AVIATION HIGH SCHOOL

Basic / Advanced Jets

Gas Turbine Engine Operation
Name:___________________________________________.
Lesson # 2:
I.

Revision V
October 2011
A.N.C

Date:____________

AIM: What is a reactive Gas Turbine Engine ( a Jet ) , and how does it operate ?

Reactive Engines: All jets are reactive engines. Jet is the slang term for all engines using jet propulsion.
A. An engine is a machine for converting any of various forms of energy into mechanical force or
motion or something used to achieve a purpose.
B. Reactive engines are engines that move forward because of jet propulsion.
C. Jet Propulsion is a propelling force ( thrust ) generated in the direction opposite to the flow of a
mass of air, liquid or gas that is accelerated at high velocity out a hole called a nozzle.
D. Jet propulsion is based on natural laws of motion first described by Isaac Newton.
E. Newtons third law of motion states : For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
F. Reactive Engines (Jets) are engines that move forward in reaction to gases being accelerated &
expelled rearward. In order to accelerate the gases out of the engine we have to apply a force to
them. In reaction to this force, an equal and opposite force ( thrust ) is created that moves the engine.
The force used to accelerate the high velocity fluid out of the engine is the action, thrust is the reaction.
The action force is obtained by burning pressurized air with fuel.

As we can see from the figure above, jet propulsion is thrust (which gives forward movement to an engine)
created in reaction to the force that accelerated gases out of the nozzle at very high velocity.
II.

The Reactive Engine Family includes air breathing and non-air breathing engines.
A. Air acts as an oxidizer. It supports and is necessary for the combustion process.
B. Non- air breathing engines need no outside air to operate. They carry their own air.
1. The rocket engine is the only non air breathing reactive engine.
C. Air breathing engines. Need outside air to operate. They include :
1. The Ram Jet, the Pulse Jet & the Gas Turbine Engine
D. Other reactive engines that use jet propulsion to move are the Squid,
a balloon, and a water hose nozzle.

III.

Rocket Engine : is a non air breathing engine.

A. The rocket needs no outside atmospheric air to work. It carries
its own fuel and oxidizer. As a result the rocket is the only
reactive engine that can operate in the airless void of outer space.
B. The combustion of the fuel & oxidizer inside the rocket
accelerates the combustion gases through the exhaust nozzle at
extremely high velocity. For the action force that accelerated the
exhaust gases out the nozzle, there is the equal and opposite
reaction force of thrust that propels the rocket.

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IV. Ram Jet : is an air breathing engine. It is the simplest of all reactive jet engines.

RAM JET
A. The Ram Jet has no moving parts & no compressor. It relies entirely upon ram air effect and the
shape of the inlet to build up the pressure of the air entering the engine to an amount that will
enable the engine to operate. Fuel is added to that air and burned creating jet propulsion as the
gases are accelerated rearward out of the nozzle.
B. The ram jet needs to be moving forward very quickly in order to operate efficiently. The ram jet can
not operate standing still. It will not produce thrust. No movement = No ram air = No thrust.
C. Because the ram jet depends on the compression of incoming ram air for its operation, it must be
carried aloft and accelerated to an operating speed by some means other than its own thrust ( like an
airplane equipped with gas turbine engines).
V. Pulse Jet : Is an air breathing engine that uses jet propulsion created by intermittent combustion to
move forward. A pulse jet is very similar to the ramjet except that its inlet has a series of spring
loaded closed, shutter-type valves. Air entering through these open valves passes into the
combustion chamber where it is mixed, ignited and then burned with fuel injected into the chamber.
The resulting gas expansion causes a rise in pressure within the chamber that forces the inlet valves
to close at the same time the expanding gases are ejected rearward. The lower pressure created inside
the combustion chamber by the exhausting gases allows the shutter valves to re-open to repeat the
cycle again. This combustion pulse cycles on and off at a rate of about 40 to 60 times a second.

The present day technology pulse detonation engine is a refinement of the pulse jet. It detonates the fuel-air
mixture rather than burning it like the pulse jet does. This detonation happens all at once (like an explosion) and it
happens at supersonic speeds.

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Notebook page #_____

Name: ______________________________________________.

Date:________________

VI. Gas Turbine Engine : The G.T.E. ( Gas Turbine Engine ) is an air breathing engine.
A. The gas turbine engine is a can like container that is open at both ends. It is basically a gas

generating machine that uses expanding combustion gases to turn a turbine. The turbine is attached
to and turns a compressor. After passing through the turbine, the combustion gases are then
accelerated out of the engine at high velocity to produce a reaction in the form of thrust.
DIFFUSER
INLET

EXHA UST

ACCESSORY
GEARBOX

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Engine Sections: The typical gas turbine engine consists of seven sections. Sequenced in the order the
air /gas flows through the engine they are: the Inlet, the Compressor, the Diffuser, the Burner or
Combustor, the Turbine and the Exhaust. The Accessory Drive Gearbox section is normally saddled
below the engine.
The main sections of the gas turbine engine are considered to be the compressor, the burner or
combustor, and the turbine. These sections are also known as the gas generating sections.
C. The compressor and turbine sections consist of rotating blades on a disk called rotors and stationary
vanes called stators .
B.

VII.
A.
B.
C.

Engine Flanges.
A flange is a projecting rim where the different engine sections are bolted together.
Flanges are also incorporated for structural rigidity and for mounting of accessories and components.
Flanges are identified alphabetically going from the front of the engine to the rear. Letters I, O & Q are
not used because of their similarity to numbers. Flanges may be used to indicate positions along the
length of the engine. Always check the maintenance manual for the correct positions and identification
of the flanges.

VIII. Operation of the Basis Gas Turbine Engine

A. Huge quantities of air enter the inlet section. With an aircraft flying at over 500 MPH that ram air has a
tremendous amount of velocity (kinetic) energy. But too much kinetic energy entering the engine can
cause the engine to choke. So what we try to do at the inlet is to convert as much of airs kinetic
energy to pressure or potential energy
Inlet Section Functions :
1. The inlet directs air to the compressor with a minimum energy loss resulting from
drag, turbulence or ram air pressure losses; in other words, the inlet must make the
incoming air flow smoothly into the engine as oppose to crashing into it and losing energy.
To accomplish this, the inlet must slow down the incoming ram air without losing too much energy. It does this
by converting as much of the velocity energy of the incoming air to pressure energy. (potential energy)
And what is Ram Air ? ; Well, think of riding your bicycle real fast; the air hitting you in the face is ram air.
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Operation ( continued )
The compressor increases the pressure ( energy ) of that air by pushing it into an ever decreasing
volume: it then directs the air in sufficient quantities to the burner section. The compressor is attached
to and turned by the turbine section. After the compressor, the air passes through the diffuser section.
The diffuser prepares the airflow for entry into the combustion chamber by decreasing its velocity and
increasing its static pressure. The highest gas pressure in the engine is within the diffuser.
C. In the combustion chamber, fuel (chemical energy) is added to and mixed with the pressurized air
by fuel injection nozzles that are located at the front of the combustion chamber Airflow into the
combustion chamber may be considered to be either Primary Airflow or Secondary Airflow. The
Primary Airflow is the air actually used for combustion. Secondary airflow is used to cool burner
section parts and to cool down the combustion gases flowing to the turbine section. Swirl vanes
surrounding each fuel nozzle swirl the incoming combustion zone Primary Airflow to allow for the
proper mixing of the air with the fuel while at the same time decreasing the velocity of that air
to prevent flame-outs caused by the air out running the combustion flame.
1. The resulting fuel / air mixture is then burned creating releasing energy that produces hot
expanding gases (kinetic energy). These gases are directed to the turbine section.
D. The turbine section is rotated by the combustion gases passing through it. The turbine extracts the
kinetic (velocity) energy from the combustion gases and converts it into mechanical energy to turn the
compressor and the accessory gearbox. The turbine section and the compressor section are mounted
on the same shaft. When the turbine turns, the compressor turns.
E. Once past the turbines, the combustion gases enters the exhaust section where the exhaust gases are
first collected into a solid stream ; that exhaust stream is then accelerating, at very high velocity, out of
the rear of the engine creating thrust by jet propulsion. Remember, for every action ( the force
accelerating the exhaust gas out of the engine ) there is an equal and opposite reaction force ( thrust )
G. The Accessory Drive Gearbox is normally saddled along the side or at the bottom of the engine for
ease in performing maintenance. ( see figure below & figures on page 17).
B.

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Name: __________________________________.

Date:________________

Accessory Gearbox ( continued )

The accessory gearbox has two main purposes. They are:
1. The gearbox provides mounting pads for accessories (like oil, fuel & hydraulic pumps, generator and
fuel control) that are needed for the operation and control of the engine and aircraft.
a. The accessories are secured or attached to the mounting pads by studs and nuts or by
QAD rings ( QAD = quick assembly & disconnect ).
b. Not all engine accessories are mounted on the gearbox ( like ignition units)
2. The gearbox mechanically turns the accessories mounted on it.
Most accessories need to be turned / rotated in order to perform their functions.
a. The turbine supplies the mechanical energy to turn the accessory gearbox through the
compressor. The gearbox is driven off the compressor via a tower or radial shaft that
extends down from the compressor. One end of that tower shaft is driven off a bevel
gear that is at the end of the compressor shaft. The other end drives the accessory
gearbox via another bevel gear inside the gearbox. Through the use of internal
reduction gearing, the gearbox turns splined output drive shafts. These drive shafts
are connected to and turn the accessories that are mounted on the gearbox.
b. For engine starting this sequence works in reverse. The air or electric starter will turn
the accessory gearbox. The gearbox will then turn the compressor via the tower shaft.
Once the engine is started, the starter is disengaged from the gearbox. The normal
turning sequence will then take over.
c. Not all accessories are turned by the gearbox (like air driven hydraulic pumps).
Note: The gearboxs splined output shafts that turn the accessories are provided with a shear point to prevent
damage to the accessory gearbox and engine should, for any reason, the accessory seizes or stops
turning. If the accessory seizes the drive shaft will break at this shear point disconnecting the accessory
from the gearbox thus preventing internal damage to the gearbox and / or engine.
H. On the gearbox, fluid filled accessories are kept separate from electrical accessories. This
requirement to separate electrical accessories from fluid filled accessories is to minimize the
risk of fire. Electrical units are positioned on the dry side mounting area of the gearbox while
fluid filled units are mounted on the wet side.
IX. The Gas Generator on a gas turbine engine is made up of the Compressor, the Combustor / Burner &
the Turbine Sections .These are the three main sections of the engine that generate the combustion gas.
COMPRESSOR

Lesson # 2

COMBUSTOR / BURNER

THE GAS GENERATOR SECTIONS

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TURBINE

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X. Overview ( why do they call it a gas turbine engine ? )

A. Gas turbine engines are reactive engines. They use jet propulsion to move forward.
B. The GAS in Gas turbine engine refers to the product of combustion; NOT gasoline or the fuel.
C. The term Gas Turbine Engine translates into combustion gas that turns the turbine engine.
D. Fuel used on most commercial airline jets is a blend of commercial kerosene known as JET A .
1. Kerosene lubricates fuel system parts & has more energy PER VOLUME than gasoline.
XI.

A Standard Day: In order to compare gas turbine engines operating in different environments, all
engine performance parameters / data must be corrected to standard operating conditions known as the
standard day.
Standard Day conditions are as follows:
1. Standard Day Temperature = 59 degrees F ( Fahrenheit )
2. Barometric Pressure = 29.92 inches of Mercury ( Hg. )
3. Altitude = @ sea level

XIII. Turbine Inlet Temperature :

A. The higher the combustion temperatures that an engine can withstand without damage the
more power it is capable of producing and the more efficient that engine is.
B. The highest heat to metal contact in a gas turbine engine is on the first stage (inlet) of the turbine nozzle
guide vanes.
C. Turbine inlet temperature is the ultimate factor that limits the amount of thrust an engine can produce.
D. Turbine inlet temperature (combustion gas temperature at the entrance of the turbine section) is the most
critical and the ultimate limiting factor in the operation, thrust / power capabilities, and service life of a
gas turbine engine.
E. Excessive combustion gas temperatures WILL damage or destroy the turbine section.
F. Turbine inlet temperatures and its measurement is used to monitor the mechanical integrity of the
turbines as well as to check the operating conditions inside the engine.
G. Normal operating parameters and operating limits ( turbine inlet temperature) for a gas turbine
engine may be found in:
1. The Aircraft Maintenance Manual
2. The Engine Maintenance Manual
3. The Jet Run-Up Handbook
4. Type Certificate Data Sheet ( TCDS ) for the engine
5. Engine Specification Sheet.
( Reference: FARs 21.15 & 33.5)
H. If normal EGT limits for the turbine section are exceeded, follow the procedures and / or inspections
called out by the maintenance manual for such an occurrence. Required action will depend on
how much and for how long the normal temperature limits were exceeded. Required action will
range from performing a visual hot section inspection, to a hot section borescope inspection, to replacing
the engine.

Lesson # 2

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Name: ________________________________________.

Date:________________.

XII. Thermal Efficiency is the ratio of the amount of thermal (heat) energy converted to useful work or
thrust to the amount of thermal energy contained in the fuel consumed /burned. Todays gas turbine
engines have a thermal efficiency of around 45 to 50 %. Reciprocating engines has a thermal efficiency
of about 30%.
A. There are three primary factors which determine the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine;
They are:
1. Turbine inlet temperatures.
a. The higher an engine can increase the temperature of the incoming air, the
more thrust that the engine will be able to produce. This is dependent on how
much fuel is burned inside the engine. The more fuel we burn, the higher the
temperature of the combustion gases, and the more thrust that will be
produced. There is , however, a limit to the amount of fuel that we can burn
and the amount we can increase the temperature of the air and that limit is the
highest temperature the turbine can withstand without damage.
b. The higher T.I.T temperatures that the turbine can withstand means that less
cooling air is needed. Less cooling air needed means that the compressor can
supply less air to the burner which means the compressor can be scaled down.
The turbine would now need to extract a corresponding lower amount of
energy to turn that compressor. More energy will now be left over to enhance
thrust and to increase the thermal efficiency.
2. Compression ratio.
a. Engines with higher compression ratios can deliver more air to the burner.
More air to the burner means we can burn more fuel. Burning more fuel means
we can increase the temperature of the gas flow more and that translates into
more thrust.
b. The greater the compression ratio for a given mass airflow and thrust the lower
the engine fuel consumption to produce that thrust. Hence, efficiency goes up.
Basically, what we are saying here is that the more energy added to the air by the compressor, the less fuel
energy we have to add to get a given amount of thrust.
c. The most energy efficient condition occurs when compressor temperatures are
low. This is desirable because it allows for a greater temperature rise in the
burner, which is accomplished by allowing us to burn more fuel and which
results in greater expansion of the combustion gases and more thrust.
3. Compressor & Turbine efficiency.
a. To better understand Compressor & Turbine efficiency, thinks of eating your favorite
nuts like almonds or walnuts. Now, think of eating those same nuts with some of your
teeth missing. The efficiency of your chomping will definitely deteriorate.
An analogous loss of compressor & turbine efficiency will result from their getting old,
damaged or contaminated. The compressor is particularly susceptible to loss of
efficiency due to contaminants / dirt adhering to the blades. Compressor section cleaning,
using a fluid wash or grit blasting, are common ways to remove these contaminants and
restore compressor efficiency. The turbine section is not prone to contaminant buildup due to the high temperatures at which they operate. Turbine section efficiency is
most affected by blade erosion , old age or physical damage.
b. Loss of compressor and especially turbine efficiency means that the engine will
need to burn more fuel in order to produce a given thrust output. This will result in
the engine having a higher exhaust gas temperature, a lower RPM and a higher
fuel flow at all engine power settings.
Lesson # 2

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XIV. Engine Indicating Systems:

The performance and operation of the engine and engine systems are shown on gages and instruments in
the flight deck (cockpit). All engine indicating systems have sensors on the engine that relay their
information, usually through computers, to engine displays and /or instruments in the flight deck. An
Engines normal operating parameters &operating limits may be found in the aircraft or engine
maintenance manual , the Jet Run-Up handbook, the Type Certificate Data Sheet ( TCDS) or the engine
specification sheet(s).
XV. How Do We Measure Turbine Inlet Temperatures ?
A. The turbine Inlet Temperature measuring systems are used to
indicate the average temperature of the combustion gases at the
turbine. The systems are calibrated to read in degrees Centigrade.
Turbine inlet temperatures are monitored by either
E.G.T (exhaust gas temperature) , I.T.T( inter turbine temperature)
or T.I.T (turbine inlet temperature) systems. These indicating systems
use thermocouple sensors / probes to measure the average actual
or relative temperature of the combustion gases at the turbine inlet.
A thermocouple is basically a thermometer that is used to measure
the temperature of the combustion gases at the turbine section and
transmit that temperature reading to the indicator on the flight deck.
The acronyms E.G.T, I.T.T, and T.I.T stem from the locations the
thermocouples are found on the engine.
B. EGT thermocouple sensors are located immediately following
the turbine section. They measure the average temperature of
the gases as they leave the turbine. ITT thermocouple sensors are
normally located between the high & low pressure turbines and they
measure the average temperature within the turbine.
T.I.T thermocouples, because of their position right at the turbine inlet,
sense the actual combustion gas temperature at the turbine inlet.
E.G.T & I.T.T thermocouples, because of their position other than at the
turbine inlet, sense the relative temperature of the combustion gas at the
turbine inlet. TIT & ITT thermocouple sensors are usually located
within the nozzle guide vanes ( NGVs ) of the turbine section.
(See figure at right)
Thermocouple Installation
Ideally, temperature should be measured at the turbine inlet, however,
Here the is thermocouple is installed
because of the high temperatures involved at this location, it is usually
inside a nozzle guide vane at the
not the most practical location, but, as the temperature drop across
low pressure turbine inlet.
the turbine varies in a known manner, we can locate the thermocouples
at any location within the turbine section. As a result the temperature at
the turbine outlet or within the turbine is a more suitable location for the
thermocouple probes. Regardless of the actual monitoring position,
the most important and critical consideration in turbine engine operation
is the temperature at the turbine inlet regardless of whether it is
measured directly, by TIT thermocouple sensors, or in a relative manner by
by ITT & EGT thermocouples. ( see also supplemental notes page # 1)
1. Thermocouple sensors are within a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metal wires, Chromel &
Alumel, that are connected at two junctions , the hot or measuring junction at the thermocouple probe
& the reference cold junction (normally at the indicator) to form a continuous loop. The thermocouple
probes are positioned in the gas stream and are normally connected to form a parallel circuit. The
indicator in the flight deck is basically a millivoltmeter calibrated to read in degrees centigrade.
Lesson # 2

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Name: ______________________________________________.

Date:________________

Thermocouples ( continued )
If the cold junction is at a constant temperature and the hot section thermocouple is heated by the
combustion gases, an electromotive force (voltage) proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions will occur. This difference in voltage between the hot & cold junctions will cause current to flow in
proportion to the voltage difference and this will cause the indicator in the flight deck to move.
3. Thermocouples work on current flow, therefore, the resistance of the thermocouple and the chromel
and alumel wires is critical. Thermocouples are designed for a specific installation. The lengths,
diameters and connections of its electrical wires and leads must not be altered. If they are , it will
affect the resistance of the wires and terminal leads which will alter the current flow through the
wires. In addition, if the thermocouple lead connections are inadvertently crossed at installation
will cause the temperature gage pointer to move in a reverse direction to peg out below the zero on
the temperature scale. On todays engines this is almost impossible to do as the alumel and chromel
terminals on the thermocouple as well as the leads that connect to them are of different diameters.
4. A thermocouple type temperature indicating system requires no external power source to work.
It generates its own current which results from the voltage difference between the hot and cold
junctions.. That amount of current flow is determined by the difference in the temperature
between the hot (measuring junction) and the cold (reference junction).
D. Turbine Inlet Temperature measuring systems ( EGT, ITT & TIT) may be checked without running
the engine by checking the resistance values of the thermocouple and the thermocouple circuit.

Thermocouples are wired in parallel. If one goes bad we

will still get a reading.
Alumel Terminal:
a. identified by green color.
b. is the negative terminal.
c. is non-magnetic
d. has a larger terminal hole
& stud than chromel lead.

Chromel Terminal:
a. identified by white color.
b. is the positive terminal.
c. is magnetic
d. Has smaller terminal stud &
terminal hole than alumel lead.

A. ( of figure above) The EGT System

B. Single Hot Junction Thermocouple Probe.
C. Double Hot Junction Thermocouple Probe. Here the junctions are situated at different positions within
the thermocouple in order to obtain temperature readings from different points in the gas stream.
Lesson # 2

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XVI. Pressure , Temperature & Velocity (Energy) of Air / Gas Flow Inside A Gas Turbine Engine
Energy is the ability to do work or, energy is a property of matter that makes things happen or effects a change.
A. Abbreviations to know:
P = Pressure.
T = Temperature.
s = Static ( not moving).
t = Total.
B. Total Energy inside a running gas turbine engine is = to the Total Pressure inside the engine.
Total Pressure (Pt) is = to the velocity pressure of the air/gas flowing through the engine + the static
pressure of that air / gas flow. Total pressure is the measure of the total energy of a gas in motion.
1. In other words, total energy of the gas flow = to the velocity ( kinetic ) energy + static pressure ( potential ) energy.
Velocity energy = to kinetic energy. Pressure energy = to potential energy.
Note: the heat energy contained in the air / gas flow inside the engine is reflected in the static pressure of that
flow. (as temperature increases, pressure increases and vice versa).
C. Static Pressure = pressure energy of a gas at rest that is pushing out to all sides. (Like the air in a room)
1. The static pressure includes the increase or decrease in pressure energy due to temperature changes.
D. Total Pressure is the measure of the total energy within a gas that is moving.
E. Static Temperature = is the measure of heat in a stationary gas ( not flowing ).
F. Total Temperature = is the temperature of gas in motion ( includes the temperature increase due to friction).
XVII.

How Do Pressure, Temperature and Velocity Change Through Each Section of the Turbine Engine.

Using the figure below, we can see:

A. Pressure increases from the inlet, through the compressor into the diffuser and it decreases from the
burner through the turbine and into the exhaust.
B. Temperature increases from the inlet through the burner, it then decreases through the turbine & exhaust.
C. Velocity remains virtually constant through the inlet & compressor into the diffuser and through the
burner, increases to its highest point in the engine at the turbine inlet ,decreases slightly in the turbine
Section and then increases & peaks in the exhaust section.

Velocity , Temperature & Pressure of the Air / Gas Flow Inside a Gas Turbine Engine
Lesson # 2

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Name: ______________________________________________.

Date:________________

Engine R.P.M ( revolutions per minute ) / Tachometer Systems.

Engine RPM is measured by a tachometer. The engine tachometer is a primary engine instrument.
As per the FAR 33 all engines must have their rotational speeds indicated on the flight deck.
In jet talk, the letter N stands for engine R.P.M.
Engine RPM / tachometer systems primary purposes are to:
1. monitor RPM during engine start both on the ground and in the air
2. indicate engine over speeds.
3. assess engine thrust
4. check the operating schedules ( when they come on & off or open and close) of engine
support systems like bleed valves and variable compressor vanes
R.P.M of a gas turbine engine is always given in percent % on the flight deck indicator, with 100%
being the maximum rated power of the engine. This is done for standardization between engines
of different sizes. Different size engines rotate at different speeds throughout their operating range
but maximum power is 100% or standardized for all of them.
The RPM indicator on the flight deck is calibrated to indicate the % percent of engine RPM.
Three of the most common speed sensing systems used to measure RPM are:
1. The electro-mechanical, gearbox mounted tachometer generator ( tach generator)
a. This system works on changes in frequency of an electrical generator that are converted into
RPM readings.
2. The Electronic Pulse Pickup System used for the compressor fan (gives N1 RPM in percent) and the
Electronic Pulse Pickup Speed Sensing System located in the gearbox or mounted on the compressor shaft.
The electro-mechanical Tachometer Generator system consists of an AC generator (tach generator)
mounted on the engines gearbox and an indicator instrument on the flight deck.

XVIII.

A.
B.

C.

D.

3.
E.

The tach generator is turned by the gearbox of a running engine and produces an AC voltage at a frequency
directly proportional to the engines RPM. The tach generator sends this varying voltage frequency to a
synchronous motor that is located in the RPM indicator on the flight deck. The RPM of this synchronous motor
is governed by the frequency generated by the tach generator. As a result, this synchronous motor is turned at
the same speed or frequency as the tach generator. This rotation, through a magnetic flux coupling, tends to
rotate the indicators pointer against spring tension. The varying frequency is thus converted to an RPM reading
that is displayed on the indicator.
1. The tach generators RPM signal is based on changes in electrical frequency. The gage in the cockpit
responds to this change in frequency by displaying correlated changes in RPM. The faster the tach generator
is turned the greater the voltage frequency and hence the greater the R.P.M reading and vice versa.
2. If engine RPM is exceeded, refer to the maintenance manual for the required inspection(s) & procedures.
(See also page 2 in the supplemental notes section at the end of this handout)
Lesson # 2

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The Electronic RPM ( magnetic pick-up )systems, located in the gear box or on the compressor shaft, work
on principles of eddy currents and variable magnetic reluctance. ( magnetic reluctance = magnetic resistance)
Reluctance is simple the resistance offered to a magnetic field by changes in its flow path.

How it Works: This type of system uses a rotating gear wheel that has a special ferrous material on one of
its teeth and a speed probe or sensor that consists of a permanent magnet that is surrounded by a coil of
wire. The gear wheel can be located on anything whose RPM we wish to measure ( i.e. The gearbox or on a
compressor / turbine shaft) As the magnetic tooth of the wheel passes by the permanent magnet located in
the speed probe there will be a change in the magnetic resistance. When the gear tooth passes by the sensor
magnetic resistance is at a minimum and the magnetic flux or field is at its maximum. When the tooth is
further away from the speed probe, the flux drops off. This results in a time / RPM varying flux that induces
a current flow ( eddy current) in the coil surrounding the permanent magnet. The magnitude of the current
is governed by the rate of change of the magnetic flux and this is directly related to engine speed. This
current flow is then electronically converted into an RPM reading. In a sense, the speed sensor /probe
electronically counts the gear tooth rotation as it passes by.

On a magnetic pick-up system for measuring fan

percent RPM, a sensor mounted in the fan case
places a permanent magnet adjacent to the path of
the fan blade rotation. As the fan blades pass the
sensor they change the flux in the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet. This induces current flow
( eddy current ) in the coil of wire surrounding the
permanent magnet. This current flow is then
translated, electronically, into an RPM.
Here, the sensor counts the number of blades passing
by and converts this to a signal which causes the
indicator on the flight deck to show percent RPM.

Lesson # 2

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Notebook

Name: ________________________________________.

Date:________________

XIX. Multi-Spool Engines.

A SPOOL is a compressor section and a turbine section that are mounted on the same
drive shaft. The turbine turns the compressor. A single spool engine has one
compressor section being driven by its own turbine section.
Introduction : Low thrust and older gas turbine engines usually have only one compressor section driven
by its own turbine section. This is a single spool engine.
Definition :

Single-Spool Gas Turbine Engine

Todays larger & higher thrust engines use more than one compressor - turbine spool or multi - spools.
The use of multi-spool engines allows for higher compression ratios and better operating efficiency of the
engine. Each spool is separate from each other and each can operate at its own best speed . Spools are
supported by engine bearings.
A. Multi-Spool engines have multiple ( 2 to 3 ) separate compressor sections each being driven by its
own turbine section
B. A Dual spool engine has two separate compressor sections ( a low and a high pressure compressor )
each being driven by its own turbine section ( a low and a high pressure turbine). ( see figure below)
N1 N2 -

Dual-Spool Gas Turbine Engine

In a Dual Spool engine:
1. The low pressure (N1) compressor is turned by the low pressure (N1) turbine. This spool is known as N1.
2. The high pressure (N2) compressor is turned by the high pressure(N2) turbine. This spool is known as N2.
3. The high pressure turbine & high pressure compressor are always closest to the combustion chamber.
a. The high pressure turbine ( the1st. Stage of turbine) immediately after the combustion chamber
turns the high pressure N2 compressor.
4. In a dual-spool gas turbine engine, N1 = R.P.M of the low pressure compressor / turbine spool.
N2 = R.P.M of the high pressure compressor / turbine spool.
5. A unique feature of the dual spool engine is that the drive shaft between the low pressure turbine and
the low pressure compressor passes through the hollow center of the high pressure drive shaft.
(see figure above )
Lesson # 2

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Triple Spool engines, like the Rolls Royce RB-211 Engine , have three separate compressors ( a low,
intermediate and high pressure compressor) each being driven by their own separate turbine section.
A unique feature of this engine is that the drive shaft between the low pressure turbine and the low
pressure compressor passes inside the hollow center of the intermediate pressure spools drive shaft and
that both of these shafts are within the hollow center of the high pressure spools drive shaft. (see figure below)
C.

Triple Spool Engine

N1 or
Low Pressure Compressor
Driven by low pressure turbine

N2 or
N3 or High Pressure Compressor
Intermediate
Driven by high pressure turbine
Pressure Compressor
Driven by intermediate Pressure Turbine

D. All spools are supported by, rotate in and maintain separation from each other through the use of the
engines bearings.
E. In any multi-spool engine (dual spool or triple spool) the following are true:
1. the high pressure compressor and high pressure turbine are always closest to the combustion section.
2. The turbine section immediately following the combustion section is always the high pressure
turbine, and it will always turn the high pressure compressor.
F. In any dual spool engine the following are true:
1. N1 = R.P.M of the low pressure compressor / turbine spool. N1 has also come to represent the
low pressure compressor - turbine spool itself.
2. N2 = R.P.M of the high pressure / turbine spool. In a dual (2) spool engine, N2 has also come to
represent the high pressure compressor-turbine spool.
G. In a triple spool engine, N1 = Low Pressure Compressor & Turbine , N2 = Intermediate Pressure
Compressor& Turbine & N3 = High Pressure Compressor & Turbine.
H. A unique feature of the triple spool engine is that the low pressure compressor - turbine shaft is inside the
hollow center of the intermediate pressure compressor - turbine shaft, and they both rotate inside the high
pressure compressor - turbine shaft.
I. All engine spools rotate within and are supported by bearings. Therefore, these bearings are the most
critical lubrication points in the entire engine and the turbine section bearing is the most critical of these
because of the high heat environments it operates in.
XX. Gas Turbine Engine Locations , Positions & Directional References :
A. Introduction: Unless otherwise stated in the maintenance manual, the standard reference point
when determining locations, positions or directions on a gas turbine engine
( like left, right, clock- wise and counter-clockwise ), is standing at the rear of the engine facing or
looking forward (pilots view). Pilots view is standing at the back of the engine looking forward.

Lesson # 2

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Name: ________________________________________.
B.

Date:________________

Positions & Locations on the Circumference of the engine are given in:
1. Clock Positions or
2. Degrees (minutes & second s) of a Circle

C. Multiple features that go around the circumference of the engine (like fuel nozzles , combustion
chambers or flange bolts) are numbered clockwise from the rear with # 1 at the top or 12 Oclock position.

D.

Locations along the length of the engine, from front to rear, are given by Engine Airflow Stations:
This system divides the engine into commonly numbered points along the engines gas path .
(See figure below).
It is used to identify Pressures and Temperatures at specific points within the engine.

Single Spool Gas Turbine Engine ( Turbojet )

SINGLE SPOOL COMPRESSOR ENGINE STATIONS
Station 1 = Ambient (outside the engine)
Station 2 = Compressor Inlet
Station 3 = Compressor Discharge
Station 4 = Burner Discharge
Station 5 = Turbine Discharge

P = Pressure.
s = Static

T =Temperature
t = Total

Pt 2 = Total Pressure @ Station 2

Pt 5= Total Pressure @ Station 5

Note: The engines Pt ( total pressure sensors) for EPR ( engine pressure ratio) measurement of thrust are
located at the compressor inlet and immediately after the turbine section ( in the exhaust section).

Lesson # 2

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Dual Spool Gas Turbine Engine ( Turbojet )

DUAL SPOOL ENGINE STATIONS

Station 1 = Ambient
Station 2 = Compressor Inlet
Station 3 = Low Pressure Compressor Discharge
Station 4 = High Pressure Compressor Discharge
Station 7 = Turbine Discharge Pressure

In a dual spool engine, the turbine discharge

pressure is identified as Pt7.

Pt7 = total pressure @ station 7

E. Besides numbered points along the engines gas path, engine stations may also be given by:
1. Inches, from a Datum line, along the axial length ( front to rear ) of the engine. Engine vertical
stations are given from the Water Line. Width stations are given left or right of the Buttress line.
G Locations on the engine may also be given by :
1. Engine Flanges and
2. Functional Sections: Inlet, Compressor, Diffuser, Burner, Turbine, Exhaust & Accessory Gearbox.

The basic sections of a gas turbine engine include the air inlet, the compressor, the diffuser , the combustor or
burner, the turbine and the exhaust.
E. For inspection purposes the gas turbine engine is divided into a cold section, which includes the inlet,
compressor and diffuser and a hot section, which includes the burner / combustor, turbine and the
exhaust.

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Name: ________________________________________.

Date:________________

Main Accessory Gearbox Location

Typical Accessory Drive Gear Train ( from the compr essor to the main gearb ox)
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Lesson # 2 Notes
Supplemental
XV. Measuring Turbine Inlet Temperatures. (Supplemental)
Turbine inlet temperature is the highest temperature inside a turbine engine. It is the most critical parameter
of engine operation. It is usually impractical to measure turbine inlet temperatures in most engines. So, the
temperature measuring thermocouples are usually installed at the turbine discharge. The turbine outlet
temperature gives a relative indication of the temperature at the turbine outlet. Therefore, if the turbine
outlet temperatures are kept within operating limits, it can be assumed that the turbine inlet temperature is
also within limits.
A. The turbine inlet temperature measuring systems (T.I.T, I.T.T & E.G.T ) are used to monitor
the mechanical integrity of the turbine as well as to check the operating condition inside a
gas turbine engine. It is also used by pilots & mechanics or the Electronic Engine Control
Computer to monitor temperatures at the turbine inlet so that excessive temperatures at the
turbine inlet ( especially during engine start when gas flow through the engine is low & slow)
may be avoided / prevented.
B. The turbine engine inlet temperature measuring systems consists of thermocouples ( wired in parallel),
connecting leads and an indicating meter or gage. The thermocouples measure temperature. Basically they
are devices capable of transforming heat energy into electrical energy. That electrical energy is measured
and converted into a temperature reading. It consists of two pieces of different metals. The two wires are
connected at the thermocouple at one end and at the other end in a meter or gage. The complete system is
shown in the figure below.

When a difference of temperature exists between the wire junction at the thermocouple and the wire junction
inside the meter / gage a potential (voltage) difference exists between the two ends. The voltage is
proportional to the temperature difference.
Since the current flow in this circuit is very minute, it is very important that the resistance in the wires
remains constant in order for the meter to indicate accurately. The meter is calibrated to read accurately only
with the total resistance of the original wiring. If any connecting leads have to be replaced for any reason,
they must be replaced with leads of the same material, thickness, length and resistance. The meter / gage
movement can be either a galvanometer ( it measures minute currents) or a voltmeter . Since the resistance
in the circuit is constant, the voltage and the resulting current flow in the circuit vary with changes in
temperature at the thermocouple end. The scale of the meter / gage is calibrated to show degrees of
temperature rather than volts or amps.

Supplemental Notes
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Name: ________________________________________.
XVIII.

Date:________________

Engine RPM / Tach Systems.

A. In the electro-mechanical type , Engine RPM is measure by an AC Tach generator. The Tach
generator is turned by the engine. The turning of the AC tach generator produces a voltage
whose frequency is directly proportional to engine RPM. This variable frequency drives a
synchronous motor inside the indicator on the flight deck. The synchronous motor turns at the
same frequency as the tach generator. This frequency is then turned into an actual RPM
reading , in percent, by the synchronous motor using a magnetic connection to turn a
spring loaded pointer in the gage.
B. The indicator of an electro-mechanical tachometer system is basically responsive to changes
in voltage frequency.

Supplemental Notes
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