CO2 Pipelines in the United States

by
Steve Anderson, Shell Global
Solutions, BV
Gassnova CO2 Workshop
November 2008

1970s - first full-scale floods

1980s - development of natural

CO2 sources in Colorado and
New Mexico

1990s - continued
implementation of new projects
despite low oil prices

Successful CO2 floods in other

US states, Turkey, Canada,
Trinidad and Hungary

Most common tertiary flooding

method in light oil reservoirs.

160

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Projects

Production

Growth of CO2-EOR in Permian Basin - Texas

Daily Production bbl/d

1960s - first successful field

test (Texas)

1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

N ew Projects

History of CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery

Permian Basin Overview

Located West Texas

Tight carbonates
- 1-10 md
~ 6000ft deep
Light oils
Development began in
1920s, full lifecycle recovery
techniques applied
- Primary
- Waterflood
- CO2 WAG EOR

Permian Basin

Current CO2 Sources and Pipelines

Maine

Washington

Great Plains Coal Plant

Montana

North Dakota

New Hampshire
Vermont

Minnesota

Oregon

Wisconsin

Idaho

New York

Massachusetts

South Dakota

LaBarge

Rhode Island
Connecticut

Michigan
Wyoming
Pennsylvania

New Jersey

Iowa
Nevada

Ohio

Nebraska
Utah

Illinois

Colorado

McElmo Dome
California

Delaware
Maryland

Indiana
W. Virginia

Sheep Mountain

Kansas

Virginia

Missouri
Kentucky

North Carolina
Oklahoma

Bravo Dome

Arizona

Tennessee
Arkansas

New Mexico

South Carolina

Mississippi Alabama
Louisiana
Texas

Terrell, Puckett,
Mitchell, Grey Ranch
Plants

Georgia

Jackson Dome

Florida

1561185 Ft/In
PETRA 12/1/99 10:10:02 AM

CO2 Supply to Permian Basin

CO2 supplied from three natural

source fields
- McElmo dome
- Shell developed and
operated
- ~12 Tscf CO2
- Bravo dome
- Sheep Mountain
- Total supply rate 1100 1300
MMscf/d
Ramp up time to full capacity
achieved in only 3 years

Cortez Pipeline Design

CO2 Requirements:
Water content < 10
lbs/mmscf
Maintain above 1071 psia
critical pressure
Design Codes:
ANSI B31.4; DOT 49 CFR
Part 195; NEC
ANSI 900 Valves & Fittings
Material:
A106 Gr B Carbon Steel,
seamless

Operating Conditions:
Minimum Pressure - 1400 psi
Maximum Pressure - 2000
Elevation Change - (3,500 ft.
net) + 5,000 ft
Booster Pumps/DePressure
Crack Arrestors

Drilling in McElmo Dome

McElmo Dome Facilities

McElmo Dome Facilities

Cortez Pipeline Booster Station

Jackson Dome Facilities

Current CO2 Sources and Pipelines

Maine

Washington

Great Plains Coal Plant

Montana

North Dakota

New Hampshire
Vermont

Minnesota

Oregon

Wisconsin

Idaho

New York

Massachusetts

South Dakota

LaBarge

Rhode Island
Connecticut

Michigan
Wyoming
Pennsylvania

New Jersey

Iowa
Nevada

Ohio

Nebraska
Utah

Illinois

Colorado

McElmo Dome
California

Delaware
Maryland

Indiana
W. Virginia

Sheep Mountain

Kansas

Virginia

Missouri
Kentucky

North Carolina
Oklahoma

Bravo Dome

Arizona

Tennessee
Arkansas

New Mexico

South Carolina

Mississippi Alabama
Louisiana
Texas

Terrell, Puckett,
Mitchell, Grey Ranch
Plants

Georgia

Jackson Dome

Florida

1561185 Ft/In
PETRA 12/1/99 10:10:02 AM

Kinder Morgan CO2 Pipeline 1 BCF/Day

Albuquerque, New Mexico
Population > 440,000

30
k

Cort
ez

Pipe
li

ne

Hobbs, New Mexico

Occidental CO2 Project
Population > 38,000

Seminole, Texas
Hess CO2 Project
Population > 6,000

Denver City, Texas

Largest US CO2 EOR PROJECT
Population > 10,000

Denver Unit Facilities Aerial View

Over 800 Wells

Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant

Human Health Effects of CO2 Exposure

Effects of exposure to carbon dioxide

30,000 ppm (3%) Breathing increases to twice normal rate,

and a person would experience impaired hearing, headache,
and increased blood pressure.

50,000 ppm (5%) Breathing increases to approximately four

times normal rate, symptoms of intoxication become evident
and slight choking may be felt.

75,000 ppm (7.5%) A sharp odor is noticeable. At this level a

person would experience very labored breathing, headache,
visual impairment, and ringing in the ears. Judgment may be
impaired, followed within minutes by loss of consciousness.

>100,000 ppm (10%) Unconsciousness occurs rapidly above

10% level. Prolonged exposure to high concentration could
eventually result in death from asphyxiation.

Mechanism of Action
asphyxiate (displaces oxygen)
stimulates the sympathetic nervous system
causes the release of catecholamines (eg adrenalin)
causes respiratory acidosis (blood pH drop)

Venting & Dispersion

CO2 Plant Blowdown

Impact of CO2 on Relief and Blowdown

CO2 has several specific

issues compared to
hydrocarbon gas which
present issues for relief and
blowdown:
-

Flammability of vapours
decreased/eliminated

Solids formation at cold

temperatures and low pressures

Hydrates and ice formation due

to CO2 water content variation at
differing pressures

Dispersion of CO2 from vent - risk

of asphyxiation

Dispersion features for gases denser

than air
Wind
Jet Dispersion

Transition

Heavy
Gas
Dispersion
Passive
Dispersion

Momentum driven
forced mixing

Gravity
slumping

Driven by weather conditions

(wind and atmospheric stability).
Cloud height is a function of the
gas/vapourdensity, weather
and topography

CH4
CO2
Gas Dispersion Regimes (note: heavy gas shown)

CO2 Well Completion Operations

Ground Level Release of CO2

Plume Dispersion from Vent Stack

300

250

Factors affecting plume:

200

150

design of vent stack (sonic/subsonic,

height)

100

50

ambient conditions (wind speed/

direction)

vented gas (quantity, composition,

temperature)
Modelling

FRED

MMI more conservative, therefore

preferred

-50

50

100
D ownwi nd D i st a nc e ( m )

150

200

250

Operating Issues

Density Effects
CO2

P = 150 bara
Temp Increase (eg
cooler failure, high
ambient temp)

Injection
Well

P = 250 bara

Temp increase will

reduce density and
hydrostatic head ->
lower BHP
Higher surface pressure
required to maintain
injection rate

Danger of Isolating Pipework with Dense Phase CO2

Operating
Conditions:
P = 100 bar
T = 25 C

Operation stops,
T rises to 40 C
P = 200 bara

CO2 Leaks

Small leaks are visible ice forms on the surface

Physical Properties/Operating Issues:

CO2 behaviour different from hydrocarbons

Critical pt can be within operating envelope of facilities

Possibility of solid (& liquid) phases

Supercritical CO2 can have high density

significant density variations with pressure &

temperature possible
- BLEVE can occur with CO2
Depressurisation can result in v. low temperatures,
especially if liquid CO2 forms during blowdown
-

Process simulation requires different thermodynamic

methods compared to hydrocarbon gases

Physical Properties/Operating Issues:

risk associated with isolation of pipework/facilities
containing supercritical CO2

CO2 can hold more water than natural gas, dew pt

charts for hc gas not valid

plot of H2O content vs Pressure displays a minimum

(unlike HC gas)

CO2 can form hydrates in the presence of water

Depressurisation and
Repressurisation

Pipeline Depressurisation

P/L Inlet:
P: 20 - 40 bar
T: 20 - 35 C

P/L Outlet:
P: 15 - 35 bar?
Tmin: 5 C?
Triple
Point
Line

Depressurisation of the
line approximates
isentropic behaviour inside
the pipeline low
temperatures,
solid CO2 formed at
pressures below 5 bara

Pipeline Depressurisation
Issues
Low temperatures on blowdown and
possible solid CO2 formation
Manual operation can control rate
(use choke)
Balance above against proximity of
local population

Triple
Point
Line

Depressurisation of the line

approximates isentropic
behaviour inside the pipeline
low temperatures,
solid CO 2 formed at pressures
below 5 bar

Possible Solution
Rapid depressurisation in early stage of blowdown
minimise dispersion cloud size
Slow down later stage of blowdown to limit pipeline metal
temperatures
Stop blowdown above triple point line and wait to warm
before removing final inventory

Pipeline Re-pressurisation 1/2

P/L Inlet:
P: 20 - 40 bar
T: 20 - 35 C

P/L Outlet:
P: 15 - 35 bar?
Tmin: 5 C?
Triple
Point
Line

Re-pressurisation of
the pipeline results in
isenthalpic flash
across the repressurising valve
low temperature in
the pipeline, no solid
CO2 formation if CO2
is warm enough

Pipeline Re-pressurisation 2/2

Issues
Low pipeline metal temperatures on
re-pressurisation
Manual operation can control rate
Triple
Point
Line

Re-pressurisation of the
pipeline results in
isenthalpic flash across
the re-pressurising valve
low temperature in the
pipeline, no solid CO 2
formation if CO 2 is
warm enough

Possible Solutions
Initial pressurisation with N2 and then switch to CO2 N2
may give problems with higher well injection pressures
Heat inlet CO2 with a line heater
Stop pressurisation and allow pipeline to warm prior to final
pressurisation

Facilities Depressurisation 1/4

Injection Conditions:
P: 30 180 bar
T: 40 90 C
Depressurisation of the
facilities approximates
isentropic behaviour inside
the facilities low
temperatures,
solid CO2 formed at
pressures below 5 bara
Triple
Point
Line

Facilities Depressurisation 2/4

Issues
Low temperatures on blowdown and
possible solid CO2 formation
Compressor housed? Asphyxiation
risk. Fast blowdown required
Personnel evacuation drives design
not escalation due to jet fire

Injection Conditions:
P: 30 180 bar
T: 40 90 C
Depressurisation of the
facilities approximates
isentropic behaviour inside the
facilities low temperatures,
solid CO 2 formed at pressures
below 5 bara
Triple
Point
Line

Possible Solution
Stop blowdown before triple point reached
Maintain back-pressure on vent system PCV (rupture disk
in parallel) or RO
Wait for equipment to warm or use pressurised/swept
purge to remove remainder of inventory

Facilities Depressurisation 3/4

Injection Conditions:
P: 30 180 bar
T: 40 90 C

Triple
Point
Line

Isenthalpic flash
across blowdown
orifice or relief
valve solid CO2
formation in vent
system

Facilities Depressurisation 4/4

Injection Conditions:
P: 30 180 bar
T: 40 90 C

Issues
Solid CO2/hydrate formation in vent
system
Possible blockage & overpressurisation
Leaking relief valves?
Possible Solutions
Fully rate tail-pipes to same flange rating as process
Maintain back-pressure on vent system PCV (rupture disk
in parallel) or RO
Consider fully rating vent headers and oversized piping
Temp/vibration sensors to detect leaks and act quickly
Triple
Point
Line

Isenthalpic flash across

blowdown orifice or
relief valve solid
CO 2 formation in vent
system

Pipeline Design

Pipeline Codes

ASME B31.4 (Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and

Other Liquids) used for majority of US CO2 pipelines not
applicable here as CO2 exists as a gas in the pipeline.

ASME B31.8 (Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems) used for
US HC pipelines but not applicable to CO2.

ISO 13623 (Petroleum and Natural gas Industries Pipeline Transportation

Systems) forms the basis for the DEP (see below) and,
therefore, is applicable here.

DEP 31.40.00.10-Gen. Pipeline Engineering

(Amendments/ Supplements to ISO 13623)

DEP 31.40.10.14 Pipeline Overpressure Protection

DEP 31.40.60.11 Pipeline Leak Detection plus

others

ISO 13623 Pipeline Code Categorisation of Fluids

The fluids to be transported are placed in one of the
following five categories according to the hazard potential
in respect of public safety:

CO2 is a
Category C
fluid

ISO 13623 Pipeline Code Location Class

Pipeline locations are classified in relation to population density and
concentration of people in order to assess the degree of exposure of
the line to damage and consequent effect on public safety.

Populated areas appear to

be location class 4 needs
confirmed case by case

DEP 31.40.00.10-Gen. overrides ISO 13623

Pipeline Route
Pipeline should be
approx. 15m from
normally occupied
buildings needs to
be confirmed.
DEP 31.40.00.10-Gen
also requires a formal
QRA for Category C
fluids

DEP 31.40.00.10-Gen. overrides ISO 13623

Design Factors

Pipelines will
require
significantly lower
design factors

Corrosion Management & Materials

Selection

CO2 Dehydration Techniques

Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG) below 500 psig

Di-Ethylene Glycol (DEG) 500 to 800 psig
Glycerin above 800 psig

Wet CO2 is not an option. Ever!

CO2 CO
Corrosion
Mechanism
2 corrosion mechanism

GAS

CO2

Hydration

AQUEOUS
PHASE

Dissociation

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ CO32- + H+

+
e

Mass transport

HCO3-

e- +

Fe2+

Electrochemical
reactions
Fe

H2 FeCO3

H2

Iron carbonate
precipitation
9

Supercritical CO2

bare carbon steel may be used for dry CO2

may require low temperature steel for depressurisation

pipelines require coatings & cathodic protection for

external corrosion

water must be completely removed after hydrotesting

pipeline leaks can result in crack propagation due to

low temperatures

pipeline leaks can result in emission of solid CO2

Elastomers

CO2 is highly soluble in most elastomers

-seals

sensitive to rapid pressure drop

critical locations include spectacle blinds, orifice
fittings, downhole packers can fail due to swelling,
hardening or cracking
possible remedial measures:
select least permeable elastomer (eg Buna N 90
Durometer, Teflon in low press service)
- select harder elastomers (more resistant to
explosive decompression)
careful selection & testing of elastomers is essential
-

Measurement

Flow Measurement

Orifice Meters
simple, reliable, widely used
- more rugged, not easily damaged in service
- more common than turbine meter for gas metering
- expensive for large meters
-

standard supercompressibility factors for natural gas not

applicable for CO2

Turbine Meters
high accuracy, rangeability, low installed cost
- low pressure drop
- more common for liquid metering
- less expensive than orifice for large meters
- may be less accurate at low rates
-

more difficult to prove flow

rotor bearing wear can be a problem

Flow Measurement (2)

CO2 Density
-

CO2 density varies more than natural gas

difficult to predict density of dense phase CO2 from P, T

on-line densitometer may be required

turbine mass flow directly proportional to density, orifice flow

proportional to square root of density
-

Mass flow device eg coriolis meter, vortex meter

-

could be good choice

CO2 Compression

CO2 Compression Considerations

no special metallurgical requirements for dry CO2

careful selection of elastomers required

good control of cylinder cooling temperature required

to avoid CO2 condensation in cylinders

maintain suction temperature above CO2 condensing

temperature (HP machines)

possible CO2 condensation in recycle line (pressure

let-down valve)

avoid CO2 contamination of lube oil system (CO2

compatible lube oils recommended)

warm-up time required before starting cold compressor

(risk of brittle failure in eg loading/unloading valves)

Wells

Well Issues CO2 permeation of well

cements

Start-up & Shutdown Considerations

Start up of reciprocating compressor

Carry out N2 drying of complete compressor system to

remove liquids.
In incoming pipeline liquid may drop out, so inlet gas
has to be heated before entering the compressor. Use
discharge gas to heat inlet gas. Run compressor
unloaded with blocked inlet to warm the compressor
before introducing CO2.
Ensure lube oil has a minimum temperature to prevent
liquid forming. Synthetic lube oil should be used which
are not degraded by CO2.
In single stage CO2 vapor will be compressed.
In 2 stage compression the CO2 will be supercritical.
Design Compressor for full high pressure rating

Shut down of reciprocating compressor

Compressor stop for lack of CO2 gas:
Depressurize < 10 barg to local vent and leave at this
pressure to prevent oxygen ingress.
Compressor stop for maintenance:
Depressurize to atm. to local vent and leave at this
pressure to prevent oxygen ingress.
Dry with N2 before intro of CO2.

Start up of CO2 injection into wellhead

after workover

Ensure well circulated with diesel in casing and tubing

after workover (NO water ) . Tubing will be CS with
gas tight thread.
Use 40 bar CO2 of incoming line to bypass the
Compressor to pressurise piping and wellhead. Purge
N2 at wellhead.
Start up the compressor and ensure discharge
pressure is adjusted to match the expected Wellhead
pressure
Open up the connection between CO2 compressor
discharge and wellhead and equalise pressures
Open up SSV and start injection at a slow speed.
Keep the injection temperature at 40 degrees C.

Shut down of CO2 injection at wellhead

Stop compression as described above and close in

the Wellhead SSV. Design for pressure increase and
temperature rise in tubing
Injection temperature will normally be at 40 degrees C
so temperature drop to ambient after shut down in
winter will cause pressure drop and no overpressure.
Flow line should be protected by thermal relief.
Monitor Casing pressure; In case of a small CO2 leak
from Tubing to Casing during injection, pressure build
up can take place in the casing after the stopping of
CO2 injection because the Casing temperature will
increase and raise the pressure of the trapped CO2.