Mechatronics and Microprocessors(10ME65) Class Notes

from Yogeesha H.C.AP/Mech, NCET

1.

Define transducer. Explain the primary and secondary transducers with examples
- 08 marks
A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of energy. Energy types include
(but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic and thermal
energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy
can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments. Common examples include
microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure sensors, and antenna. Although not generally
thought of as transducers, photocells, LEDs (light-emitting diodes), and even common light bulbs are transducers.
Primary transducers work on the principle of an input sensor detecting or sensing immeasurable data, such as mass,
heat, depth and density. It then converts the received energy signal into readable information, usually controlled by an
on/off switch. Examples of primary transducers include thermistors and thermocouples. Secondary transducers are
best exemplified by reluctive accelerometers and piezoelectric transducers. These types of transducers define how
mechanical displacement produces electric signals.

2.

What is Hall Effect? Explain the principle of Hall effect sensor with a neat sketch
- 10 marks
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor, transverse to an
electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in
1879.
The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many small charge
carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions or all three. When a magnetic field is present that is not parallel to the direction of
motion of moving charges, these charges experience a force, called the Lorentz force. When such a magnetic field is
absent, the charges follow approximately straight, 'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc.
However, when a magnetic field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so
that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other
face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall
element that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge
establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential is established for
as long as the charge is flowing.

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are
used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic
field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can
be deduced.
Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall sensor can be
used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is integrated with a wound core or
permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.
Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off) mode, and may be
called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder,
they are also used in consumer equipment; for example some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open
covers. When high reliability is required, they are used in keyboards.

The Hall effect sensor can be used to measure fuel level in a fuel tank. The float has buoyancy in the fuel. It floats up as
the fuel becomes more. The gap between the magnet and hall sensor will changed. It results in the changing of the output.
The springs allow the float to move only vertically.

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Mechatronics and Microprocessors(10ME65) Class Notes

from Yogeesha H.C.AP/Mech, NCET
3. Give the classification of transducers with suitable examples
- 08 marks
A transducer is a device which converts non-electrical or physical quantity into electrical quantity. In most of the electrical
system the output is not in the form of electrical form, but in non-electrical form. So if we want to measure that output using
electrical methods we are required to use transducers.
Classification based on the transduction principle:
a. Resistive transducers (Change in resistance):
Examples:
Resistance Strain gauge The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to elongation or compression is
known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
Resistance Thermometer The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in temperature known by the measurement
of temperature.
Resistance Hygrometer The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content is known by
the value of its corresponding humidity.
Hot Wire Meter The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its
corresponding gas flow or pressure.
Photoconductive Cell The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in light flux is known by its
corresponding light intensity.
Thermistor The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of resistance is known by its
corresponding measure of temperature.
Potentiometer Type The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the movement of the slider as a part of an
external force applied is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
b. Capacitive transducers (Change in capacitance):
Examples:
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge The change in capacitance due to the change of distance between two parallel plates
caused by an external force is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Dielectric Gauge The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or
thickness.
Capacitor Microphone The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure on a movable diagram is known by
its corresponding sound.
c. Inductive transducers (Change in inductance),
Examples:
Eddy Current Transducer The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an eddy current plate is known by its
corresponding displacement or thickness.
Variable Reluctance Type The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the change in position of the
iron core or coil is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Proximity Inductance Type The inductance change of an alternating current excited coil due to the change in the magnetic
circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
Differential Transformer The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of a transformer because of the change
in position of the magnetic core is known by its corresponding force, pressure or displacement.
Magnetostrictive Transducer The change in magnetic properties due to change in pressure and stress is known by its
corresponding sound value, pressure or force.
d. Photovoltaic transducers.
e. Photo conductive transducers,
f. Electromagnetic transducers.
Classification based on output type:
1. Analog transducers (Continuous)
a. Electromechanical type.
1) Potentiometric resistance type,
2) Inductive or capacitive type,
3) Piezoelectric type,
b.1) Optoelectric type,
2) Photo emissive / Conductive / Voltaic type
2. Digital transducers (Discrete)
a) Frequency generating type,
b) Encoder.

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Mechatronics and Microprocessors(10ME65) Class Notes

from Yogeesha H.C.AP/Mech, NCET
Classification based on working mechanism
1)Active transducers
They work on energy conservation principle with no external excitation.
Active transducers are those which do not require external energy for their operation.
1.Photo voltaic,
2. Thermo electric (e.g. Thermocouple),
Examples :
Photo-voltaic Cell The voltage change that occurs across the p-n junction due to light radiation is known by its corresponding
solar cell value or light intensity.
Thermopile The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is known by its corresponding value of
temperature, heat or flow.
Piezoelectric Type When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in the voltage generated
across the surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value of sound or vibration.
Moving Coil Type The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field can be measured using its corresponding value of
vibration or velocity.
2)Passive transducers
They work on the principle of energy conversion with external excitation.
Passive transducers are those which require external energy for their operation
a)Resistive
i. Variable resistor (potentiometer),
ii. Strain gauges,
iii. Thermisters, PN junctions
b)Inductive
1. Variable reluctance,
2. variable permeability,
3, LVDT,
4. Eddy current type.
c)Capacitive
1. Variable area,
2. Variable permittivity.
3) Primary or Secondary transducer
4) Transducer or Inverse transducer
4.

Explain Primary and Secondary transducers, Active and Passive transducers and Analog and
digital Transducers.

- 06 marks

Primary transducers work on the principle of an input sensor detecting or sensing immeasurable data, such as mass, heat,
depth and density. It then converts the received energy signal into readable information, usually controlled by an on/off
switch. Examples of primary transducers include thermistors and thermocouples. Secondary transducers are best
exemplified by reluctive accelerometers and piezoelectric transducers. These types of transducers define how mechanical
displacement produces electric signals.
Passive and active transducers are classified based on the type of power source they have. Passive transducers rely on
producing power output from palpable mechanisms, such as external power. Examples of this type include capacitive,
inductive and resistive transformers. On the other hand, active transducers source their power from physical loads and then
produce their own voltage and current outputs. Active transducers include thermocouples, piezoelectric crystals and
photovoltaic cells.
Analog transducers transmit a readable continuous analog reading of whatever input it receives. Typical of this type of
transducer are the thermistor and strain gauge. In contrast, digital transducers create non-continuous pulses which are
naturally disjoined. Common examples are laser beam instruments and vortex flowmeters.

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Mechatronics and Microprocessors(10ME65) Class Notes

from Yogeesha H.C.AP/Mech, NCET
5.

Explain the working principle of eddy current proximity sensor and capacitive proximity sensor - 08 marks
Eddy current proximity sensors are called as noncontact sensors which are used to give us high resolution. The basic
working principle of this sensor depends upon the magnetic field. During working when driver create AC current in
sensing coil, alternate magnetic field is generated which will produce small current in the target material known as eddy
current. The purpose of this eddy current is to create an opposing magnetic field which has the capability to resist the field
of coil from where it is generated. The creation of magnetic field highly depends upon the distance between coil and target
material. During working, when distance changes, intensity of magnetic field changes, ultimately output voltage changes
and is directly proportional to the distance between coil and target material.

The major application of proximity sensor is the automation sector. If we compare this sensor as compare to other
noncontact sensors likes laser, optical and capacitive sensors then it has number of advantages which are following
These are less expensive as compare to laser interferometers and capacitive sensors
These are not sensitive to that material present in the gap
We can use this sensor in dirty environments
They are high sensitive in small displacements
They have high reliability
They are small in size.
6.

7.

Define the following terms i) Hysteresis ii) Repeatability iii) Accuracy and precision
iv) Drift
v) Speed of response

- 05 marks

Explain light sensors and state the factors used in selection of sensors

- 08 marks

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