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LandUsePlanningInformation>GroundwaterBasics

GroundwaterBasics
Thissequenceofillustrationsandexplanationsisreproducedfrom"WhatIsGroundwater?"abulletinpreparedbyDr.
LyleS.Raymond,Jr.,andpublishedbyNewYorkStateWaterResourcesInstitute,CornellUniversity.Thistutorialwill
helpexplainthenatureofgroundwater,includingitssource,movement,andbehavior.

WhereGroundwaterComesFrom

TheSaturatedZone

Groundwaterbeginswithrainandsnowmeltthatseepsorinfiltratesinto

Rainandsnowmeltthatseepsintothegroundcontinuesdownwardunder

theground.Theamountofwaterthatseepsintothegroundvarieswidely
fromplacetoplaceaccordingtothetypeoflandsurfacethatispresent.
Inporoussurfacematerialthatwaterreadilyseepsthrough,suchassand
orgravel,40to50percentoftherainandsnowmeltmayseepintothe
ground.Seepageintolessporoussurfacematerialmayrangefrom5to
20percent.Theremainderoftherainandsnowmeltrunsofftheland
surfaceintostreamsorreturnstotheatmospherebyevaporation.
Seepageintothegroundisalsostronglyinfluencedbytheseasonofthe
year.Evaporationisgreaterduringthewarmmonths,including
evaporationthroughplantleaves,knownastranspiration.Duringthecold
months,thegroundmaybefrozen,hinderingwaterseepage,and
evaporationisless.

theforceofgravityuntilitreachesadepthwherewaterfillsallofthe
openings(pores)inthesoilorrock.Thisiscalledthesaturatedzone.The
saturatedzonetypicallyincludesnumerouswaterfilledcrevicesinthe
upperlayerofbedrock.Deeperbedrocklayersmayhavefeworno
creviceswherewatercanpenetrate.

TheWaterTable

TheUnsaturatedZone

Thetopofthesaturatedzoneiscalledthewatertable.Thewatertable
risesandfallsaccordingtotheseasonoftheyearandtheamountofrain
andsnowmeltthatoccurs.Itistypicallyhigherinearlyspringandlower
inlatesummer.Heavyrainfallordroughtconditionsmaycausechanges
inthetypicalpattern,however.

Azoneisusuallypresentbetweenthewatertableandthelandsurface
wheretheopenings,orpores,inthesoilareonlypartiallyfilledwith
water.Thisistheunsaturatedzone.Waterseepsdownwardthroughitto
thewatertablebelow.Plantrootscancapturethemoisturepassing
throughthiszone,butitcannotprovidewaterforwells.

Porosity
Permeability
Permeabilityisameasureofhowfastwaterwillflowthroughconnected
openingsinsoilorrock.Lowpermeabilityreferstosoilorrockthat
restrictsthemovementofwaterthroughit.Thespecificyieldisthe
actualamountofwaterthatwilldrainoutofsaturatedsoilandrockby
gravityflow.Itdoesnotdrainoutcompletelybecausesomewaterforms
afilmthatclingstosoilandrock.Permeabilityiscriticalforwatersupply
purposesifcontainedinsoilorrockwillnotdrainout,itisnotavailable
towaterwells.

Thecapacityofsoilorrocktoholdwateriscalledporosity.Saturated
sandcontainsabout20%watergravel,25%andclay,48%.Saturated
bedrockwithfewcrevicescommonlycontainslessthan1%water.Clayis
notagoodwatersourcedespiteitshighwatercontent,orporosity,
becausetheextremelysmallsizeoftheopeningsbetweenmicroscopic
particlescreatesfrictionthateffectivelyhaltswatermovement.Saturated
clayisvirtuallyimpermeable.

Aquifers

Recharge

Awaterbearingsoilorrockformationthatiscapableofyieldingusable
amountsofwateriscalledanaquifer.Mixedclay,sand,gravel,andfine
particlesthatweredepositedbycontinentalglaciers(glacialtill)yieldlow
amountsofwater.Materialssortedintodistinctlayerswillyieldhigh
amountsofwaterfromcoarsegrainedsandandgravel,butlowamounts

Waterseepingintoanaquiferisknownasrecharge.Thistakesplace
intermittentlyduringandimmediatelyfollowingperiodsofrainandsnow
melt.Rechargeoccurswherepermeablesoilorrockallowswaterto
readilyseepintotheground.Theseareasareknownasrechargeareas.
Permeablesoilorrockformationswhererechargeoccursmayoccupy

fromfinegrainedsand,siltorclay.Bedrockaquiferswillyieldsubstantial
amountsofwateriftherearelargeopeningsorcracks,butsmallamounts
iftherearefewopenings.

onlyaverysmallareaorextendovermanysquaremiles.Valleyaquifers
mayalsoreceiverechargefromhillsiderunofforstreamsthatflowdown
fromhillsidesinadditiontotherainandsnowthatfallsdirectlyontothe
landsurfaceoverlyingtheaquifer.

ConfinedorArtesianAquifer

UnconfinedOrWaterTableAquifer

Groundwaterthatbecomestrappedunderimpermeablesoilorrockmay
beunderpressure.Thisiscalledaconfinedorartesianaquifer.Awell
thatpiercesaconfinedaquiferisknownasanartesianwell.Water
pressureintheconfinedaquiferwillcausewaterinthewelltoriseabove
theaquiferlevel.Themaximumlevelthatthewaterinthewellwillrise
toisknownasthepotentiometricsurface,orpotentialwaterlevel.Ifthis
ishigherthanthetopofthewell,thewellwilloverflow.

Aquifersthatarenotconfinedunderpressurearecalledunconfinedor
watertableaquifers.Thewaterlevelinawellisthesameasthewater
tableoutsidethewell.

GroundwaterDischargePoints

GroundwaterFlowRates

Groundwaterentersthegroundinrechargeareasandleavestheground
atdischargepoints.Dischargeiscontinuous,aslongassufficientwateris
presentabovethedischargepoint.Dischargepointstypicallyoccuras
seepageintowetlands,lakesandstreams.Springsarevisibledischarge
pointsatthelandsurface.Ifthewatertableisclosetothelandsurface
duringthegrowingseason,largeamountsofgroundwatermaybe
withdrawnbyplanttranspiration.

Groundwatermovesveryslowlyfromrechargeareastodischargepoints.
Flowratesinaquifersaretypicallymeasuredinfeetperday.Flowrates
aremuchfasterwherelargerockopeningsorcrevicesexist(oftenin
limestone)andinloosesoil,suchascoarsegravel.Itmaytakeyears,
decadesorevencenturiesforgroundwatertomovelongdistances
throughsomeaquifers.However,groundwatermaytakeonlyafewdays
orweekstomoveforashortdistancethroughloosesoil.Groundwater
typicallymovesinparallelpaths(i.e.,layers)withlittlemixing,duetothe
slowmovementofgroundwater,whichdoesnotcreatesufficient
turbulencetocausemixingtooccur.Thisbecomesanimportantfactorin
thelocationandmovementofcontaminantsthatenterthegroundwater.

GainingStreams

Wells:ConeofDepression

Streamsthatreceivegroundwaterdischargesaregainingstreams.The
levelofwaterinthestreamisthewatertablelevelfortheadjacent
aquifer.Thisisalsotrueforlakesandwetlandsthatreceivegroundwater
discharges.Morethanhalfofthetotalflowofsomestreamsduringdry
periodsmaybefromgroundwaterdischarge.

Pumpingfromwellslowersthewatertablenearawell.Thisknownasthe
coneofdepression.Thelandsurfaceoverlyingtheconeofdepressionis
alsoreferredtoastheareaofinfluence.Groundwaterflowisdiverted
towardsthewellasitflowsintothedepressioncone.

Wells:InducedRecharge

WellContributionZone

Theconeofdepressionfromapumpingwellmayextendtoanearby
streamorlake.Thislowerstheadjacentwatertablebelowthesteamor
lakelevel.Asaresult,thestreamorlakebeginstolosewatertothe
adjacentgroundwateraquiferinthevicinityofthewell.Thisisknownas
inducedrecharge.Streamsandwetlandshavebeencompletelydriedup
byinducedrechargefromwellpumping.

Agroundwaterrechargeareathatisthesourceofwaterforawellis
knownasthecontributionzoneorcatchmentarea.Thismayincludeonly
aportionofalargeraquiferrechargearea.Theareaofinfluencedueto
wellpumping,thatoverliestheconeofdepression,mayextendbeyond
thecontributionzone.Inducedrechargefromwellpumpingcauses
groundwatertoflowtowardsthewellthatwouldnotnormallycontribute
watertoawell.

GroundwaterDrainageArea
Groundwaterinunconfinedaquifers,thatdonothaveimpermeablesoilor
rocklayersbetweentheaquiferandthelandsurface,usuallyflowsinto
thesamestreamdrainagebasinwhereitislocated.Confinedorartesian

aquifers,whichexistatgreaterdepth,maybepartofaregional
groundwaterflowsystemthatmaynotcorrespondwiththesurface
drainage.
Thispagelastupdatedon9/3/2003.