Research Studies in Music Education 2003 Hallam 2 22

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Conceptions of Musical Ability

Susan Hallam and Vanessa Prince
Abstract
Historically, musical ability has been conceptualised in relation to aural abilities.
Recently, this view has been challenged. Musical ability is now viewed by many as
a social construction, acquiring different meanings in different cultures, sub-groups
within cultures and at the individual level. This study aimed to explore these
constructions. One hundred and twenty nine musicians, 80 non-music educators,
112 adults in other occupations, 60 students involved in extra-curricular music and
34 not involved in extra-curricular music were asked to complete in writing the
statement Musical ability is: The statements were analysed using an iterative
process of categorisation. Musical ability was conceptualised in relation to: aural
skills, receptive activities, generative activities, the integration of a range of skills,
personal qualities, and the extent to which it is learned. The concept of musical
ability was constructed in different ways by each group of participants. The greater
the active involvement with music making the more detailed and complex the
constructions became.
he concept of musical ability has a long history. The development of the first
tests of musical ability began in the 19th century. As early as 1883, Carl Stumpf
(1883-90) suggested a number of simple tests which music teachers might
undertake to select pupils. These proved successful in discriminating between
experienced musicians and self-confessed unmusical students and heralded the
development of musical ability testing (Shuter-Dyson & Gabriel, 1981). Revesz
(1953) produced a more extensive battery of tests and adopted the term musicality
to denote the need and the capacity to understand and to experience the
autonomous effects of music and to appraise musical utterances on the score of their
objective quality (aesthetic content) (Revesz, 1953, p. 132). This was assessed by
establishing the depth to which a person could listen to and comprehend the artistic
structure of a composition. Seashore et al. (1960) believed that musical ability was a
set of loosely related basic sensory discrimination skills, which had a genetic basis
and would not change over time except for variation due to lapses of concentration.
He did not believe that subtest scores should be combined to give a single measure of
musical ability, but rather that a profile should be obtained which could be divided
into a number of clearly defined characteristics which were unrelated to each other.
These were pitch, loudness, rhythm, time, timbre, and tonal memory. This
conception contrasted with that of Wing (1961) who believed in a general ability to
perceive and appreciate music rather than a profile. Gordon (1965) viewed musical
ability as consisting of three aspects, tonal imagery (melody and harmony), rhythm
imagery (tempo and metre) and musical sensitivity (phrasing, balance and style).
This contrasted with the work of Seashore et al. (1960) and Wing (1961) in that the
assessment of musical ability depended, in part, on the ability to assess
interpretation. Students were asked to say which of two interpretations of specially
composed items were better. The development of tests which assessed different
aspects of musical ability did not resolve the issue of what was being measured aptitude or achievement. Aptitude indicates potential for learning music and
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Research Studies in Music Education
2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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developing musical skills, while achievement depends on initial aptitude and the
opportunities that the individual is given to realise that potential. Evidence of the
effects of musical training on test scores indicates that traditional musical ability tests
assess both (see Shuter-Dyson & Gabriel, 1981 for a review).
Conceptions of Musical Ability

Early conceptions of musical ability tended to be based on the assumption
that it was possible to determine basic capacities for music which would enable the
selection of those to play musical instruments who were most likely to succeed given
that resources for providing tuition were scarce (Seashore et al., 1960). Underlying
this, in some cases, was an assumption that some aspects of musical ability were
genetically determined. For instance, Gordon (1979) proposed that the level of
musical aptitude that a child is born with could not be raised, but up to the age of 9
much could be done to ensure that this innate level was in fact realised (p. 4).
Currently, there is much controversy about the extent to which musical ability is
innate or learned (for a review see Shuter-Dyson, 1999). Recent research relating to
the genetic basis of intelligence suggests that hereditary factors also shape the
environment (Ceci, 1990) which makes it extremely difficult to assess the effects of
genetics and environment separately. It would seem as Farnsworth (1969) wrote that
neither nature nor nurture can alone make a musician. Both must be present before
musical and other abilities can emerge (Farnsworth, 1969, p. 156). It is now
generally accepted that all human beings possess a capacity for musical competence
which is similar to our capacity for language (Blacking, 1971). What varies is the
opportunities which individuals have to develop their musical skills. In the same
way that an enriched environment can promote the development of linguistic
competence, a musically enriched environment may promote the development of
musical skills. This process can begin in the womb (Lecanuet, 1996; Standley, 1998).
To develop high level musical skills requires time, dedication and support and the
environment is therefore crucial (Sosniak, 1990; Sloboda et al., 1996; Davidson et al.,
1996; Hallam, 1997). In general, the extent to which individuals are prepared to
practise predicts the level of expertise that they can attain (Ericsson et al., 1993;
Sloboda et al, 1996; Hallam, 1998b), although there may be a trade off between
ability/prior knowledge and time required for learning (Hallam, 1998b). While the
amount of practice predicts the level of expertise attained, it does not predict the
quality of performance at any particular point in time (Hallam, 1998b; Williamon &
Valentine, 2000). That seems to depend on complex interactions between the way the
musician implements the various skills needed to produce high quality musical
performance and the performing context. These issues continue to be researched and
debated in the academic community (see Shuter-Dyson, 1999; Kemp & Mills, 2002 for
recent reviews).
Based on the research evidence, fundamental criticisms of the concept of
musical ability have been made. Sloboda et al. (1994) argued that the talent
conception of musical ability was based on a folk psychology which postulated
innately determined differences between individuals in their capacity for musical
accomplishment. This was supported by the findings from a survey that indicated
that more than 75% of a sample of educational professionals believed that playing an
instrument, singing and composing required a special gift or natural talent (Davis,
1994). Sloboda (1996) has argued for the deconstruction of musical ability indicating
that the talent account of individual differences in musical expressivity should not
so much be disproved as dissolved into a whole set of complex interacting factors

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and causes, each of which has its own logic and determining conditions (p. 123).
This has support from other authors. Hallam (1998a) suggests that musical skills
include aural, cognitive, technical, musicianship, performance and learning skills,
while McPherson (1996), identified five distinct skills: sight reading, performing
rehearsed music, playing from memory, playing by ear, and improvising. These
changes in the conceptualisation of musical ability in many ways parallel thinking
about intelligence, with a gradual move away from a single entity conception with a
genetic basis to a multifaceted developmental conception. They also illustrate the
way that abstract psychological phenomena such as intelligence, creativity, and
personality evolve, over time, in relation to current thinking in psychology and other
related fields, developments in research methodology which facilitate opportunities
to explore different aspects of human functioning, and cultural and social factors. For
instance, Western concerns with the nature and measurement of intelligence are not
shared universally. In some Eastern cultures, childrens attainment is seen to depend
on effort not innate ability (Stevenson & Lee, 1990). There has therefore been little
concern with studying issues relating to intelligence and its measurement within
those contexts. Similarly, the conception of musical ability does not exist in all
cultures (Blacking, 1971). The post-modern discourse acknowledges that human
thinking is rooted in specific historical and cultural situations, that knowledge is
open, ambiguous and based on different perspectives and that it is validated through
cultural practices (Kvale, 1992). From this perspective intelligence and musical ability
are socially constructed reflecting cultural norms and priorities.
The aim of this research is to explore the nature of musical ability as
currently conceptualised by different groups of individuals, with different levels of
musical expertise in a Western musical culture, the United Kingdom. On the basis of
the conceptions generated, current understandings of musical ability held within the
general population, how these differ between different groups, and how they
compare with past and current psychological conceptions will be explored. The
specific research questions are:
How is musical ability conceptualised in a Western musical culture at the beginning of the 21st
Century?
Are there differences in conceptualisation between individuals more or less actively involved in
music making?
Method
Historically, musical ability, in parallel with intelligence, has been studied
within a positivist paradigm. However, since the 1980s, psychologists have expanded
the range of methodologies that they have adopted. In developing his triarchic
theory of intelligence, for instance, Sternberg et al. (1981) researched peoples implicit
theories of intelligence, adopting multiple methods which included the generation of
qualitative descriptions of the nature of intelligence. The current study adopted
qualitative methodology operationalised through the generation of descriptions of
musical ability. This was enacted by asking individuals to complete the statement
Musical ability is: allowing participants free expression of their thoughts, feelings
and experiences regarding musical ability and facilitating an in depth analysis of
their responses.
Three different questionnaires were designed to take account of the
differences in the samples to be drawn upon: one for adults who were not musicians,
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one for adults who were musicians and one for young adults with more or less
musical experience.
Adult participants were asked to state their occupation, gender, and age. For
the purpose of the analysis the adults were only differentiated in relation to
occupation in terms of education, whether they were involved in teaching or not. In
addition to information about age and gender, the musician sample was asked to
indicate which of a range of occupational categories were descriptive of their work.
This included class, peripatetic and private instrumental music teacher, professional
performer, lecturer, inspector/advisor, consultant or student. For the purposes of the
analyses these groups were not differentiated as most of the musicians responded
that they fell into more than one category. The students were asked to indicate their
age within 5 year bands and whether they were learning to play a musical
instrument, were a member of a choir or other type of singing group, listened to a lot
of music but were not actively involved in making music outside the curriculum or
had no interest of any kind in music outside of school curriculum lessons. These
subdivisions were reduced to two in the analysis active or lack of involvement in
making music outside of school lessons. All participants were informed that the
purpose of the research was to establish the nature of understandings of the term
musical ability by different groups of people. All participants were asked to complete
the statement Musical ability is:
The purpose of the research was to establish the range of conceptions of
musical ability to be found amongst a UK population and to undertake exploratory
research into whether conceptions differed between groups with different levels of
involvement in music. An opportunistic sampling procedure was adopted as the
study was essentially exploratory in nature. The questionnaires were distributed to
all staff in two secondary schools and a small institution of higher education
including staff involved in non-academic work, for example, administrators,
secretarial staff, reprographics operators, cleaners, security officers, canteen staff.
Questionnaires were also distributed to instrumental music teachers attending a
conference, groups of professional musicians playing in two freelance chamber
orchestras, groups of musicians attending an advanced music course and other
acquaintances of the researchers. The sample of pupils was derived from two
secondary schools in the UK. The students taking part in the study were exclusively
between the ages of 15-20. The adults ages were distributed between 25 and 60. The
sample was biased in having a majority of female respondents (73%) a proportion
which reflects the higher level of females actively taking part in music making in the
UK.
The final sample was an opportunity sample of 129 musicians (performers
and educators), 80 educators in other fields apart from music, 112 adults in
occupations outside education, 60 students actively involved in extra-curricular
music making and 34 who reported that they were not. The small number of
students in the latter category arose because of the difficulty in finding young people
who had not had some active involvement in making music in an extra-curricular
capacity. In the UK, most children have the opportunity to take part in some kind of
extra-curricular musical activity.
The statements made by the participants were analysed using an iterative
process of categorisation based on a seven stage process developed by Cooper and
McIntyre (1993). The process involved: 1. Reading a random sample of scripts; 2.
Identifying points of similarity and difference among these transcripts in relation to
the research questions; 3. Generating theories (on the basis of 2) describing emergent

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answers to the research questions; 4. Testing theories against a new set of transcripts;
5. Testing new theories against transcripts already dealt with; 6. Carrying all existing
theories forward to new transcripts; 7. Repeating the above process until all data
have been examined and all theories tested against all data.
Two judges, researchers with expertise in psychology, education and music,
analysed the data independently. The initial categorisation into subcategories was
undertaken adopting the procedures outlined above. As new sub-categories emerged
the judges agreed their defining characteristics. Many responses included more than
one element and were therefore included in more than one categorisation. For
instance being able to play rhythmically would be categorised under sense of
rhythm and being able to play and sing. There was total agreement between the
judges in relation to all sub-categorisations. This was partly due to agreement being
reached about definitions of new categories as they emerged but also because the
level of analysis was restricted to the actual expressions used by the respondents
with little need for interpretation by the judges. The second stage of the analysis
required the 22 sub-categories to be organised into a smaller number of higher level
categories. Taking account of the existing literature and the collected data the two
judges agreed on six super-ordinate categories: aural skills, receptive responses to
music, generative skills, the integration of a range of skills, personal qualities and
issues relating to the origins of musical ability.
The data were coded in relation to each subcategory and a data base created.
The statistical analysis was undertaken using SPSS. As each participant may have
made responses in more than one category, it was not possible to undertake chisquare analyses to establish statistically significant differences between categories.
However, chi-square tests were undertaken to analyse differences in responses
between each group of participants for each sub-category as multiple responses by
an individual within a sub-category were not possible. Caution must be exercised in
interpreting the statistical significance of the chi-square analyses because in many
cases the proportion of responses in each cell fell below 5.
Results
Although the questionnaire clearly asked participants to complete the
sentence Musical ability is.. some participants described their own perceived
musical ability. For instance, they wrote: I am working towards Grade 1 on the
oboe. I started in September 1998; I can sing; My music ability deteriorated from
adolescence when it reached the peak at Grade 3 piano. I enjoy listening when I have
the time and HATE most of the 'music' inflicted on my household by teenagers, au
pair and cleaners. Others pointed out how difficult the task was: This is actually
hard to define It is not being able to play an instrument. Overall, 17 responses
were of this nature and had to be discarded. This left 415 responses. Of the data
which it was possible to categorise six main themes emerged each with a number of
sub-categories. The categories to emerge conceptualised musical ability in relation to:
Aural skills including having a musical ear and rhythmic ability;
Receptive responses to music including understanding, having declarative knowledge about

music, active responses to music, and appreciation and evaluation of music;
Generative activities including performing, being able to play an instrument or sing, being
able to read music, developing technical skills, emotional sensitivity, communication and
interpretation, performance in a group, composition/improvisation, organisation of sound,
creativity;
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The integration of a range of skills;
Personal qualities including motivation, personal expression, immersion in music, total

commitment and metacognition (being able to learn to learn);
The origins of musical ability whether it is innate, learned, developed or a combination of

these.
Table 1 provides an overview of the super-ordinate and sub-categories.

Table 1
Conceptions of musical ability: Super-ordinate and sub-categories
Aural skills
Receptive responses
Generative skills
The integration of skills

Personal qualities
The origins of musical

ability
Having a musical ear

Having rhythmic ability
Listening to and/or understanding music
Being actively responsive to music
Appreciation of music
Declarative knowledge about music
Being able to evaluate music and performance
Being able to play or sing
Being able to read music
Technical skills
Emotional sensitivity
Communication and interpretation
Ensemble skills
Being able to compose or improvise
Organisation of sounds
Being creative
No sub-categories
Metacognition
Motivation
Personal expression- Immersion in music Total commitment to
music
Innate
Learned
An interaction between what is innate and learned
Progressive development
Aural skills
The aural skills identified in the analysis of the data included having a
musical ear and rhythmic ability. These skills were exemplified actively and
passively. Examples are given in Table 2. Overall 28% of the sample mentioned
having a musical ear as being indicative of having musical ability. The highest
proportion were musicians (39%) followed by the adults (28%) and the educators
(26%). Of the pupils involved in music making 18% mentioned this, while only 3% of
other pupils did. These differences were statistically significant (c2 = 21.1, df = 4, p =
.0001). There were no significant differences in response in relation to rhythmic skills.
On average this was cited by 23% of the sample. Table 3 provides the details.

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Table 2
Musical ability perceived as aural skills
Musical ability is having a musical ear:

Having a musical ear, recognising tone/pitch etc. in any type of music (adult, non-musician,
non-educator)
Having perfect pitch (educator)
The ability to hear music in ones head (musician)
Being able to play by ear (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
The ability to distinguish pitch (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Having good aural ability (young musician)
Being able to identify intervals major/minor (musician)
Being able to internalise sounds, pitch and rhythms (musician)
Recognise and reproduce melody (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
To have good aural ability, e.g. to play by ear, recognise melody, harmony, rhythm and recreate it without effort (musician)
Having a good memory for patterns (musician)
To be able to perceive a tonality progression (musician)
Musical ability is having rhythmic ability:
Having the ability to play or sing in time both on your own and with others (musician)
Sense of pulse/ beat (musician)
A strong internal sense of pulse, rhythm and pitch (musician)
To be able to perceive a rhythmic progression (musician)
Good sense of timing and rhythm (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
A feel for accurate timing and rhythm (young musician)
Table 3
The extent to which aural activities were cited as related to musical ability by respondents with
different levels of musical involvement.
Overall
percentage
Musical ear. c2 = 21.1, 28%

(114)
df = 4, p = .0001
23% (93)
Sense of rhythm. NS
Musicians
Educators
Other
adults
Pupils involved
in extracurricular music
Other
pupils
39% (50)
26% (21)
28% (31)
18% (11)
3% (1)
29% (37)
20% (16)
23% (26)
18% (11)
9% (3)
Receptive skills
The receptive responses which emerged from the analysis of the data
included: understanding music, responding to music, appreciating music, having
declarative knowledge of music and being able to evaluate music. Table 4 gives
example responses in each category.
Overall, 32% of respondents included listening and understanding as
constituting at least part of musical ability, 24% having an appreciation of music,
and 15% being responsive to music. When the percentages of responses within each
category of involvement in music were examined, the musicians were the group who
most often emphasised listening and understanding, and responsiveness to music.
Having a knowledge of music was most often cited by other educators followed by
musicians. There were significant differences between the groups in the extent of
their responses to listening and understanding, responsiveness to music and
declarative knowledge. Table 5 gives the details. There were also significant
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differences in the extent to which evaluative responses were regarded as indicating
musical ability although overall only 7% of respondents mentioned this, the most
frequent being the educators and the musicians.
Table 4
Musical ability perceived as receptive responses to music
Musical ability is listening to and/or understanding music
Ability to understand (in some cases follow), report (approximately) to a group the structure
of the music heard (listened to) (musician)
It is the ability to really hear and to really understand music (young musician)
I think musical ability is really about music comprehension. Music has many aspects, e.g.
rhythm, harmony, melody, styles, evolution etc. and someone who demonstrates an
understanding of any or several of those would in my opinion have musical ability. There are
lots of ways to demonstrate understanding, e.g. dancing, composing, (serious) appreciation,
DJ-ing (educator)
The ability to respond to musical stimuli in such a way that some form of active integration is
achieved (musician)
Able to look at a piece of music and analyse its structure/musicality (musician)
Musical ability is being actively responsive to music
The ability to respond to the mood of a melody (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Ability to participate in the consumption of performed music in a variety of forms (educator)
The ability to move in time with a rhythm (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
The ability to respond creatively, emotionally and intellectually on hearing a piece of music
(musician)
Musical ability is the appreciation of music
An ability to appreciate music and to value it in their lives - either merely by listening or by
taking part in creating it (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
The ability to enjoy music (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Aesthetic - which I see as a kind of perceptual faculty able to discriminate qualities and
relationships between sounds together with an ability to feel emotions about these (educator)
Being prepared to have an open mind experiencing all music (musician)
To appreciate different kinds of music (young person not actively involved in music making)
Ability to enjoy and show appreciation of sound (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
To appreciate music of all types without necessarily liking it (musician)
Musical ability is having declarative knowledge about music
A familiarity with musical forms (all of them pop to classical) (educator)
On hearing a piece of music being able to recognise the composer by its style (adult, nonmusician, non-educator)
Putting music into historical context (musician)
Knowledge of a wide range of music including popular, classical and ethnic forms (educator)
To be able to talk about music and display a knowledge of musical concepts and an awareness
of musical elements (musician)
To enjoy listening to music and to be able to describe music in words and gestures (musician)
Musical ability is being able to evaluative music and performance
Apply criteria for evaluating musical works (educator)
An ability to critically evaluate the musical performance of oneself and others (musician)
To be able to judge what is good or bad musically (musician)
To have a perception of what is musically beautiful (musician)
To be able to listen to various types of music and compare and contrast (young person not
actively involved in music making)

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Table 5
The extent to which receptive responses to music were cited as related to musical ability by
respondents with different levels of musical involvement.
Understanding music
c2 = 39.56, df = 4, p = .0001
Responsiveness to music
c2 = 20.74, df = 4, p = .0001
Appreciation of music
NS
Declarative knowledge
about music
c2 = 12.32, df = 4, p = .015
Evaluative aspects
c2 = 10.38, df = 4, p = .034
Overall
percentage
Musicians Educators
Other
adults
Pupils
involved in
extracurricular
music
Other
pupils
29%(119)
47% (61)
31% (25)
16% (18)
20%
(12)
9% (3)
15% (62)
23% (30)
21% (17)
9% (10)
8%
(5)
0% (0)
24% (98)
24% (31)
34% (27)
21% (23)
22%
(13)
12% (4)
6% (24)
9% (12)
10% (8)
1% (1)
2%
(1)
6% (2)
7% (28)
10% (13)
11% (9)
2% (2)
3%
(2)
6% (2)
Generative activities
Several respondents actively reported musical ability as being related to
generative, creative activities, e.g. Musical ability is the ability to produce music.
Most responses focused on performance although some were related to composition.
The emerging subcategories were: being able to play an instrument or sing, being
able to read music, having appropriate technical skills, demonstrating emotional
sensitivity in performance, being able to interpret and communicate musical
meaning, and ensemble skills. Table 6 gives example quotations from each
subcategory.
Table 6
Musical ability perceived as relating to generative skills
Being able to play an instrument or sing
The ability to reproduce a melody or rhythm with an instrument (including the human voice) (adult, nonmusician, non-educator)
The ability to sing or play an instrument (young person not actively involved in music making)
Being able to play any instrument or sing (young musician)
Possessing the skill to read music, play an instrument or sing (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Ability to perform music (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Ability to read musical notation and to produce a line whether vocally or with the help of an instrument
(musician)
Being able to read music (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Reading music of any notation, e.g. graphic or staff notation (musician)
Being able to sight read (young musician)
To transfer what is written in the score to a musical instrument or voice (educator)
Technical skills
The technical skill required for precise articulation, tonguing, bowing, etc, to accurately play notes and
marking as written in the score (young musician).
Being able to master technique (educator)
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Mastery of skills within an instrument (educator)
Good overall physical co-ordination (musician)
The physical co-ordination, strength, stamina etc. that are appropriate to your instrument (young musician)
The sensitivity to interpret the feeling of music, to appreciate the underlying moods (young musician)
The ability to communicate expression and emotion through music (young musician)
To play with feeling (young musician)
Being able to perform showing an understanding for musicality/expression (musician)
It is to do with feeling the music that you play (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Communication and interpretation
The ability to convey the emotional, understanding and interpretation of a piece of music to an audience
(educator)
Convey the emotions intended by the composer (young musician)
The ability to express emotion (ones own) in such a way that it moves the emotions of others (the listener)
(musician)
The ability to play music in a way that makes people want to listen (young musician)
Being able to help others to enjoy/play music (musician)
The ability to communicate through music a mood or an emotion, whether intended or not (musician)
Being able to convey your interpretation successfully to an audience (young musician)
Ability to interpret the expressions and emotions within music (young musician)
The ability to play music in a way that makes people want to listen (young musician)
It is the capacity of every person to communicate through music through various activities (e.g. listening to
music, playing music, improvising, composing, dancing, understanding music) (educator)
Ensemble skills
The ability to blend as a group (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Sensitivity to other players within an ensemble and an awareness of how their/ones part is part of a musical
piece overall (musician)
Co-operating with other people musically (musician)
The ability to play in a small group in a precise and accurate way so that the group seems unified in purpose
and presentation (musician)
Being able to compose or improvise
Being able to compose (or otherwise produce) music that others may perform in written form with an
appropriate set of parameters (educator)
The ability to conceive and plan a balanced composition as a whole (musician)
The ability to compose melodies or rhythms (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Ability to create music spontaneously (musician)
Organisation of sound
Organising sounds in ways that are especially emotive, stimulating, in a substantive manner over time
(educator)
For me it includes the ability to express thoughts or feelings or relationships in music in a way similar to the
way an artist can express ideas through colour, form, etc. (adult)
I think musical ability is the capacity to use sounds to express ideas, emotions, pictures, events, etc. This
could be the original composition of them or interpretations of others ideas in performance (young
musician).
Being creative
The ability to compose but establish new parameters which then become all or part of a new tradition
(educator)
Musical ability requires risk taking and application of learning (educator)
To begin to break rules/ critique existing forms/ create new ways of perceiving (educator)
Having a free spirit and the will to take risks (musician)
Be imaginative, creative and innovative (educator)
They (musicians) are creative in performance (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Being able to make decisions independently about performance and compositions, being confident to take
risks and learn from them (musician)
By far the largest response in any category was that musical ability was being
able to play a musical instrument or sing. Overall, 72% of the sample cited this. This

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response was highest in children who took no part in extra-curricular music (88%)
and adults not involved in education (83%). The lowest response in this category
came from the musicians (56%). Being able to read music was cited most strongly by
other adults (28%). Musicians were the ones to most often cite technical skills and
emotional sensitivity. Communication was included most often by the adults and
young musicians (30%) while composition was most often cited by the musicians.
These differences were statistically significant. Table 7 gives the details.
Table 7
The extent to which generative skills were cited as related to musical ability by respondents with
Overall
percentage
Being able to play or sing

c2 = 28.73, df = 4, p = .0001
c2 = 10.26, df = 4, p = .03
Technical skills
c2 = 29.07, df = 4, p = .0001
c2 = 49.5, df = 4, p = .0001
Communication and
interpretation
c2 = 34.93, df = 4, p = .0001
Ensemble skills NS
Being able to compose or
improvise
c2 = 10.9, df = 4, p = .04
Organisation of sound NS
Being creative
c2 = 10.2, df = 4, p = .37
Musicians
Educators
Other
adults
72% (299)
56% (72)
76% (61)
83% (93)
Pupils
involved in
extracurricular
music
72% (43)
Other
pupils
18% (75)
15% (19)
18% (14)
28% (31)
12% (7)
12.5% (4)
15% (61)
27% (35)
14% (11)
5% (5)
15% (9)
3% (1)
23% (93)
41% (53)
20% (16)
8% (9)
25% (15)
0% (0)
18% (76)
30% (38)
16% (13)
6% (7)
30% (18)
0% (0)
5% (19)
20% (82)
6% (8)
29% (37)
3% (2)
19% (15)
2% (2)
17% (19)
10% (6)
12% (7)
3% (1)
12% (4)
6% (25)
11% (47)
9% (12)
14% (18)
6% (5)
18% (14)
5% (5)
7% (8)
5% (3)
12% (7)
0% (0)
0% (0)
88% (30)
Integration of several skills

In some cases respondents referred to the complexity of musical ability and
how it required the integration of many skills. Table 8 gives examples of typical
statements. Overall, the integration of a range of skills was cited by 9% of
respondents. The proportion of musicians was 16%, with 11% of other educators, 5%
of other adults, 3% of pupils involved in extra-curricular musical activities and not at
all by other pupils These differences were statistically significant (c2 = 16.16, df = 4, p
= .003).
Personal qualities
A number of respondents stated that musical ability involved certain
personal characteristics. Table 9 gives example quotations. The greatest citation of
personal qualities came from musicians. Overall metacognitive activities were cited
by 6% of respondents. However the proportion of musicians was higher (14%). This
pattern was repeated for motivation, personal expression and commitment. These
differences were statistically significant (see Table 10).
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13
The origins of musical ability
Responses which acknowledged that musical ability was innate tended to
accept that everyone has some musical ability but went further to indicate that some
people have a greater ability than others. There was also an acknowledgement that
individuals needed opportunities to develop these skills. It was the musicians who
most frequently indicated that musical ability developed (20%) followed by the other
educators (9%). These differences were statistically significant. Overall, the findings
did not indicate a general conception of musical ability as genetically determined.
Tables 11 and 12 give the details.
Table 8
Musical ability perceived as the integration of skills
Integration of several skills
An integration of different distinct skills (young musician)
A range of and continuation of skills, knowledge, ideas, inspiration, to be creative and to express through
different instruments including the voice (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
The ability to produce or reproduce music, to perform and create music; of necessity 'listening' is an integral
aspect of this' (educator).
Ability to participate in the consumption and/or production of performed music, in a variety of forms (live,
recorded, etc. (educator)
The ability to appreciate and enjoy rhythm and melody. The ability to sing or play a musical instrument. The
ability to read musical notation in order to play and participate in music making. Knowledge and
appreciation of a wide range of music including popular, classical and ethnic (educator).
The ability to play an instrument, sing well, read music or demonstrate in other ways that the person
recognises which sounds can be brought together to make harmonious, melodious combinations (young
musician)
The ability to integrate listening, performing and composing skills (musician)
Multifarious, multi-faceted and multi-dimensional (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
A combination of many things including technical ability and the ability to interpret music. True musical
ability is the attainment of a perfect balance between these things (young musician)
Any of / all of / any combination of: talent / flair, skill, interest, learning, progress, knowledge,
understanding, appreciation (musician)
Overall comparisons between groups with different levels of musical expertise

Overall, the musicians gave the greatest number of responses in different
categories, a total of 695, on average 5.4 different responses. The educators made 329
responses, a mean of 4. The student musicians gave a total of 201 response with a
mean of 3.35, the non-musician, non educator adults made 337 responses with a
mean of 3. The smallest number and average of responses was from the students
who reported no active participation in music beyond that in the school curriculum
(59, mean 1.7)
Musicians
Thirteen categories received responses from over 20% of the musicians. The
most frequently cited response was shared with other groups in that it focused on
being able to sing or play an instrument (56%). This was followed by listening and
understanding (47%), emotional expression (41%), having a musical ear (39%),
motivation (31%), communication and interpretation (30%), having a sense of
rhythm (29%), being able to compose (29%), personal commitment and expression
(28%), technical skills (27%), appreciation of music (24%), responsiveness to music
(23%), and progression and development (20%). Overall, the musicians gave more
complex responses, including many more elements in their statements. For example:

Number 20, 2003
14
Table 9
Musical ability perceived in relation to personal qualities
Metacognition
Ability to criticise yourself, to be aware of strengths, to find ways of solving problems whether they
are problems of performance or composition (musician)
To be able to organise the process towards the goal (musician)
Personal organisation and discipline (musician)
Motivation
I would say there is a link between motivation and musical imagination as the desire for music is
what encompasses them both. It is very hard so it is necessary to be inspired (musician)
An interest or desire to make music (musician)
They have the motivation to succeed (at whatever level) at a goal presented by teacher or self
(educator)
Interest in music (educator)
An interest in music to listen or play (young person not actively involved in music making)
To be able to remain motivated to practise and increase competence (musician)
Commitment to practise and playing, therefore quicker progress is made which motivates the
person (musician)
To find satisfaction in what you do whether it is through practising on your own or composing for
your own enjoyment (young musician)
Self-discipline and motivation to practise (musician)
The desire to express musical ideas and being enabled to develop appropriate skills (musician)
A significant interest and enthusiasm for music (musician)
A will of your own to want to play and enjoy music (musician)
The determination and persistence to learn a musical instrument (adult, non-musician, noneducator)
A will to practise of your own volition to a certain point (musician)
Personal expression - Immersion in the music Total commitment to music
An affinity with music (musician)
Enables the person to play with a confidence to use music as a vehicle for communication with
others and for self-expression and to transport listeners to something beyond themselves
(musician)
Not just about playing the notes, it's having the music inside you and being part of it, at one with
your instrument. Anyone can play the notes. If its part of your soul, then I would say you have
musical ability. The technical things can come later (young musician)
To be able to be completely immersed in it (young musician)
Being drawn towards music as a source of inspiration, achievement, satisfaction (adult, nonmusican, non-educator).
A desire to express oneself via an instrument as opposed to words and paint, etc. (educator)
To understand their own relationship to music and music to the other aspects of their life (educator)
The ability to be absorbed by a piece of music to concentrate (musician)
The ability to make sense of the world through musical stimuli as performer, composer, listener or
consumer individually or in combination. This involves engaging with music bringing about an
affective response (musician)
Someone is musically able when music means something to them (musician)
A method of self-giving and self-expression through the medium of sound governed by interest in
and enjoyment and subsequent love of the instrument (musician)
Revealing your character and ethos (musician)
Being able to get the music through your mind and soul and via your body give it to other people.
Like saying this is me and my music. Listen to me (musician)
Music ability requires a personality, a soul, creativity of expression (educator)
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15
Table 10
The extent to which personal qualities were cited as related to musical ability by respondents with
Metacognition
c2 = 20.1, df = 4, p = .0001
Motivation
c2 = 20.51, df = 4, p = .0001
Personal expression
c2 = 32.78, df = 4, p = .0001
Overall
percentage
Musicians
Educators
Other
adults
Pupils
involved in
extracurricular
music
5% (3)
6% (26)
14% (18)
4% (3)
2% (2)
18% (72)
31% (38)
15% (12)
14% (58)
28% (36)
9% (7)
Other
pupils
0% (0)
12% (13)
10% (6)
9% (3)
7% (8)
12% (7)
0% (0)
Musical ability is a special facility for understanding, responding to and engaging in music and musical pursuits. It
could include some technical facility, for example, on an instrument but doesnt have to. It is being able to internalise
a musical experience through the use of the mind/body emotions. Someone is musically able when music means
something to them.
Ability covers a range of activities and Im not sure that it exists in a purely musical way. Children are considered
able or having ability if they can play an instrument well learn quickly, sight read and perform in a musical, not
merely robotic way. They are considered able if they can sight read, improvise and compose music that is expressive
and perhaps out of the ordinary, Ability can be in the domain of listening the ability to hear structures, patterns,
elements to sing/play back tunes, give opinions. Im not sure if to be strong in merely one of these areas but not the
others would constitute musical ability or rather if these would have to occur together in one person. Also is it the
ability to do these things without teaching or an active response to teaching?
Educators
For educators the key focus was also being able to sing or play an instrument
(76%), followed by appreciation of music (34%), listening and understanding (31%),
having a musical ear (26%), responsiveness to music (21%), emotional expression
(20%), having a sense of rhythm (20%), and being able to compose (19%). Three
examples are given below:
Music ability is the capacity to create harmonious sounds, often in concert with others. It requires great technical
skills, much practice, creative flair and aesthetic sensibility to perform at high levels.
Primarily the ability to sing or play a musical instrument to a professional standard. However, I also believe that
everyone in the world has musical ability in that we are all able to appreciate, understand and communicate through
musical activity whether it be singing or chanting nursery rhymes, tapping a rhythm along to a favourite piece of
music or simply being moved by hearing a favourite piece of music being played well.
Awareness and appreciation of sound elements such as pitch, tone, rhythm, melody and harmony, which are brought
together as a coherent whole to produce a meaningful communication of feeling. It involves an awareness of how
these sounds can be skilfully produced and how the sounds can be organised with each other.
Adults (non-musical or educational employment)

For other adults the key focus was being able to sing or play an instrument
(83%), followed by having a musical ear (28%), having a sense of rhythm (23%),
appreciation of music (21%) and being able to compose or improvise (17%). Typical
examples are given below:
I would say musical ability is having an ear for music. To be able to re-create sounds exactly and to play an
instrument or sing to some degree of competence.
At a basic level it is the ability to produce personally satisfying sounds from an instrument or voice or by whistling.
Being able to play a musical instrument not just to appreciate music.

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Table 11
The origins of musical ability
Musical ability is innate
In traditional African cultures it is implicitly assumed that all humans are inherently musical (musician)
Never entirely absent in an individual (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
I see 'musical ability as applying to practically everyone, while those with a high level of achievement
would be described as musicians in the formal sense of having developed their ability in music to the point
where more than friends or family would want to listen to them (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
I hold two contradictory views on musical ability. We all have musical ability which is itself very varied,
ranging from the ability to play an instrument or sing to being able to participate in and enjoy musical
activities. Music speaks to all of us and we can all do it. Music ability is very special, with only a minority
of gifted people having real ability and the commitment to nurture and develop it - the 'natural genius
model' of musical ability. While intellectually I hold on to the more democratic model of musical ability,
the genius model emerges when I decide not to push/nag my daughter to practise the flute because I feel
that, although she plays well, she is not a natural musician. The first represents both experience and ideal,
whereas the second locates me unambiguously in Western European traditions of cultural forms (educator)
An innate bias towards music - a talent which enables them to learn how to play a musical instrument/sing
much more easily than others. An ability to appreciate music and to value it in their lives- either merely by
listening or by taking part in creating it. Some people are both of these, have both of these and some have
one or the other (educator)
Lots of people are gifted in music when they are born (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
A coincidence of biological characteristics, mental and physical which permits some people to organise
sound more efficiently than others (educator)
True musical ability is a natural talent (educator)
Music ability is learned
Learned rather than innate, through musical skills some individuals do have the capacity to learn to an
exceptional degree (musician)
Access to musical education and opportunity (music)
An ability to grasp new musical concepts and techniques easily (musician)
Music ability is an interaction between what is innate and learned
The realisation of musical potential (young musician)
Having a musical gift and learning to shape and share it (musician)
Musical ability is included in everyone, but the opportunities given in your social environment will have
an important influence (musician)
I think that everyone has musical ability but that the social environment has a great influence in the
development of it (musician)
Musical ability, to me, is to be given a gift and then to build on it by training and practice (educator)
For someone to have musical ability two things are necessary. First of all it is an ability that someone
brings with him at birth. But without the right encouragement by the environment this ability is useless
(adult, non-musician, non-educator)
I think everyone has a certain amount of musical ability and that to be good at music involves a
combination of training, practice and natural aptitude (adult, non-musician, non-educator)
Id say a combination of talent that youre born with and the skills that youve learnt and developed (adult,
non-musician, non-educator)
Development of a basic human characteristic but dependent on environmental/cultural/social issues
(musician)
Musical ability develops progressively as individuals learn
Starts with a sense of rhythm. Then if you develop this it becomes an appreciation of sound (pitch, texture,
timing, etc.). This with practice becomes an appreciation of playing music, the style and sound you make
and the confidence in your playing within the context of the music (young musician)
Making rapid progress in learning an instrument (musician)
Musical ability can be developed by practising (young musician)
Musical ability is often mistaken for the fruits of hours of painstaking practice (musician)
It is an ability which has to be nourished throughout a lifetime (musician)
A developed capacity to be caught up by or respond to music and to make music (educator)
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Table 12
The origins of musical ability as cited by respondents with different levels of musical involvement.
Overall
percentage
Learned NS
Innate NS
Innate and learned NS
Progression and development
c2 = 32.7, df = 4, p = .0001
1% (3)
9% (38)
9% (36)
9% (37)
Musicians
1% (1)
11% (14)
12% (16)
20% (26)
Educators
0% (0)
10% (8)
11% (9)
9% (7)
Other
adults
2% (2)
8% (9)
5% (9)
2% (2)
Pupils
involved in
extracurricular
music
0% (0)
10% (6)
8% (5)
3% (2)
Other
pupils
0% (0)
3% (1)
0% (0)
0% (0)
Young musicians
For pupils involved in extra-curricular musical activities the main focus was
on playing or singing (72%), followed by communication and interpretation (30%),
emotional expression (25%), appreciation of music (22%), and listening and
understanding (20%). Two examples are given below:
The technical ability to play the right notes at the right time in tune, etc. but more importantly, to convey the spirit
and emotion of the piece, the actual music, by observing dynamic markings, articulation and phrasing and listening,
both to others (if playing in an ensemble) and oneself.
A combination of technical skill, concentration and imagination. The ability to convey the intentions and emotion of
the composer to the audience. A good ear.
Young people not actively involved in music making

For those pupils who were not involved in extra-curricular music only two
responses were cited with any regularity. They were being able to play or sing (88%)
and appreciation of music (21%). The responses tended to be short and limited in the
number of conceptions that they expressed. For example:
Being able to play an instrument
Someone who is appreciative of good music and can participate in generating it.
Discussion
Overall, the conceptions of musical ability generated by the respondents in
this research were complex and multi-faceted. While being actively involved in
music making through singing or playing an instrument was cited by most
respondents as indicative of musical ability, many acknowledged that musical ability
included a wide range of receptive activities such as listening, appreciating and
responding to music. Gardner (1993), in his development of the theory of multiple
intelligences, proposed that one of the criteria for establishing an intelligence was a
definable set of expert end state performances. The range of elements which evolved
as comprising musical ability in this study reflected the wide range of expert end
states which occur in the music profession. While performers and composers may
dominate our perceptions as exemplars of the music profession, many pursue
musical careers as producers, critics, commentators, journalists and presenters where
receptive musical skills are critical. This has implications for music education itself
which must enable the development of all of these skills. Learning to play an
instrument without concurrently developing an understanding and appreciation of
music is not sufficient to develop musical potential.

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18
There was little emphasis in the proffered conceptions of musical ability
relating to its origins as being either inherited, learned or an interaction between
these. Where this issue was addressed, the responses tended to indicate an
acceptance of the universality of musical ability, although opportunities for
developing it were perceived to vary. The musicians, far from seeing musical ability
as inherited, more than any other group, emphasised the way in which musical
ability developed as individuals learnt more about music. This may be related to
their perceptions of the importance of motivation and commitment in musical ability.
There were substantial differences in conceptions of musical ability between
the respondents from the various participating groups. The students uninvolved in
extra-curricular musical activities held the most simple conceptions mainly
perceiving musical ability as taking part in musical activities, although a substantial
proportion cited appreciation of music. Adults who were not musicians and
educators also perceived that musical ability was best conceptualised as singing or
playing a musical instrument or composing music. Other relatively frequently cited
aspects included having a musical ear, a sense of rhythm and appreciating music.
Young people involved in extra-curricular activities, while sharing the perception of
playing or singing as being most indicative of musical ability, also stressed
appreciation of and responsiveness to music. Interestingly, they, with the musicians,
saw interpreting and communicating as an important element of musical ability. The
acquisition of technical skills was cited by relatively few young musicians. The
overall emphasis was on involvement and the emotional aspects of music. This
supports findings exploring the role of listening to music in adolescent lives and
musics importance in satisfying their emotional needs (North et al., 2000).
The musicians had, by far, the most complex conceptions of musical ability
relating to very diverse aspects of musicianship. They generated the most responses
overall and in most categories. Those with conceptions most similar to the musicians
were the other educators. But there were important differences between them. The
educators emphasised musical appreciation more than the musicians, while the
musicians gave greater prominence to motivation, personal involvement, learning
skills, metacognition, emotional expression and communication skills. A greater
proportion of musicians also emphasised the role of technique. This highlights an
issue frequently raised in relation to music education. The teaching of technical skills
has, on occasion, been derided as detracting from the development of creativity in
music. However, research exploring the development of creativity has established
that high levels of expertise in the field in question are pre-requisite for high levels of
creativity (Sternberg, 1988). In music, this implies the development of technical
skills. To compose, improvise, interpret and communicate the meaning of music
requires considerable technique. Those who fail to understand this not only
downplay fundamental aspects of the development of musical skills but may
misinterpret the content and process of music lessons. Lack of understanding of
these fundamentals can lead non-musicians to view instrumental music lessons as
lacking appropriate opportunities for the acquisition of creative skills, when in fact
the lessons may be developing the essential pre-requisites to them.
Closely related to the development of technical skills is the emphasis which
the musicians placed on motivation, personal commitment and the way in which
musical ability is characterised by progress and development. To learn to play an
instrument, sing or compose, as we have seen, requires practice and dedication.
Those involved in teaching music are most aware of this. For commitment to be
sustained, this motivation needs to be generated from within the individual, not
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19
derived from external pressures (Hallam 1998b). Sternberg et al. (1981), researching
conceptions of intelligence found a similar stress on motivation as an important
aspect of academic intelligence by the expert participants. Those closely involved
in supporting the development of musical or intelligent skills seem to be in
agreement that motivation and commitment are crucial. This suggests that if
selection processes must be adopted because of lack of resources, the key focus
should be interest in music and motivation to want to learn. If these criteria are used
the musical skills developed are likely to be well utilised in some aspect of musical
activity even if it is not what was originally intended. For instance, someone offered
an opportunity to play the violin may not become a professional violinist but may
transfer to the viola, become a composer, a music critic, maintain a lasting interest in
listening to music or taking part in amateur music making in a folk group. What will
be sustained over time is their interest in music and the use of the musical skills that
they have acquired in the musical environment in which they find themselves.
This study, using qualitative methods, explored the conceptions of musical
ability held by groups of individuals who differed in the extent of their involvement
with music making. The particular methodology adopted facilitated an in depth
consideration of the ways in which musical ability was constructed within these
groups. The qualitative nature of the research, its relatively small sample size and the
low level of responses in some cells has inevitably limited the statistical
generalisability of the findings. This does not invalidate them within the postmodern
framework within which the research was undertaken where findings are accepted
as being embedded within particular historical and cultural settings. To further our
understanding of the extent to which the findings might be generalised, a more
systematic study using quantitative methodology is required, to explore whether the
differences which emerged in this study remain when participants do not generate
responses spontaneously but rate statements presented to them. Further research is
also required to establish the nature and extent of cultural differences in conceptions
of musical ability. The work of Blacking (1971), undertaken within a contrasting
methodological framework suggests that different constructions of musical ability do
exist. These need to be documented and compared.
What can the findings described above contribute to our understanding of
the nature of musical ability? Within a post-modern approach, concepts such as
musical ability have to be viewed as temporary, relating only to the time and culture
within which they are embedded. As the nature of the production of music changes
throughout the 21st century, the skills required of professional musicians will change
and, in parallel with those, conceptions of what constitutes musical ability. The
current research suggests that in a Western musical culture at this time, musical
ability includes aural, receptive, and generative skills which are integrated to enable
music to be composed, performed and listened to. These skills are perceived as being
developed through opportunity and effort. This latter depends on the commitment
and motivation of the individual. Ultimately, the truly defining element of musical
ability may come to be commitment and motivation as the means to create and
perform music become increasingly accessible to everyone through more advanced
computer technology.
What are the practical implications of this research for education? The
conceptions of musical ability held by those most closely involved with musical
performance, i.e. musicians, indicated that musical ability is a complex phenomenon
and depends, at least to some extent, on personal and motivational factors.
Traditional musical ability tests, based on aspects of aural perception, used to select

Number 20, 2003
20
pupils to play an instrument are therefore unlikely to select those with the most
musical potential as it has been defined in this research. Opportunities to learn to
play an instrument, sing and be involved in extra-curricular music activities should
therefore be made available to all children.
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Stumpf, C. (1883-90). Tonpsychologie. Leipzig: Hirzel
Williamon, A., & Valentine, E. (2000) Quantity and quality of musical practice as predictors
of performance quality, British Journal of Psychology, 91, 353-376.
Wing, H. D. (1961) Standardised tests of musical intelligence. The Mere, England: National
Foundation for Educational Research
About the Authors

Dr. Susan Hallam pursued careers as both a professional musician and a
music educator before joining the Department of Psychology and Special
Educational Needs at the Institute of Education, University of London in 1991. In
1996 she took on the role of Co-ordinator for Promoting Excellence in Teaching and
in 1997 became Assistant to the Dean of Professional Development. She joined
Oxford Brookes as Professor of Education in January 2000 returning to the Institute
of Education in January 2001.
Her PhD from the Institute of Education, University of London, was
concerned with the development of expertise. Since then she has received research
funding from the ESRC, DfEE, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Nuffield
Foundation, Performing Rights Society, the Christian Initiative Trust and several
LEAs for a range of projects relating to attendance at school, exclusion from school,

Number 20, 2003
22
school-home links, ability grouping in primary and secondary schools and research
into instrumental music services. In addition she has undertaken research and
published in relation to pedagogy in secondary and higher education, text
understanding and conceptions of argument of post-graduate students, homework,
learning in music and the effects of music on behaviour and studying. She is the
author of Instrumental Teaching; The Power of Music and numerous journal
articles and book chapters relating to learning and teaching in music education.
Vanessa Prince is currently a lecturer in the Psychology of Education at the
Institute of Education, University of London, and Data Analysis Officer (Social
Inclusion) for the London Borough of Newham. She is a former student of the
Geneva Consevatoire de Musique and a Junior Exhibitioner of the Royal College of
Music. She has performed and taught piano performance in Europe and the United
States before pursuing postgraduate studies in the Psychology of Education. She has
undertaken research relating to the use of computer technology in education, pupil
and teacher perceptions of music lessons and funded research for the DfEE on
instrumental music services in the UK. She is currently researching personal and
social well being in 11-14yr olds.
Number 20, 2003


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Conceptions of Musical Ability

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Conceptions of Musical Ability

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Number 20, 2003

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Aural skills including having a musical ear and rhythmic ability;

Receptive responses to music including understanding, having declarative knowledge about

Number 20, 2003

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

The integration of a range of skills;

Personal qualities including motivation, personal expression, immersion in music, total

The origins of musical ability whether it is innate, learned, developed or a combination of

Table 1 provides an overview of the super-ordinate and sub-categories.

The integration of skills

The origins of musical

Having a musical ear

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Musical ability is having a musical ear:

Musical ear. c2 = 21.1, 28%

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Number 20, 2003

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Being able to play or sing

Integration of several skills

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Overall comparisons between groups with different levels of musical expertise

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Adults (non-musical or educational employment)

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Number 20, 2003

Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Young people not actively involved in music making

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

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Research Studies in Music Education

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

2003 Callaway International Resource Centre for Music Education.

Number 20, 2003

Number 20, 2003