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The correct choice of a coordinate system (or basis) often can simplify the form of an
equation or the analysis of a particular problem. For example, consider the obliquely
oriented ellipse in Figure 7.2.1 whose equation in the xy-coordinate system is
By rotating the xy-coordinate system counterclockwise through an angle of 45
Similarity
Two n n matrices A and B are said to be similar whenever there exists a nonsingular
matrix P such that
The product
is called a similarity transformation on A.
which is false. Thus A, as well as any other nonzero nilpotent matrix, is not similar to a
diagonal matrix. Nonzero nilpotent matrices are not the only ones that cant be
diagonalized, but, as we will see, nilpotent matrices play a particularly important role in
nondiagonalizability.
So, if not all square matrices can be diagonalized by a similarity transformation, what
are the characteristics of those that can? An answer is easily derived by examining the
equation
Since not all square matrices are diagonalizable, its natural to inquire about the next
best thingi.e., can every square matrix be triangularized by similarity? This time the
answer is yes, but before explaining why, we need to make the following observation.
Similarity Preserves Eigenvalues
Row reductions dont preserve eigenvalues (try a simple example). However, similar
matrices have the same characteristic polynomial, so they have the same eigenvalues
with the same multiplicities. Caution! Similar matrices need not have the same
eigenvectors.
In the context of linear operators, this means that the eigenvalues of a matrix
representation of an operator L are invariant under a change of basis. In other words, the
eigenvalues are intrinsic to L in the sense that they are independent of any coordinate
representation. Now we can establish the fact that every square matrix can be
triangularized by a similarity transformation. In fact, as Issai Schur realized in 1909, the
similarity transformation always can be made to be unitary.
The CayleyHamilton theorem asserts that every square matrix satises its own
characteristic equation p() = 0. That is, p(A) = 0.
Problem: Show how the CayleyHamilton theorem follows from Schurs
triangularization theorem.
Solution: Schurs theorem insures the existence of a unitary U such thatU AU = T is
triangular, and the development allows for the eigenvalues A to appear in any given
order on the diagonal of T. So, if (A) = {1 , 2 , . . . , k } with i repeated ai times,
then there is a unitary U such that
Example:
If Ann happens to have n distinct eigenvalues, then each eigenvalue is simple. This
means that geo multA () = alg multA () = 1 for each , so (7.2.5) produces the
following corollary guaranteeing diagonalizability.
Distinct Eigenvalues
If no eigenvalue of A is repeated, then A is diagonalizable. (7.2.6)
Caution! The converse is not true.