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CEU 235
Pumps
May 2016
ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn
Plumbing engineers are responsible for the design of many types of pumping systems, so a basic knowledge of pump
fundamentals is essential for the intelligent selection and application of the equipment.
A vast array of various types of pumps is available to satisfy practically any imaginable application. Fortunately, the
field for application in plumbing systems can be narrowed down to two general pump classifications: centrifugal and
rotary (positive displacement) as defined by the Hydraulic Institute.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
A simple analogy of a centrifugal pump is a bucket of water with a hole in the bottom. When the bucket is whirled overhead by means of a rope fastened to its handle, the water is thrown a considerable distance out of the hole. As the bucket
is whirled faster, it empties more quickly, and the water is discharged further. In pump terminology, when the speed of
rotation increases, more water is pumped (capacity) to a greater height (head).
Centrifugal pumps can be broadly classified on the basis of the internal design of the casing as follows: volute or
turbine. (Volute pumps are specified almost exclusively for plumbing systems.) The broad classifications can be further
identified on the basis of impeller shape and operating characteristics. Impellers can be closed, semi-enclosed, or open
and can also be classified as radial or axial on the basis of the water discharge direction.
Additional means of classification are casing design (vertical or horizontal), axis of shaft rotation (vertical or horizontal), location of suction or discharge (side, bottom, or end), number of impellers (single stage or multistage), type of
pump/motor connection (close coupled or base mounted), and the position of the pump in relation to the pumped water
(wet pit, dry pit, or inline).
Centrifugal pumps are best used with liquids with low viscosities. The upper limit for a centrifugal pump is 8001,000
centipoise (cP).
Centrifugal pumps offer the following advantages over positive-displacement pumps:
Lower initial cost
Less costly to maintain (one seal versus two seals, motor only versus gearbox and motor, fewer wearing parts)
Require less floor space
Generate higher flow for cleaned-in-place applications
Almost no self-priming pumps are made. The few that are made have a very low discharge head and usually have a
small priming tank mounted on the pump. These pumps have special close tolerances.
Volute Pumps
The most basic volute pump is the single-stage type, which consists of a rotating element (impeller) and a casing. The water enters the eye (center) of the impeller and is
rotated by the vanes of the impeller. Centrifugal force impels the water from the eye
to the periphery of the impeller at a greatly increased velocity. The casing enclosing
the impeller has a volute- (spiral-) shaped passage of increasing area that collects
the high-velocity flow leaving the impeller and converts a portion of the velocity head
(kinetic energy) into static head (potential energy).
The volute pump has a spiral casing (see Figure 8-1) that is proportioned to produce
an equal velocity of flow at all sections around the circumference at the best efficiency
point (BEP) of the pump and also to gradually reduce the velocity of the water as it
flows from the impeller to the discharge nozzle. It should be noted that the casing
plays absolutely no part in the actual generation of head. The impeller delivers all of
the energy imparted to the water, and the casing merely contains the pressure and
converts the kinetic energy to potential energy. At the point of separation between the discharge nozzle and the volute
is a small projection of the casing material called the volute tongue or cutwater, which cuts the flow of water away from
the impeller and helps direct the water into the discharge nozzle.
Impeller
The vanes of an impeller are curved to produce a smooth flow of water with minimum turbulence (see Figure 8-2). The
characteristics of a centrifugal pump are largely determined by the angle of the tip of the vanes.
Reprinted from Advanced Plumbing Technology II. 2015, American Society of Plumbing Engineers. All rights reserved.
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May 2016
Seals
Pump seals are required to prevent liquid from leaving the pump or air from entering the pump through the clearance around the driver shaft.
The two types of seals are packing (Figure 8-3) and mechanical (Figure 8-4). The
performance of the seal depends on the characteristics of the water being pumped.
In applications involving water with high abrasives content, the packing seal is far
superior to the mechanical seal. Mechanical seals are superior where the water is
free of abrasive material.
Packing is inexpensive, easy to install, readily available, and can be replaced
without disassembling the pump. Its disadvantages are that it requires some liquid
leakage, experiences shaft sleeve wear, requires periodic maintenance, has some
horsepower loss, and the shaft sleeves need replacing.
Packing is a compression type of seal. When compressed by the packing gland, it expands outward and inward to come into contact with the
packing box and shaft sleeve. Since the shaft rotates, the packing must
not be compressed so tightly that all leakage is eliminated. A little leakage
is necessary for lubrication to prevent packing burnout and shaft sleeve
wear. The packing wears slightly and shrinks during service and thus
requires periodic maintenance to tighten the packing gland to minimize
excessive leakage.
Mechanical seals eliminate leakage, require no periodic maintenance,
and eliminate shaft sleeve wear. They also function as a slider bearing
since they utilize rotating and stationary members. These seals are more
expensive than packing seals, are easily damaged, and require disassembly
of the pump for replacement.
It is a common misconception that a mechanical seal allows absolutely no leakage of water. Some leakage must always flow through the faces of the seal for lubrication, or failure would result. Generally this leakage is so slight that it
vaporizes, and only after a long period can some slight oxidation be noted outside the box near the shaft as evidence of
the slight leakage.
Bearings
The three types of bearings are sleeve, roller, and ball. Ball bearings are used almost
exclusively in pumps used in most plumbing applications.
The sleeve bearing operates in a sliding motion similar to skis sliding across packed
snow. In the case of a bearing, this relative motion is between a shaft or journal and
its sleeve bearing or bushing. Sleeve bearings are suitable for very small pumps only.
The operation of a roller bearing (Figure 8-5) can be compared to placing a number
of logs between two flat plates and rolling them. Each roller has a line of rolling contact
with each surface upon which it bears. This type of bearing is the best load-carrying
bearing of the three types, but it is also the noisiest bearing.
The ball bearing (Figure 8-6) experiences point contact between its races and, like
the roller bearing, experiences rolling contact rather than sliding contact as in the
sleeve bearing. The ball bearing can support high loads even at low speeds and is much
quieter in operation than the roller bearing.
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May 2016
ROTARY PUMPS
The Hydraulic Institute identifies pumps used to pump viscous liquids as rotary pumps. These pumps are also described
as positive-displacement pumps because the rotation of the shaft creates a positive pumping action. A basic difference
between centrifugal and rotary pumps is the means of imposing pressure on the liquid. A centrifugal pump generates
pressure due to the centrifugal force developed by the impeller rotating at a relatively high speed in the pump casing.
A rotary pump generates pressure from a compressing (squeezing) action that can be created in either of two ways: by
a rotor rotating in the pump casing to decrease the size of the pumping chamber or by the rotor screw threads meshing
with an internal thread of a stator, or of a second screw, to cause axial displacement of the liquid.
Whereas a centrifugal pump can operate at shutoff conditions, a rotary pump, because of its positive-displacement
characteristic, will continue to build up pressure if the discharge valve is closed. For this reason a relief valve must always
be provided to prevent possible damage to the pump. The relief valve may be either integral with the body or endplate
or attachable. It may be adjustable through a predetermined range of pressures or have a fixed setting.
It may be designed to bypass the fluid internally from the pump outlet to the pump inlet or externally through an
auxiliary port.
Many positive-displacement pump manufacturers make only one or two types of positive-displacement pumps, and
they become specialists in those types. They will have the selection criteria for each particular type and in many cases
will also determine the viscosity at the pumping temperature if samples of the liquid being pumped are provided.
Positive-displacement rotary pumps are best used with liquids at high velocities and materials with low shear to
product. The upper limit is 100,000 cP, but this can be higher if fed with an auger feed unit.
Positive-displacement rotary pumps offer the following advantages:
Large discharge pressure changes cause only small changes in flow.
They are able to pump low flows against high head.
They use less horsepower to do the same duty as a centrifugal pump.
They are able to pump very viscous products.
Reasons to consider rotary pumps follow:
They offer positive displacement.
The flow rate is proportional to the speed.
They are compatible with fixed- and variable-speed drives.
They are inherently self-priming.
They offer a wide viscosity range (up to 1,000,000 cP).
They offer high pressure capability.
They can handle entrained gas, particulates, and slurries.
Many design options are available.
They can run dry (most types).
They pump non-lubricating products.
They can be used for shear-sensitive products.
PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
The following terms are of prime importance to the plumbing designer in the proper
selection of a pump: suction head, suction lift, discharge head, and total head (see
Figure 8-14). Velocity head is generally insignificant in the great majority of plumbing applications and can usually be disregarded in pump head calculations. Head
(pressure) is measured in feet, which can be converted to pounds per square inch
(psi) if the specific gravity is known. Suction head exists when the suction inlet is
above the pump or under positive pressure. Suction lift exists when the suction
inlet is below the pump. Discharge head is the pressure at the discharge of the pump. Total head is the sum of discharge
head and suction lift. Where positive suction head exists, the total head is the discharge head minus the suction head.
A pump is selected to overcome a total dynamic head (TDH), which has three components: total static head, velocity
head, and friction head. The static head also must include the pressure drop for any piece of equipment, such as a fixture.
The friction head dissipates in the piping as the flow moves toward the final water-using fixture.
The pressure at the bottom of a tank or vertical pipe rise can be calculated by the following formula:
Equation 8-1
p=
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May 2016
wh
144
v2
2gc
where
hv = Velocity head, ft
v = Velocity, fps
gc = Conversion factor (32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2)
Friction loss is calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
Equation 8-3
hf = f (
L
V2
)(
)
D
2g
where
hf = Friction loss of liquid flowing, ft
V = Average velocity in a pipe of corresponding diameter, fps
g = 32.2 fps2
L = Equivalent pipe length, ft
D = Inside diameter of pipe, ft
f = Friction coefficient, dimensionless
PUMP CURVES
A centrifugal pump operating at constant speed will deliver a quantity of
water from zero to a maximum value depending on the size of the pump, the
pumps design and speed, and suction conditions. The total head developed
by the pump, required horsepower, and efficiency will vary with the capacity.
The interrelations of head, capacity, horsepower, and efficiency are called the
pump characteristics, and when presented graphically the result is called the characteristic (or performance) curves of
the pump. The head/capacity and horsepower curves are determined by tests, and the efficiency curve is calculated from
these two curves.
Pump curves are shown for water; therefore, adjustments must be made if a higher-viscosity fluid is used.
Pump head/capacity curves (see Figure 8-15) are commonly classified as follows and determined by the shape of the
impeller.
Rising characteristic curve: This is also called a rising head/capacity characteristic and is a curve where the head
rises continuously as the capacity decreases.
Drooping characteristic curve: This is also called a drooping head/capacity characteristic and is a curve where the
head developed at shutoff is less than that developed at some other capacity. This is sometimes also called a looping
curve. At one particular TDH, two different flows could exist, so this is not a desirable pump curve to use.
Steep characteristic curve: This is a rising head/capacity characteristic curve where a large increase in head is developed at shutoff in relation to the head developed at design capacity. This is a good curve for use with multiple parallel
pumps.
Flat characteristic curve: This is a characteristic curve where the head from shutoff to design capacity varies only
slightly. The curve might also be drooping or rising. All drooping curves have a portion where the head is approximately
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AFFINITY LAWS
A definite relationship exists between the various pump characteristics. When
the speed is changed, the following changes also occur:
The capacity for a given point on the pump head/capacity curve varies
proportional to the change in speed.
The head varies proportional to the square of the change in speed.
The brake horsepower varies proportional to the cube of the change in
speed.
These relationships expressed mathematically are:
Equation 8-4a
Q = Q1 (n/n1)
Equation 8-4b
H = H1 (n/n1)2
Equation 8-4c
BHP = BHP1 (n/n1)3
Equation 8-4d
n/n1 = Q/Q1 = (H/H1) = (P/P1)1/3
where
n = New speed, revolutions per minute (rpm)
n1 = Original speed, rpm
Q = Capacity at speed n, gpm
Q1 = Original capacity at speed n1, gpm
H = Head at speed n and capacity Q, ft
H1 = Original head at speed n1 and capacity Q1, ft
BHP = Brake horsepower at speed n, head H, and capacity Q
BHP1 = Brake horsepower at speed n1, head H1, and capacity Q1
It is not always necessary to change the driver speed or utilize various speed-regulating devices to obtain the desired
design conditions. Although the pump may run at a constant speed, it is possible to change the peripheral speed of the
impeller by a change in its diameter and achieve the same effect as a change in rpm. It is thus possible to obtain the
desired exact operating point of a pump by altering the impeller diameter.
The pump curves supplied by manufacturers generally show the head/ capacity curves for various size standard impellers. Any point between these curves can be obtained by trimming the standard impeller to a size that will provide the
desired value. The diameter of an average impeller can be decreased by up to inch of its original maximum diameter
without adverse effects.
When an impeller is reduced in diameter and the pump speed (rpm) is held constant, the characteristics of the pump
will have a definite relation to its original characteristics as follows:
The capacity varies proportional to the change in impeller diameter.
The head varies proportional to the square of the change in impeller diameter.
The horsepower varies proportional to the cube of the change in impeller diameter.
The equations are:
Equation 8-5a
Q = Q1(D/D1)
Equation 8-5b
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H = H1(D/D1)2
May 2016
CAVITATION/NPSH
Cavitation occurs in a pump when insufficient net positive suction head (NPSH) is available. When the pressure of a
liquid being pumped is reduced to a value equal to or less than its vapor pressure, small vapor bubbles (cavities) begin
to form. Vapor pressure is the pressure at which equilibrium exists between the fluid and its surrounding pressure at
its boiling temperature. Above this pressure and temperature, the fluid will boil. Below this pressure and temperature,
the fluid will evaporate.
As the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes of a pump to an area of higher pressure, they collapse practically
instantaneously. The collapse, or more accurately the implosion, is accompanied by a rumbling noise that sounds as
though gravel were being pumped. The magnitude of the forces generated by the implosion of the bubbles causes minute
pockets of fatigue failure on the surfaces of the impeller vanes. This action is progressive in nature and under severe
conditions can cause serious pitting damage and eventual failure of the impeller.
Whenever the noise is heard, cavitation
most likely is occurring. In addition to
impeller damage, cavitation generally results in reduced pump capacity due to the
presence of vapor in the pump. The pump
head may also be reduced and exhibit
some instability. The power consumption
may become erratic, and vibration and
mechanical damage such as early bearing
failure can also result.
The sure way to avoid the undesirable
effects of cavitation is to make certain that
the net positive suction head available
(NPSHA) is greater than the net positive
suction head required (NPSHR) by the
pump. Pump curves generally show the
NPSHR for various capacities.
The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH
as the total suction head in feet absolute,
determined at the suction nozzle, less the
vapor pressure of the liquid. It should be
stressed that absolute pressures only, not
gauge pressures, shall be used in all calculations to determine NPSH.
To convert pounds per square inch
gauge (psig) to feet absolute, add the barometric pressure (14.7 psi at sea level) to the
liquid psi to obtain pounds per square inch absolute (psia) and then multiply by 2.31 for feet of water.
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PUMP SELECTION
When selecting a pump, first determine the pump type that fits the piping scheme and is easiest to maintain. Obtain
pump curves for that type of pump in the size range for the gpm.
For a small pump like a hot water circulating pump, it is adequate to select the pump using the TDH and maximum
gpm and select from a set of curves for various pump sizes. Small pumps have only one impeller size, as do wet rotor
and canned pumps.
Large pumps have multiple impeller sizes. The pump manufacturer can run their pump selection program to offer
potential selections and provide the pump curves for those that best suit the projects needs. For larger pumps, select two
or three pumps that show a good location for the maximum gpm and TDH. Draw the system curve on the pump curves.
Take into consideration any future increases in TDH.
For active multiple pumps on the same system, it is absolutely essential to use the system curve for the selection
and analysis. Each pump curve for the multiple-pump system must cross the system curve. This could very likely affect
the required horsepower. Remember also that pressure rules. No water will be provided from the second pump until its
discharge pressure equals that of the first pump.
The use of safety factors varies widely among designers. It is suggested that no safety factors be added during the
calculations. Perform accurate calculations and then apply the safety factor when selecting the pump. Go up just a little
further on the system curvemaybe a 1/8-inch larger impeller. Too many designers use large safety factors.
Note that pump horsepower is converted into heat. The power of the water- circulating pump, except for that to bearings and drives, is a heat gain to the water, shown as follows:
Equation 8-6
t rise at pump =
Ht (1 eff)
788 eff cp
where
Ht = Total pump head, ft of pumped liquid
eff = Pump efficiency
cp = Specific heat of pumped liquid, Btu/lb/F
In a water system, the pump heat results in a temperature rise along the piping system at the points of friction loss
(and in proportion thereto).
May 2016
PUMP INSTALLATION
Too often, not enough attention is paid to the installation of pumping equipment and the piping to and from the pump connections. As a result, vibrations and noise occur with serious consequences. Another aspect is simply of a sanitary nature.
Housekeeping Pads
To protect the equipment and to provide for good housekeeping, all floor-mounted plumbing equipment should be mounted
on a concrete housekeeping pad. The pad should extend at least 2 inches beyond the outside surfaces of the equipment
and should be a minimum of 4 inches above the floor. This will allow the floor to be hosed down without splashing water
and dirt on the equipment.
Vibration Elimination
Vibration and the noise it creates is an ever-present danger. Three general types of pumps should be resiliently mounted
on vibration-elimination bases to minimize the transmission of mechanical vibration to the building structure. They are
close-coupled end-suction centrifugal pumps, base-mounted end-suction centrifugal pumps, and horizontal split-case
centrifugal pumps.
Vertical turbine pumps do not require the application of vibration control devices because of their inherent dynamic
stability and practically vibration-free operation. Inline pumps dont often have vibration isolation, except in some cases
where flexible hose connections are used.
Horizontal base-mounted pumps mounted on slabs on grade seldom have vibration isolation, but in severe cases all
base-mounted pumps should have vibration isolation bases. These are installed below the base and are usually filled
with concrete and mounted on springs.
On a mezzanine or on upper floors, vibration bases are always suggested. They can be furnished by a vibration manufacturer or provided with the pump. The vibration base should not support the piping. The weight of the vibration base
with the concrete infill should exceed the weight of the pump and its base by one to 1.5 times. The vibration base should
still be mounted on a housekeeping pad.
Piping Isolation
Piping connected to any pump should be hung and aligned before the flanged connection to the pump is made. This ensures
that no undue loads and stresses are placed on the pump and that the isolators function properly. In no case should the
pipe be supported by the pump casing.
Each rod supporting a pipe hanger should be suspended from a properly selected vibration eliminator that matches
the deflection of the pump base isolation. The primary function of flexible connections is to allow movement (due to vibration) without straining rigidly hung piping and joints.
If flexible connections or expansion joints are used in the suction or discharge piping, they must include control rods
or cables to prevent overloading of the pump isolation devices. In most cases, the isolation of hanger rods is carried out
for the length of pipe located within the mechanical room area.
Piping, vertical risers, valves, and other appurtenances, including the weight of the water therein, should be supported
by resilient hangers for a minimum distance of 30 feet from the pump. The first hanger on the suction and discharge
piping should be a positive-transfer type.
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