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K. Sundararajan 3
Design of experiments (DOE) is a systematic method to determine the relationship between factors affecting a
process and the output of that process. In other words, it is used to find cause-and-effect relationships. This
information is needed to manage process inputs in order to optimize the output.
An understanding of DOE first requires knowledge of some statistical tools and experimentation concepts.
Although a DOE can be analyzed in many software programs, it is important for practitioners to understand basic
DOE concepts for proper application.
Controllable input factors, or x factors, are those input parameters that can be modified in an experiment
or process. For example, in cooking rice, these factors include the quantity and quality of the rice and the
quantity of water used for boiling.
Uncontrollable input factors are those parameters that cannot be changed. In the rice-cooking example,
this may be the temperature in the kitchen. These factors need to be recognized to understand how they may
affect the response.
Responses, or output measures, are the elements of the process outcome that gage the desired effect.
In the cooking example, the taste and texture of the rice are the responses.
The controllable input factors can be modified to optimize the output. The relationship between the factors and
responses is shown in Figure 1.
Hypothesis testing helps determine the significant factors using statistical methods. There are two
possibilities in a hypothesis statement: the null and the alternative. The null hypothesis is valid if the status quo is
true. The alternative hypothesis is true if the status quo is not valid. Testing is done at a level of significance,
which is based on a probability.
Blocking and replication: Blocking is an experimental technique to avoid any unwanted variations in the
input or experimental process. For example, an experiment may be conducted with the same equipment to avoid
any equipment variations. Practitioners also replicate experiments, performing the same combination run more
than once, in order to get an estimate for the amount of random error that could be part of the process.
Interaction: When an experiment has three or more variables, an interaction is a situation in which the
The comparison of two or more levels in a factor can be done using an F-test. This compares the variance of the
means of different factor levels with the individual variances, using this equation:
F = ns2Y-bar / s2pooled
where:
n = the sample size
s2Y-bar = the variance of the means, which is calculated by dividing the sum of variances of the individual means by
the degrees of freedom
s2pooled = pooled variance, or the average of the individual variances
This is similar to the signal-to-noise ratio used in electronics. If the value of F (the test statistic) is greater than the
F-critical value, it means there is a significant difference between the levels, or one level is giving a response that
is different from the others. Caution is also needed to ensure that s2pooled is kept to a minimum, as it is the noise or
error term. If the F value is high, the probability (p-value) will fall below 0.05, indicating that there is a significant
difference between levels. The value of 0.05 is a typical accepted risk value.
If F = 1, it means the factor has no effect.
As an example of a one-factor experiment, data from an incoming shipment of a product is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Incoming Shipment Data
Lot
Data
61, 61, 57, 56, 60, 52, 62, 59, 62, 67, 55, 56, 52, 60, 59, 59, 60, 59, 49, 42, 55, 67, 53, 66, 60
56, 56, 61, 67, 58, 63, 56, 60, 55, 46, 62, 65, 63, 59, 60, 60, 59, 60, 65, 65, 62, 51, 62, 52, 58
62, 62, 72, 63, 51, 65, 62, 59, 62, 63, 68, 64, 67, 60, 59, 59, 61, 58, 65, 64, 70, 63, 68, 62, 61
70, 70, 50, 68, 71, 65, 70, 73, 70, 69, 64, 68, 65, 72, 73, 75, 72, 75, 64, 69, 60, 68, 66, 69, 72
When a practitioner completes an analysis of variance (ANOVA), the following results are obtained:
Table 2: ANOVA Summary
Groups
Count
Sum
Average
Variance
25
1,449
57.96
31.54
25
1,483
59.32
23.14333
25
1,570
62.80
18.5
25
1,708
68.32
27.64333
Source of Variation
SS
df
MS
p-value
F-crit
Between groups
1,601.16
533.72
21.17376
1.31 x 10-10
2.699394
ANOVA
Within groups
2,419.84
96
Total
4,021
99
25.20667
Statistical software can provide hypothesis testing and give the actual value of F. If the value is below the critical F
value, a value based on the accepted risk, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. Otherwise, the null hypothesis
is rejected to confirm that there is a relationship between the factor and the response. Table 2 shows that the F is
high, so there is a significant variation in the data. The practitioner can conclude that there is a difference in the
lot means.
2.
Name
Units
Flour brand
Cost
Cheap
Costly
Time
Minutes
10
15
Temperature
Degrees (C)
70
80
The output responses considered are taste and crust formation. Taste was determined by a panel of experts,
who rated the cake on a scale of 1 (worst) to 10 (best). The ratings were averaged and multiplied by 10. Crust
formation is measured by the weight of the crust, the lower the better.
The experiment design, with the responses, is shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Settings of Input Factors and the Resulting Responses
Run Order
A: Brand
B: Time (min)
C: Temp. (C)
Costly(+)
10(-)
70(-)
75
0.3
Cheap(-)
15(+)
70(-)
71
0.7
Cheap(-)
10(-)
80(+)
81
1.2
Costly(+)
15(+)
70(-)
80
0.7
Costly(+)
10(-)
80(+)
77
0.9
Costly(+)
15(+)
80(+)
32
0.3
Cheap(-)
15(+)
80(+)
42
0.5
Cheap(-)
10(-)
70(-)
74
3.1
Analysis of the results is shown in Table 5. Figures 2 through 4 show the average taste scores for each factor as it
changes from low to high levels. Figures 5 through 7 are interaction plots; they show the effect of the combined
manipulation of the factors.
Table 5: ANOVA Table for the Taste Response
Factor
df
SS
MS
Effect
Contrast
F-crit at 1%
Brand
2.0
2.0
0.0816
-1
-4.00
0.82
16.47
Time
840.5
840.5
34.306
-20.5
-82.00
0.11
Brand x time
0.5
0.5
0.0204
0.5
2.00
0.91
Temp
578.0
578.0
23.592
-17
-68.00
0.13
Brand x temp
72.0
72.0
2.9388
-6
-24.00
0.34
Time x temp
924.5
924.5
37.735
-21.5
-86.00
0.10
24.5
24.5
-3.5
-14.00
0.50
Error
24.5
24.5
Total
2442.0
Figure 2: Average Taste Scores for Low and High Flour Brand Levels
Figure 3: Average Taste Scores for Low and High Bake Time (Minutes) Levels
Figure 4: Average Taste Scores for Low and High Baking Temperature (C) Levels
From reading an F table, the critical F value at 1 percent is 16.47. As the actual value of F for time and
temperature exceed this value (time is at 34.306 and temperature is 23.592), its possible to conclude that both of
them have a significant effect on the taste of the product. This is also evident from Figures 3 and 4, where the line
is steep for the variation of these two factors. Figure 7 also shows that when the temperature is high, the taste
sharply decreases with time (as charring takes place).
df
SS
MS
Effect
Contrast
F-crit at 1%
Brand
1.4
1.4
1.4938
-0.825
-3.30
16.47
Time
1.4
1.4
1.4938
-0.825
-3.30
Brand x time
1.1
1.1
1.1536
0.725
2.90
Temp
0.5
0.5
0.4952
-0.475
-1.90
Brand x temp
0.7
0.7
0.7257
0.575
2.30
Time x temp
0.1
0.1
0.0672
0.175
0.70
0.9
0.9
-0.675
-2.70
Error
0.9
0.9
Total
5.9
In this case the actual F value for the three factors (brand, time and temperature) are below the critical F value for
1 percent (16.47). This shows that these are not significant factors for the crust formation in the cake. If further
optimization of the crust formation is needed, then other factors, such as the quantity of ingredients in the cake
(eggs, sugar and so on), should be checked.
DOE Simplified Practical Tools for Effective Experimentation (Productivity Inc., 2000)
2.