Comparative of Inferiority
We form the comparative of inferiority as follows:
short adjectives (monosyllabic): add not as..;
long adjectives; use less..than
Examples:
good, not so good
expensive, less expensive
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Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality.
We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in
a group of things.
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
a. Superlative
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative
adjective:
short adjectives: add -est
long adjectives: use most
old, fast
happy, easy
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Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
expensive, intellectual
b. Negative Superlative
The negative superlative is expressed by using the least in front of the
adjective.
modern, the least modern;
expensive, the least expensive
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1. Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about)
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is
in bold and the word that it modifies is in italics.
Modify a verb:
- Tom speaks loudly. (How does Tom speak?)
- Susan lives locally. (Where does Susan live?)
- Mom never smokes. (When does mom smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- Grandma drives incredibly slowly.
But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
2. Form
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the
adjective. Here are some examples:
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3. Position
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
Front (before the subject):
Now we will study adverbs.
Middle (between the subject and the main verb):
We often study adverbs.
End (after the verb or object):
We study adverbs carefully.
In general, avoid splitting a verb phrase when using an adverb. While the
rule is not carved in stone, it is a good one to keep in mind.
Types of Adverbs:
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency answer the question How often? or How
frequently? They tell us how often somebody does something.
often, rarely, sometimes, usually, seldom, etc.
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Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb (except the main verb to
be):
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that.
She is always late.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the
beginning or end of a sentence:
Sometimes they come and stay with us.
I play football occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with very):
We see them rarely.
John eats fruit very seldom.
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place indicate position. They answer to the question: Where?
here, there, in the room, on the table, etc.
Adverbs of place come after the main verb, direct object (if there is one) or
adverb of manner (if there is one):
Mary searched everywhere, but she couldnt find her ring.
I took the children to the zoo.
They were playing happily in the garden.
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time indicate the time at which something happened. They
answer to the question: When?
then, yet, still, now, today, in the afternoon, etc.
Adverbs of time are placed at the very beginning of the clause or at its very
end. The end position is more usual.
Last week I met his girl friend.
Mom and dad went to the opera yesterday.
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Note:
-still is placed before the main verb or after the verb to be:
He still thinks he is the best in his class.
He is still in denial.
-yet is placed at the end of the sentence.
Tom hasnt come yet.
Are we there yet? (usually with a negative answer)
Adverbs of Time/ Frequency (When?)
always
before
eventually
forever
frequently
never
now
Monday
occasionally
often
once
seldom
in
out
over
sideways
there
through
under
upstairs
less
mildly
most
much
nearly
somewhat
thoroughly
equally
handily
hotly
nicely
thankfully
quickly
resentfully
tirelessly
Adverbs indicating time, direction, place, or degree may look the same as
nouns, prepositions or adjectives.
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Comparison of Adverbs
Normally adverbs of two or more syllables form the comparative with more
and the superlative with most.
Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives: fast, hard, late, long,
quick, high, far, deep, near use the endings -er for the comparative and
-est for the superlative.
Tom must study harder for this exam.
You can drive faster.
My daughter danced more gracefully than ever.
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V. THE PRONOUN
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a
pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours,
themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to
repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
Do you like the new teacher? I don't like the new teacher. The new
teacher is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
Do you like the new teacher? I dont like him. He is too pompous.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them
depending on:
number
person gender
subject
object
male/female
me
2nd
male/female
you
you
3rd
male
he
him
female
she
her
neuter
it
it
1st
male/female
we
us
2nd
male/female
you
you
3rd
male/female/neuter they
singular 1st
plural
personal pronouns
them
gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are
talking about.
Here are the personal pronouns:
Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the
second an object pronoun):
I like chocolate.
Tom called me.
Do you like chocolate?
Tom likes you.
He runs fast.
Did Tom call him?
She is beautiful.
Does Tom like her?
It doesnt work.
Can daddy repair it?
We went for a walk.
Susan invited us.
Do you need a table for four?
Did Tom and Susan beat you at doubles?
They played tennis.
Tom and Susan beat them.
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.
We often use it to introduce a remark:
It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
It is important to be educated.
Its difficult to raise a child.
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Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things :( (to demonstrate verb:
to show; to indicate; to point to)
near in distance or time (this, these)
far in distance or time (that, those)
near
far
singular
this
that
plural
these
those
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Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or
thing/things (the antecedent) belonging to a person/people (and sometimes
belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person
(eg: his)
gender: male (his), female (hers)
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences.
Notice that each possessive pronoun can:
be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent
number
singular 1st
plural
male/female
mine
2nd
male/female
yours
3rd
male
his
female
hers
1st
male/female
ours
2nd
male/female
yours
3rd
male/female/neuter
theirs
All these houses are so small. Mine is the big one. (subject = My
house)
I like your dress. Do you like mine? (object = my dress)
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I went to the post office. I posted my letter but I forgot to post yours.
(object = your letter)
My house is so big. Yours is so small. (subject = Your house)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
Tom wrote his vows but Susan didnt write hers. (object = her vows)
These are your tickets. Ours are at home. (subject = Our tickets)
Each couples books are color-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your
books)
I don't like this familys garden but I like yours. (object = your
garden)
These arent John and Marys children. Theirs have black hair.
(subject = Their children)
John and Mary dont like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their
car)
Whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive
pronoun). Look at these examples:
This car is new, whose is it?
I wonder whose dress is the most beautiful.
Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun
represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question
about). The interrogative pronouns are invariable for gender and number.
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).
subject
object
person
who
whom
thing
what
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person/thing
which
person
whose
(possessive)
Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the
verb, as in Whom did you see? (I saw John.) However, in normal,
spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or
even write): Who did you see?
Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase
that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.
question
answer
subject
I told Susan.
object
What's happened?
An accident's happened.
subject
I want milk.
object
subject
object
subject
object
Sometimes we use the suffix -ever to make compounds from some of these
pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add -ever, we
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use it for emphasis, often to show confusion, anger or surprise. Look at these
examples:
Whoever would want to do such a horrible thing?
Whatever did you do to upset her like that?
They're all beautiful! Whichever will you choose?
Reflexive Pronouns
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the
sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in -self (singular) or -selves
(plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns: (reflexive -adj. : reflecting back on the
subject, like a mirror)
reflexive pronoun
singular
myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
plural
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Examples:
I see myself in the mirror.
You cut yourself shaving.
He sent himself the letter.
Children cannot look after themselves.
All the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns. An
intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:
I made it myself. I myself made it.
Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?
The President himself promised to stop the war.
She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.
The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.
Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.
You yourselves asked us to do it.
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They recommend this book even though they themselves have never
read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never
read it themselves.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects is acting in
the same way towards the other. For example, I am talking to You, and You
are talking to Me. So we say:
A and B are talking to each other.
The action is reciprocated. Tom talks to Susan and Susan talks to Tom. I
keep your secret and you keep my secret.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
each other
one another
When we use these reciprocal pronouns:
there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we
cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and
they must be doing the same thing
Examples:
John and Mary love each other.
Peter and David hate each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
Both teams played hard against each other.
We gave each other gifts.
Why dont you believe each other?
They cant see each other.
The gangsters were fighting one another.
The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.
In general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a
little formal.
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Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
It is vague and not definite. Some typical indefinite pronouns are:
all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone,
everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some,
somebody/someone
!Remember! Do not use double negatives!
Incorrect:
He did not keep no records.
Mary did not see nobody in the room.
Correct:
He did not keep any records. (or: He kept no records.)
Mary did not see anybody in the room. (or: Mary saw nobody in the room.)
another
anybody /anyone
anything
each
seen separately
either
enough
everybody/ everyone
everything
less
little
much
neither
things
nobody/no-one
nothing
one
other
mentioned
somebody/someone
something
you
a smaller amount
a small amount
a large amount
not one and not the other of two people or
no person
no single thing, not anything
an unidentified person
a different person or thing from one already
an unspecified or unknown person
an unspecified or unknown thing
an unidentified person (informal)
Plural:
both
few
fewer
many
others
several
they
Singular or plural:
all
the whole quantity of something or of some things or people
any
no matter how much or how many
more a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or
things
most the majority; nearly all
none not any; no person or persons
some an unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number
of people or things
such of the type already mentioned
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Examples:
This apple is rotten, I would like another.
Is there anybody who can answer my question?
Is anything wrong?
Each will receive a ticket.
Its you or Tom, no one else applied for this position. Either is suited.
But neither gets the job if the answers arent correct.
Enough is enough, dont you agree?
Everybody works out.
I guess everything is at its right place.
If you eat red meat, less is healthy.
Little is known about her boy friend.
Nothing matters to you.
Dont drink so much, one gets the idea youre an alcoholic.
Somebody was here before.
Something bad is happening.
I have twins! Both are red-haired!
Few know the answer and fewer have the courage to spell it.
Many try to win the contest.
Others have seen this movie and enjoyed it, too.
All were tired, several left the room. / All is forgotten.
Are any singing tonight? / Is there any on the table?
Some say you are wrong. / Here is some.
Most is forgiven. / I invited my class, most have arrived.
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79
TWO
BUSINESS ENGLISH
Business writing is different
Writing for a business audience is usually quite different than writing in the
humanities, social sciences, or other academic disciplines. Business writing
strives to be crisp and succinct rather than evocative or creative; it stresses
specificity and accuracy. This distinction does not make business writing
superior or inferior to other styles. Rather, it reflects the unique purpose and
considerations involved when writing in a business context.
Business language varies from the conversational style often found in email
messages to the more formal, legalistic style found in contracts. A style
between these two extremes is appropriate for the majority of memos,
emails, and letters. Writing that too formal can alienate readers, and an
attempt to be overly casual may come across as insincere or unprofessional.
Business writing should be clear and concise. Take care, however, that your
document does not turn out as an endless series of short, choppy sentences.
Keep in mind also that concise does not have to mean bluntyou still
need to think about your tone and the audience for whom you are writing.
Consider the following examples:
After carefully reviewing this proposal, we have decided to prioritize
other projects this quarter.
Nobody liked your project idea, so we are not going to give you any
funding.
The first version is a weaker statement, emphasizing facts not directly
relevant to its point. The second version provides the information in a simple
and direct manner. But you dont need to be an expert on style to know that
the first phrasing is diplomatic and respectful (even though its less concise)
as compared with the second version, which is unnecessarily harsh and
likely to provoke a negative reaction.
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VOCABULARY
(from Top Twenty English Vocabulary-eBook)
1. Banking
1
2
3
4
balance
bank charges
branch
checkbook
(A.E.)
5 check (A.E.)
6 credit
7 credit card
8 current
account
9 debit
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also v.
10 deposit
n. bank a/c on which interest is paid; savings account
(A.E.)
account
11 fill in (B.E.)
v. to add written information to a document to make it
complete; to fill out (A.E.)
12 interest
n. money paid for the use of money lent - interest rate n.
13 loan
n. money lent by a bank etc and that must be repaid with
interest - also v.
14 overdraft
n. deficit in a bank account caused by withdrawing more
money than is paid in
15 pay in
v. [paid, paid] to deposit or put money in to a bank
account
16 payee
n. person to whom money is paid
17 paying-in slip n. small document recording money that you pay in to a
bank account
18 standing order n. an instruction to a bank to make regular payments
19 statement
n. a record of transactions in a bank account
20 withdraw
v. [-drew, -drawn] to take money out of a bank account withdrawal n.
Example of a text using banking vocabulary:
If you are 18, youll probably want to open a bank account. There are two
main types of accounts: a current account and a savings account.
You can use a current account for your day-to-day banking needs. Your
bank might give you a cheque book, which allows you to write
cheques/checks to pay for goods and services. Youll probably also have a
bank card which allows you to withdraw cash from cash machines (also
known as hole in the wall machines) and to pay for goods in shops. You
get a secret pin number (personal identification number) that you use when
you withdraw cash.
If you receive a cheque/check, you can pay it in or deposit it at your bank.
You can also pay in cash (money). If you want to convert your
cheque/check into cash, you can cash the cheque/check. Some companies
can also pay money into your account via a direct bank transfer.
A savings account should pay you interest. Most banks give you a different
rate of interest depending on how much you are saving, and how much
notice you give before withdrawing money.
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2. Contracts
1 agreement
hand
16 party
17 stipulate
18 terms
19 warrant
20 whereas
3. Marketing
1 brand
2 consumer
3 cost
4 develop
5 distribution
6 end-user
7 image
8 label
9 launch
10 mail order
11 market
research
12 packaging
(B.E.)
13 point of sale
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14 product
4. Meetings
1 A.G.M.
2 A.O.B.
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decide v.
13 item
5. Selling
1 after-sales
service
2 buyer
3 client
4 close
5 cold call
6 customer
7 deal
8 discount
9 follow up
10 guarantee
11 in bulk
12 lead
13 objection
14 overcome
15 product
16 prospect
17 representative
18 retail
19 service
20 wholesale
6. Money
1 A.T.M.
2 banknote
3 bill (A.E.)
4 black market
87
etc
9 coin
n: a piece of metal money
10 currency
n. the money in general use or circulation in any country
11 debt
n. money etc owed by one person to another
12 exchange rate n. the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for
another
13 foreign
n: the currency of other countries
exchange
14 hard currency n. currency that will probably not fall in value and is
readily accepted
15 invest
v. to put money for profit into business, land etc investment n.
16 legal tender
n: currency that cannot legally be refused in payment of
a debt
17 petty cash
n. a cash fund for small, everyday expenses
(B.E.)
18 soft currency n. currency that will probably fall in value and is not
readily accepted
19 speculate
v. (risky) buying of foreign currency, land etc for rapid
gain - speculation n.
20 transaction
n. a (usually commercial) exchange; a deal - to transact
v.
7. Import- Export
1 bill of lading
2 c.&f.
3 c.i.f.
4 cargo
5 certificate of
origin
6 container
88
port n. to containerise v.
7 customs
8 declare
9 f.a.s.
10 f.o.b.
11 freight
12 irrevocable
13 letter of credit
14 merchandise
15 packing list
16 pro forma
invoice
17 quay
18 ship
19 shipping agent
20 waybill
8. Insurance
1 actuary
2 assessor
3 claim
89
4 comprehensive
90
American
Annual Stockholders Meeting
Bylaws
authorized capital stock
bellwether stock
prime rate
stock dividend or stock split
bridge loan
savings and loan association
check
corporation
accounts payable
checking account
accounts receivable
Treasury bonds
labor
Certificate of Incorporation
investment bank
common stock
overhead
income statement
real estate
listed company
consumer price index (CPI)
stock
paid-in surplus
stockholder
91
shareholders' equity
stock
trade union
unit trusts
visible trade
stockholders' equity
inventory
labor union
mutual funds
merchandise trade
92
94
95
97
98
99
THREE
Appendix 1
There are no fixed rules for forming the past tense and past and present
participle of irregular verbs. It is necessary to memorize the forms and to
keep a good dictionary handy. For reference, some of the most
commonly used irregular verbs are listed here.
Basic Form
Past Tense
Past Participle
be
begin
bite
blow
break
bring
burst
buy
catch
come
do
draw
drink
drive
eat
fall
fight
flee
fly
forget
get
go
hang
hide
was
began
bit
blew
broke
brought
burst
bought
caught
came
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
fought
fled
flew
forgot
got
went
hung/hanged
hid
been
begun
bitten
blown
broken
brought
burst
bought
caught
come
done
drown
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fought
fled
flown
forgotten
got/gotten
gone
hung/hanged
hidden
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Present
Participle
being
beginning
biting
blowing
breaking
bringing
bursting
buying
catching
coming
doing
drawing
drinking
driving
eating
falling
fighting
fleeing
flying
forgetting
getting
going
hanging
hiding
know
lay
leave
lend
lie
lose
lost
pay
ride
ring
rise
run
see
set
shake
shine
shrink
sit
speak
steal
strike
take
tear
throw
wear
write
knew
laid
left
lent
lay
lost
lost
paid
rode
rang
rose
ran
saw
set
shook
shone
shrank
sat
spoke
stole
struck
took
tore
threw
wore
wrote
known
laid
left
lent
lain
lost
lost
paid
ridden
rung
risen
run
seen
set
shaken
shone
shrunk
sat
spoken
stolen
struck
taken
torn
thrown
worn
written
knowing
laying
leaving
lending
lying
losing
losing
paying
riding
ringing
rising
running
seeing
setting
shaking
shining
shrinking
sitting
speaking
stealing
striking
taking
tearing
throwing
wearing
writing
Appendix 2
The meaning and spelling of the following words are commonly confused.
Practice using them until the correct usage is familiar to you.
accept, except
accept-to take, to agree
I accept the offer.
except-excluding, omitting
Everyone left except me.
101
advice, advise
advice-opinion, counsel
She needs your advice.
advise-to counsel
Please advise him of his rights.
affect, effect
affect- to influence, change
Inflation always affects our level of income.
effect-(n.) impression, results; (v.) to cause
The computer has had a profound effect on our everyday lives.
It has effected a complete change in the way we do business.
imply, infer
imply- to suggest
Are you implying that I was at the scene of the crime?
infer- to deduce from evidence
Your gloves were found in the room, we infer that you visited the deceased
sometime last night.
its, its
its- contraction of it is or it has
Its [is has] been a long day.
its- possessive form of the pronoun it
When the ship fired its guns, the blast was deafening.
later, latter
later- after a time
Theyll mail it later today.
latter- last mentioned of two
If its a choice between the beach and the mountains, Ill take the latter.
lead, led, lead
lead-(v.) to go before; (adj.) first
The boys always lead the rush to the beach.
led-(v., past tense of lead) went before
They led the parade playing their kazoos.
lead-(n.) heavy metal; graphite
The paperweight is made of lead.
102
lie, lay
lie- to rest or recline (lie, lay, lain)
The cat always lies down on my sweater. Yesterday he lay on it all day. I
wish he had lain somewhere else.
lay- to put or place something (lay, laid, laid)
I will lay the sweater on the couch. Yesterday I laid it there without thinking
about the cat. I have laid it there many times.
lose, loose, loss
lose- misplace
Dont lose the tickets.
loose- not fastened down; release
The screw is loose on the showerhead,
loss- deprivation
His leaving was a loss to the company.
past passed
past-(n., adj.) preceding
The past president gave the gavel to the new president.
passed- (v., past tense of pass) went by; gone by
We passed my cousin on the road.
personal, personnel
personal- individual
Can I ask you a personal question?
personnel- a department; workers
The human resources (personnel) office keeps records on all company
personnel.
precede, proceed
precede- to come before
My older brother precedes me by one grade at school.
proceed- to go ahead
We can proceed with your game as soon as the weather clears.
principle, principal
principle- rule, standard
Sound principles can help you make good decisions.
principal-(adj.) main, chief; (n.) superintendent
103
105
Bibliography
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NY, 2005
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Suzanne; Whitten, E. Mary; Harbrace College Handbook, 11th
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4. Marius, Richard; Wiener, S. Harvey; The McGraw-Hill College
Handbook, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill Inc, NY, 1994
5. Thurman, Susan; Grammar and Style Book, Adamsmedia, Avon,
Massachusetts, 2008
6. Zdrenghea, M. Mihai; Greere, L. Anca; A Practical English
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