Airframe and Construction

Repair Review

AIRFRAME
FUSELAGE the main structure or body of the airplane.
TRUSS is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts, and
bars to resist deformation by applied load.
SEMI MONOCOQUE consist of a framework of vertical and longitudinal members covered
with a structural skin that carries the large percentage of the stresses.
MONOCOQUE it involves the construction of a metal tube or cone without structural
member.

BULKHEAD the vertical members of the fuselage frames. Structural partitions that runs

perpendicular to the longerons.

FRAME - lateral fuselage or nacelle member giving cross-sectional shape which is often circular. Also
known as FORMERS or RINGS that maintains the uniform shape of the structure.
STRINGERS (for semi-monocoque) the longitudinal members serves for stiffening the metal skin and
prevent it from bulging or buckling under severe stresses.
GUSSET OR GUSSET PLATES to reinforce the intersecting structural members and to transfer
stresses from one member to another.
LONGERON the main longitudinal member of a fuselage or nacelle.
SKIN the smooth outer cover of the aircraft. The materials used for the skin covering is usually
sheets aluminum alloy.

FUSELAGE

 WING
WING aerofoil structure that produces lift of an airplane.
CANTILEVER no external bracing is needed.
SEMI-CANTILEVER uses external bracing (strut, wires, etc.)
SPARS
Spars it is the principal structural members of the wing.
RIBS
Ribs used to give the shape of the wing and to transmit the load from the skin to
the spars.
WING
TIPS
Wing
Tip smooth out the wing tip airfoil to give wing a finish look.
FAIRING/FILLETS
Fairing/Fillets used to smooth the airflow over the angles formed by the wings
and other structural units with the fuselage, shaped rounded panels or metal skin
are attached.

EMPENNAGE the complete tail assembly of an aircraft.

EMPENNAGE
HORIZONTALTAIL
TAIL
HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL
STABILIZERS
Horizontal
stabilizers fixed surface
Elevators movable surface
ELEVATORS

VERTICAL TAIL
VERTICAL
STABILIZERS
Vertical
stabilizers fixed surface (FIN)
RUDDER
Rudder movable surface

WING

* The fuel tank in a wing is called an INTEGRAL FUEL TANK.

VERTICAL STABILIZER

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER

 FLIGHT
FLIGHTCONTROL
CONTROLSURFACES
SURFACES

PRIMARY
GROUP
PRIMARY
GROUP

AILERON
AILERON attached to both wings of an aircraft that goes up and down, thus, causing
the aircraft to roll at longitudinal axis.
RUDDER
RUDDER hinged to TE of the vertical stabilizer to turn about its vertical axis.
ELEVATOR
ELEVATOR attached to the TE of the horizontal stabilizer use for control on pitch up and
pitch down at its lateral axis.

SECONDARY
SECONDARYororAUXILIARY
AUXILIARY GROUP
GROUP their purpose is to reduce the force required to
actuate the primary controls, to trim and balance the aircraft in flight, to reduce
speed or shorten the landing run and the change the speed of the aircraft flight.
TrimTABS
tabs used to make fine adjustments to the flight path of the aircraft.
TRIM
BalanceTABS
tabs movement of the main control surface will give an opposite movement to
BALANCE
the tab.
Servo
tabs referred to as flight tabs.
SERVO
TABS
FLAPS
Flaps use to increase area of wing for the purpose of increasing lift.
SPOILERS
Spoilers a device designed to reduce the lift of the wing. Use for speed brakes.
Leading
devices a high lift device (SLATS) normally used on large transport
LEADING
EDGEedge
DEVICES
category.

LANDING GEAR - is the assembly that supports the aircraft during

landing or while resting or moving about on the ground.

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE

5 Major Stresses to which all Aircraft Subjected

TENSION
TENSION is the stress that resist a force tends to null apart.
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION is the stress that resist a crushing force.
TORSION
TORSION is the stress that produce twisting.
SHEAR
SHEAR is the stress that resists the force tending to cause
one material to slide over an adjacent layer.
BENDING
BENDING is a combination of compression and tension.
STRESS is an internal force of a substance which opposes or resist
deformation can cause strain.
STRAIN is the deformation of a material or substance.
STRAIN

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
HARDNESS - The property of a material that enables it to resist
HARDNESS
penetration, wear, or cutting action or permanent distortion.
BRITTLENESS is the property of a metal which allows little bending or
BRITTLENESS
deformation without shattering.
MALLEABILITY property of metals which allows them to be bent or
MALLEABILITY
permanently distorted without rupture.
STRENGTH
STRENGTH - The ability of a material to resist deformation.
PLASTICITY
PLASTICITY - The capability of an object or material to be stretched and to
recover its size and shape after its deformation.
DUCTILITY - The property which allows metal to be drawn, bent or twisted
DUCTILITY
into various shapes without breaking.
ELASTICITY
ELASTICITY property which enables a metal to return to its original
shapes when the forces which causes the change of shape is removed.

 TOUGHNESS a material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing

or shearing and maybe stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking.
DENSITY
DENSITY the weight of a unit volume of the materials.
FUSIBILITY
FUSIBILITY the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of
heat.
CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY the ability of a metal which enables to carry heat or
electricity
THERMAL
EXPANSION
THERMAL
EXPANSION
Contraction ability of metals to shrink when subjected to cooling.
CONTRACTION
Expansion expand upon the application of heat.
EXPANSION

Aircraft Metals
Two Main Group of Aircraft Metals:
NON-FERROUS METALS the term that describes metals
which are have elements other than Iron as their base.
Aluminum, Copper, Titanium, and Magnesium are some of
the common non-ferrous metals used in Aircraft
Construction and Repair.
FERROUS METALS any alloy containing iron as its chief
constituent, most common ferrous metal in aircraft
structure is steel, an alloy of iron with a controlled amount
of carbon added.

 NON-FERROUS METALS:
1. ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
- Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used in aircraft Quenching
construction. However, its strength increases considerably when it is
ALLOYED, or mixed with compatible metals.
TYPES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
1. Cast Alloys those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold or die
casting.
2. Wrought Alloys those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing or forging.
These are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being used for
stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
GENERAL CLASSES OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
1. Non-Heat Treatable Alloy the mechanical properties obtained by cold
working are destroyed and any subsequent heating cannot restore it except
by additional cold working.
2. Heat Treatable Alloy alloy which responds readily to heat treatment
which results in considerable improvement of the strength characteristics.
Greater strength is obtained and used for structural purposes.

HEAT TREATMENT is a series of operations involving the heating

and cooling of metals in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal
more useful, serviceable and safe for a definite purpose.
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT is the process of heating certain
aluminum alloys to allow the alloying elements to mix with the
base metal.
QUENCHING rapid cooling by means of water, oil, brine, etc.
SOAKING or HOLDING held the temperature within about plus
or minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and the base
metal until the alloying elements is uniform throughout.
NATURAL AGING when an alloy is allowed to cool at room
temperature and can take several hours or weeks.
ARTIFICIAL AGING accelerating the aging process by cooling at an
elevated temperature.
ANNEALING is the process that softens a metal and decrease
internal stresses.

 STRAIN HARDENING also referred to as COLD WORKING or WORK HARDENING.

This requires mechanically working of metal (stretches, compresses, bends, drawn, etc.) below
its critical range.

2. MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium alloy are used for cast and wrought form available in sheets, bars, tubing, and
extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength and suitable
working characteristics for use in aircraft hardware. However, it is susceptible to corrosion and
tends to crack.

3. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are light metals with very high strength. It has an excellent corrosion
resistance characteristics, particularly to the effects of salt water.

4. NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Nickel is the base element for most of the higher temperature heat-resistant alloys. While it is
much more expensive than iron, nickel provides an austenitic structure that has greater
toughness and workability than ferrous alloys of the same strength.

MONEL contains about 68 % nickel and 29% copper, along with iron and manganese.
It works well in gears and parts that require high strength and corrosion resistance
at elevated temperature.
INCONEL high strength, high temperature alloys containing approximately about 80%
nickel, 14 % chromium, and small amounts of iron and other elements.

5. COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

It is easily identified by its reddish color and by the green and blue colors of its oxides and salt.
Copper has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity and it is primary metal used for
electrical wiring.
BRASS an alloy of copper and zinc.
BRONZE an alloy of copper and tin.

FERROUS METALS:
1. IRON
Is like a chemical which is fairy soft, malleable and ductile in its pure form. It is silvery white in
color and is quite heavy, having a density of 7.9 grams per cubic centimeter.

2. STEEL
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is the forced through the
molten where it combines with carbon and burns. A control amount of carbon is then put back
into the molten. The molten steel is then poured into molds where it solidifies into ingots. The
ingots are then placed in a soaking pit where they are heated to a uniform temperature of
about 2200 degrees F. They are then taken from the soaking pit and passed through steel
rollers to form late or sheet metal.

a. CARBON
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with iron core
compounds of iron carbides called CEMETITE form. It is the carbon in steel that allows
the steel to be heat treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and
toughness. The greater the carbon content, the more receptive steel is to heat
treatment and therefore, the higher its tensile strength, and hardness. However, higher
carbon content decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
LOW CARBON STEELS contains between 0.10 and 0.30 percent carbon. Primarily used in
safety wire, cable bushing, and threaded rod ends.
MEDIUM CARBON STEELS contains between 0.30 and 0.50 percent carbon.
HIGH CARBON STEELS contains between 0.50 to 1.05 percent carbon and are very hard.
Primarily used in springs, files, and some cutting tools.

b. SILICON
When it is alloyed with steel it acts as a hardener. When used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.

c. PHOSPHOROUS
Raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steels resistance of
atmospheric condition. However, no more than 0.05 percent is normally used in steel,
since higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle when cold.

d. NICKEL
Adds strength and hardness to steel and increase yield strength. It also slows the rate of
hardening when steel is heat treated, which increases the steels contains 3% nickel and
0.30% carbon, and used in producing aircraft hardwired such as bolts, nuts, rod end and
pins.

e. CHROMIUM
Alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its wear and
corrosion resistance. It is used in balls and rollers of anti-friction bearings.

f. STAINLESS STEEL
Is a classification of CORROSION-RESISTANT STEEL (CRES) that contain large amount of
chromium and nickel. Their strength and resistant to corrosion make than well suited for
high-temperature applications such as firewalls and exhaust system components. It
contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It is referred as 18-8.
AUSTENITIC STEELS refers to 200 and 300 series stainless steel. Hardened only by coldworking.
FERRITIC STEELS contains no carbon. They do not respond to heat treatment.
MARTENSITIC STEELS - the 400 series of stainless steel. These are magnetic and it becomes
extremely hard if allowed to cool rapidly by cooling from an elevated temperature.

g. CHROME MOLYBDENUM (chrome-moly) STEELS

Commonly used alloy in aircraft. Making it an ideal choice for landing gear structures
and engine mounts.

h. VANADIUM
When combined with chromium, vanadium produces a strong, tough, ductile steel
alloys. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome-vanadium steel.

i. TUNGSTEN
Has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristics to steel when it is
alloyed. Typically used for breaker contacts in magnetos and for high speed cutting tools.

HEAT TREATMENT FOR STEELS:

ANNEALING is a form of heat treatment that softens steel and relieves
internal stress. It is heated about 50 degrees F above its critical
temperature, soaked for specified time then cooled.
NORMALIZING the process of forging, welding, or machining usually
leave stresses to the steel that could lead to failure. To normalize, it is
heated about 100 degrees F above its critical temperature and held there
until the metal is uniformly heat soaked, then removed from the furnace
and allowed to cool in still air.
HARDENING is heated above its critical temperature so carbon can
disperse uniformly in the iron matrix.
TEMPERING reduces the undesirable qualities of martensitic steel. It is
heated to a level considerable below its critical temperature and held
there until it becomes heat soaked, then allowed to cool to room
temperature in still air.

CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS:

1. CARBURIZING forms a thin layer of high carbon steel on the exterior of low
carbon steel.
PACK CARBURIZING is done by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay container and packing it
with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is then sealed, placed in
furnace, and heated.
GAS CARBURIZING is similar to pack carburizing except the carbon monoxide gas
combines with gamma iron and forms a high-carbon surface.
LIQUID CARBURIZING produces a high-carbon surface when a part is heated in a molten
salt bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide.

2. NITRIDING differs from carburizing in that a part is first hardened,

tempered and then ground to its finished dimensions before it is case
hardened.
3. CYANIDING is a fast method of producing surface hardness on an ironbased alloy of low carbon content.

WOOD STRUCTURES:
WOOD wood structures requires a great deal of handwork and therefore, are
extremely expensive.
SOLID WOOD used for some aircraft wing spars and is made of solid pie cut from a log. Most
solid cut by quarter sawing to prevent war page.
LAMINATED WOOD made up of two or three pieces of thin wood glued together with the
same direction.
PLY WOOD consist of three or more layers of thin veneer glued together so the grain of each
successive layer crosses the others at an angle of 45 degrees of 90 degrees.

2 BASIC SPECIES OF WOOD USED IN AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION:

1. HARDWOOD come from deciduous trees having broad leaves.
a. MAHOGANY this hardwood is heavier and stronger than spruce. Primary use in aircraft
construction is for face sheets of plywood used in aircraft skin.
b. BIRCH a heavy hardwood with very good shock resistant characteristics. It is
recommended for the face plies of plywood used as reinforcement plates on wing spars and in the
construction of wooden propellers.

2. SOFTWOOD come from coniferous trees with needle like or scale like
leaves.
a. SITKA SPRUCE most common wood used in aircraft structures. It is relatively free
from defects, has a high strength to weight ration and available in large size. FAA chosen Sitka
Spruce as the reference wood for aircraft construction.
b. DOUGLAS FIR the strength properties exceed those of spruce; however, it is much
heavier. Further more, it is more difficult to work than spruce, and has a tendency to split.
c. NOBLE FIR slightly lighter than spruce and is equal or superior to spruce in all
properties except hardness and shock resistance. It is often used for structural parts that are
subject to heavy bending and compression loads such as spars, spar flange, and has tendency
to split.
d. BALSA an extremely light wood. Balsa lacks of structural strength, it is often sliced
across its grain for use as a core material for sandwich-type panels that requires lightweight
and rigidity.

 QUALITY OF WOOD:
Some of the categories a woods quality is based on include how straight the
grain is, the number of knots, pitch pockets, splits and presence of decay.
1. GRAIN DEVIATION regardless of the species of wood used aircraft construction, it must have
a straight grain. This means all of the woods fiber must be oriented parallel to the materials
longitudinal axis. A maximum of deviation of 1:15 is allowed. In other words, the grain must
not slope more than 1 inch in 15 inches.
2. KNOTS it identifies where a branch grew from the tree trunk.
3. PITCH POCKETS small opening within the annual rings of a tree can fill resin and form pitch
pocket. It slightly weaken the piece of wood.
4. CHECKS, SHAKE AND SPLITS
CHECKS a crack that runs across the annual rings of a board and occurs during the
seasoning process.
SHAKE a crack or separation that occurs when two annual rings separates along their
boundary.
SPLITS a lengthwise separation of the wood caused by the wood fibers tearing apart.
5. STRAINS AND DECAY
STRAINS It is caused by decay usually appears streaks in the grain. Strains that uniformly
discolor the annual rings are evidence of decay.
DECAY is caused by fungi that grow in damp wood, and is prevented by proper seasoning
and dry storage. A simple way of identfying decayed wood is to pick at a suspected area with
the point of a knife. Sound wood will splinter, while a knife point will bring up a chunk of
decayed wood.

PLASTICS OR RESINS
1. THERMOSETTING RESINS it hardens or set when heat of the correct
value is applied. It cannot softened and reshaped after having been
solidified.
2. THERMOPLASTIC RESINS can be soften by heat and reshaped or
reformed many times without changing composition, provided that the
heat applied is held with proper limits.
Types of Thermoplastic Material used for Aircraft Windshield and Side
Windows:
1. CELLULOSE ACETATE transparent and lightweight. It has a tendency to shrink and
turn yellow. When applied with acetone it softens.
2. ACRYLIC identified by trade names as Lucite or Plexiglas or in Britain Perspex. It is
stiffer than cellulose acetate. More transparent and for all purpose is colorless. It burns
with a clear flame and produces a fairly pleasant odor. If acetone is applied to acrylic it
leaves a white residue but remains hard.

THERMOPLASTIC RESINS:
1. CELLULOSE ACETATE
2. POLYETHYLENE is made in low and high-density qualities. Low-density polyethylene
is made in thin, flexible sheet or film and is used for plastic bags, protective sheeting and
electrical insulation. High-density polyethylene is used for containers such as fuel tanks,
large drums and bottles.
3. VINYLS manufactured in a variety of types and has a wide range of application. Their
used in aircraft includes seat covering, electrical insulation, moldings, and tubing. They
are flexible and resistant to most chemical and moisture.
4. ACRYLIC RESIN a water clear plastic that has a light transmission of 92%. This
property, together with its weather and moisture resistance, makes it an excellent
product for aircraft windows and windshields.
5. POLYTETRAFLOUROETHYLENE (Teflon) is encountered in non-lubricated bearings,
tubing, electrical devices and other applications.

 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, AND ALTERATIONS

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE is defined as simple or minor preservation operations and
the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations.
Operations classed as preventive maintenance are as follows:

Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear tires.

Replacing elastic shock-absorber cords on landing gear.
Servicing landing-gear shock struts by adding oil, air, or both.
Servicing landing gear wheel bearings, such as cleaning and greasing.
Replacing defective safety wiring or cotter keys.
Lubrication not requiring disassembly other than removal of non-structural items such as cover
plates, cowlings, and fairings.
Making simple fabric patches not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural parts or
control surfaces.
Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir.
Refinishing decorative coating of fuselage, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding balanced
control surfaces), fairings, cowling, landing gear, cabin, or cockpit interior when removal or
disassembly of any primary structure or operating system is not required.
Applying preservative or protective material to components where no disassembly of any
primary structure or operating system is involved and where such coating is not prohibited or is
not contrary to good practices.
Repairing upholstery and decorative furnishings or the cabin or cockpit interior when the
repairing does not require disassembly of any primary structure or operating system or affect
the primary structure of the aircraft.

Making small simple repairs to fairings, non-structural cover plates, cowlings, and small patches
and reinforcements not changing the contour so as to interfere with the proper airflow.
Replacing side windows where that work does not interfere with the structure of any operating
system such as controls, electrical equipment, etc.
Replacing safety belts.
Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not involving
disassembly of any primary structure or operating system.
Troubleshooting and repairing broken circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
Replacing bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.
Replacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance computation is involved.
Replacing any cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or disconnecting of flight controls.
Replacing or cleaning spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
Replacing any nose connections except hydraulic connections.
Replacing pre-fabricated fuel lines.
Cleaning fuel and oil strainers.
Replacing batteries and checking fluid level and specific gravity.
Removing and installing glider wings and tail surfaces that are specifically designed for quick
removal and installation and when such removal and installation can be accomplished by the
pilot.
The holder of a pilot certificate issued under FAR Part 61, may perform preventive maintenance on any
aircraft owned or operated by him that is not used in air carrier service. Preventive maintenance may also
be performed by certificated mechanics, repair stations, repairmen, air carriers, and others authorized by
the FAA. A person who plans to perform preventive maintenance must ascertain that the operation falls
within this category and that he is authorized to perform the work.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALTERATIONS:

MAJOR ALTERATIONS is an alteration not listed in the aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller
specifications (1) that might appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength, performance, power
plant operation, flight characteristics and other factors of airworthiness or (2) that is not done according
to accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary operations.
Alterations of the following parts and alterations of the following types, when not listed in the aircraft
specifications issued by the FAA, are airframe major alterations:
- Wings
- Tail Surfaces
- Fuselage
- Engine mounts
- Control system
- Landing gear
- Hull or floats
- Elements of an airframe, including spars, ribs, fittings, shock absorbers, bracing cowlings, fairings, and
balance weights
- Hydraulic and electrical actuating systems or components
- Rotor blades
- Changes to the empty weight or empty balance which result in an increase in the maximum
certificated weight or center-of-gravity limits of the aircraft.
- Changes in the basic design of the fuel, oil, cooling, cabin pressurization, electrical, hydraulic, deicing,
or exhaust systems.
- Changes to the wing or to fixed or movable control surfaces which affect flutter and vibration
characteristics.

The following alterations of a power plant, when not listed in the engine
specifications issued by the FAA, are power plant major alterations.
- Conversion of an aircraft engine from one approved model to another, involving any changes in
compression ratio, propeller reduction gear, impeller gear ratios, or the substitution of major engine parts
which requires extensive rework and testing of the engine.
- Changes to the engine by replacing aircraft engine structural parts with parts not supplied by the
original manufacturer or parts not specifically approved by the FAA administrator.
- Installation of an accessory which is not approved for the engine.
- Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine specification.
- Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
- Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine specification.
- Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
- Conversions of any sort for the purpose of using fuel of a rating or grade other than that listed in the
engine specifications.

Minor Alterations of either an airframe or a power plant are alterations other than
major alterations.

CLASSIFICATION OF REPAIRS

Repairs of airframes and power plants are classified as either major or minor depending upon the type
and effect of the repair. A major repair is one which, if improperly done, might appreciably affect the
weight, balance, structural strength, performance, power plant operation, flight characteristics, or other
qualities affecting airworthiness; or one which is not done according to accepted practices or cannot be
done by elementary operations.
Repairs to the following parts of an airframe and repairs of the following types, involving the
strengthening, reinforcing, splicing, and manufacturing of primary structural members, or their
replacement (when replacement is by fabrication such as riveting or welding), are airframe major
repairs:
- Box beams
- Monocoque or semi-monocoque wings or control surfaces
- Wing stringers or chord members
- Spars
- Spar flanges
- Members of truss-type beams
- Thin sheet webs of beams
- Keel and chine members or boat hulls or floats
- Corrugated sheet compression members which act as flange material of wings or tail surfaces
- Wing main ribs and compression members
- Wing or tail surface brace struts
- Engine mounts
- Fuselage longerons
- Members of the side truss, horizontal truss, or bulkheads
- Main seat support braces and brackets
- Landing gear brace struts

Axles
Wheels
Skis and ski pedestals
Parts of the control system such as control columns, pedals, shafts, brackets, or horns
Repairs involving the substitution of material
The repair of damaged areas in metal or plywood stressed covering exceeding 6 in. in any direction
The repair of portions of skin sheets by making additional seams
The splicing of skin sheets
The repair of three or more adjacent wing or control surface ribs or the leading edge of wings and
control surfaces between such adjacent ribs
- Repair of fabric covering involving an area greater than that required to repair two adjacent ribs
- Replacement of fabric on fabric covered parts such as wings, fuselages, stabilizers, and control
surfaces
- Repairing of removable or integral fuel tanks and oil tank, including re-bottoming the tanks

Repairs of the following parts of an engine and repairs of the following types are
powerplant major repairs:
- Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped with an
integral superchargers
- Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped with
other than spur-type propeller reduction gearing
- Special repairs to structural engine parts by welding, plating, metalizing, or other methods.

Annual and 100-hr inspections

According to the provisions of FAR, Part 91, no person may operate an aircraft unless, within the
preceding 12 calendar months, it has had an annual inspection and has been approved for return to
service by an authorized person. An inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness Certificate will serve
as a substitute for the annual inspection.
A 100-hr inspection is similar to the annual inspection; however, it may not be substituted for the
annual inspection unless it is performed by a person certificated or otherwise authorized to make annual
inspections and is entered as an annual inspection in the aircraft maintenance records (log book).
A 100-hr inspection is required on every aircraft used for carrying persons for hire other than the crew or
for giving flight instruction. This means the aircraft must undergo a complete inspection, as set forth in
FAR, Part 43, within every 100 hrs of operating time. After the 100-hr limitation may be exceeded by not
more than 10 hr if necessary to reach a place at which the inspection can be made. The excess time,
however, is included in computing the next 100 hr of time in service.

Progressive inspection

A progressive inspection requires the setting up of a schedule, specifying the intervals in hours or days
when routine and detailed inspections will be performed, including instructions for exceeding an
inspection interval by not more than 10 hr while enroute, and for changing an inspection interval
because of service experience.
Progressive inspection are usually established by air carriers in order to provide for better utilization of
aircraft. Approval for such an inspection system requires that a properly authorized person or agency
supervise the inspection procedures and that an inspection procedures manual be available and readily
understandable to pilot and maintenance personnel. Aircraft subject to an approved progressive
inspection system need not undergo the 100-hr inspection otherwise required.

CONTINUOUS AIRWORTHINESS INSPECTION PROGRAMS OF LARGE & TURBINEPOWERED MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES:

AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS this element deals with the routine inspections, servicing, and tests performed
on the aircraft at prescribed intervals. It includes detailed instructions and standards (or related
references) by work forms, job cards, and other records which also serve to control the activity and to
record and account for the tasks that comprise this element. Each airline is free to develop its own
terminology, which is assigned to the different parts the inspection program. The use of terms such as Acheck and D-Check as is illustrated in Figure 16-5 is common in a continuous inspection program. Figure
16-5 provides an example of the continuous inspection program.
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE this element concerns maintenance tasks performed at prescribed
intervals. Some are accomplished concurrently with the inspection tasks that are part of the inspection
elements and may be included on the same form. Other tasks are accomplished independently. The
scheduled tasks include the replacement of life-limited items and components requiring replacement for
periodic overhaul; special inspections such as X-rays, checks, or tests for on-condition items; lubrications;
and so on. Special work forms can be provided for accomplishing these tasks or they can be specified by a
work order or some other document. In any case, instructions and standards for accomplishing each task
should be provided to ensure that it is properly accomplished and that it is recorded and signed for.
UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE this element provides instructions and standards for the
accomplishment of maintenance tasks generated by the inspection and scheduled maintenance
elements, pilot reports, failure analyses, or other indications of a need for maintenance. Procedures for
reporting, recording, and processing inspection findings, operational malfunctions, or abnormal
operations, such as hard landings, are an essential part of this element. A continuous aircraft logbook can
serve this purpose for occurrences and resultant corrective action between scheduled inspections.
Inspection discrepancy forms are usually used for processing unscheduled maintenance tasks in
conjunction with scheduled inspections. Instructions and standards for unscheduled maintenance are
normally provided by the operators technical manuals. The procedures to be followed in using these
manuals and for recording and certifying unscheduled maintenance are included in the operators
procedural manual.

Type

When

Who

No. 1 service
"walk-around"
Before each flight
No. 2 service

A-check

B-/M-/L-checks

Mechanic and pilot

During overnight layovers at maintenance

locations; at least every 45 hours of domestic
flying or 65 hours of international flying
Mechanics

Approximately every 200 flying hours, or about

every 15 to 20 days - depending on type of
aircraft
3-5 Mechanics
Heaviest level of routine line maintenance;
approximately every 550 flying hours or every
40-50 days; work performed overnight
12-80 Mechanics

C-check

Every 12-15 months, depending on aircraft

type; airplane out of service for 3-5 days

Exterior check of aircraft and engines for

damage and leakage; includes specific
checks such as brake and tire wear
Same as No. 1 service plus specific
checks including oils, hydraulics, oxygen,
and unique needs by aircraft type
More detailed check of aircraft and
engine interior including specific checks,
services, and lubrications of systems
such as ingnition, generators, cabins, air
conditioning, hydraulics, structure,
landing gear
Similar to A-check but in greater detail,
which specific aircraft and engine needs
such as torque tests, internal checks, and
flight controls

From 150-200 mechanics and

inspectors - depending on
aircraft type

Detailed inspection and repair of aircraft,

engines, components, systems and
cabin, including operating mechanisms,
flight controls, and structural tolerances

From 150-300 mechanics and

inspectors - depending on
aircraft type

Major structural inspections for detailed

needs which include attention to fatigue
corrosion; aircraft is dismantled,
repaired and rebuilt as required; systems
and parts are tested, repaired or
replaced

D-check
Most intensive inspection; every 4-5 years,
depending on aircraft type; airplane out of
service up to 30 days

What

Figure 16-5