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Development of the coconut industry in

Tanzania
TECHNICAL REPORT JANUARY 2013

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N. S. Aratchige
Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE COCONUT

INDUSTRY IN TANZANIA

Hon. Jagath Pushpakumara

Minister, Coconut Development and Janatha Estate Development

Prof. H.P.M. Gunasena

Chairman, Coconut Research Board

Dr. Nayanie S. Aratchige

Principal Entomologist, Coconut Research Institute

Mr. P.A.H. Nimal Appuhamy

Head, Technology Transfer Division, Coconut Research Institute
November 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Table of Contents

Executive Summary

ii

Acknowledgements

iv

1.

Background

2.

The Coconut Industry in Tanzania

3.

The National Coconut Development Project (NCDP)

3.1 Achievements and impacts of the NCDP

3.2 Establishment of the Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI)

4.

Challenges Ahead

5.

Current Situation of Research and Development Activities on the Coconut Sector

6.

5.1 Coconut breeding and varietal improvement

10

5.2 Agronomy and farming systems development

12

5.3 Pest and disease management

14

5.4 Coconut processing and products development

24

5.5 Coconut extension services

28

Recommendations
A. Assistance offered by the Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka

34

B. Proposed R & D activities for consideration by MARI, Tanzania

36

7.

Mode of Cooperation through a MOU

38

8.

References

39

Annex 1. Persons met during the visit

41

Annex 2. Programme of the visit

43

Executive Summary
During an official visit of HE Mahinda Rajapakse, President of the Democratic Socialist
Republic of Sri Lanka in June 2013, HE President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete of the United
Republic of Tanzania has made a request to provide assistance to develop its coconut
industry. In pursuance of this request Ministry of Coconut Development and Janatha Estate
Development and the Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka (CRISL)
member team to visit

fielded a four

and propose recommendations to revive the coconut industry of

Tanzania.
The team visited Tanzania and Zanzibar from 14th 20th October 2013 and met with the
Minister of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives of Tanzania, Deputy Minister of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, Zanzibar, senior officials of the two ministries, research
and technical staff of the MIkocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI), Dar es Salaam
and some coconut farmers.
Recognizing the decline productivity of the coconut industry in Tanzania, the government
has implemented a National Coconut Development Project (NCDP) over a period of 25 years
from 1979 -2004 with an investment of US $ 44 million. NCDP has made remarkable
achievements in coconut breeding and supply of improved seedlings, breeding for
resistance to the lethal yellowing disease (LYD), developing coconut based farming systems,
integrated pest management packages for the control of major pests of coconut, small scale
processing technologies for product development and commissioning an extension service
for the transfer of information to the coconut growers. NCDP has also developed human
resources and necessary infrastructure and facilities for coconut R&D programmes. NCDP
has immensely contributed to the development of the coconut industry and the
achievements and impacts have been comprehensively documented by MARI; Twenty Five
Years of Coconut Research for Development in Tanzania, 2013. NCDP has led to the
establishment of MARI under the national agricultural research system mandating for
promoting coconut research and development (R&D).
However, discussions with the officials of the ministries and MARI and field observations in
Tanzania and Zanzibar revealed that the coconut industry is lagging behind being unable to
maintain the momentum and continue the progress made during the NCDP period. This
ii

problem appears to be due to the lack of financial resources to continue with R & D
programmes. Coconut is a major livelihood crop in Tanzania which if developed properly
could enhance food security, alleviate poverty, increase income generation and expand
employment opportunities for coconut growers and others.
In view local and global importance of coconut and considering the stage of development of
the coconut industry in Tanzania two sets of recommendations have been proposed.
The first set include the assistance that could be provided by the Ministry of Coconut
Development and Janatha Estate Development and the CRISL which include: Collaborative
research on breeding and crop improvement with particular reference to LYD and search for
bio agents for the control of white fly and Aceria mite, Technical assistance in selecting
coconut processing equipment and establishing pilot plants/demonstrations on coconut
product development, Assistance in developing technical guides on pest control, farming
systems, product development

and

Group training for scientists and technicians on

development of IPM packages, coconut processing techniques for VCO, coconut oil, copra
drying and other value added product developments.
The second set of proposals includes some refinements for the continuation of R & D
activities for consideration by MARI. These include coconut breeding, pest and disease
management, farming systems research, coconut product development and improvements
to the extension services.
The recommendation has also addressed some policy issues for consideration by the
Government of Tanzania with reference to the establishment of a Coconut Development
Board and regular funding for the development of the coconut industry.
The mode of cooperation has been proposed by entering into a Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) between the two countries for coconut development. The broad
areas of cooperation to facilitate the objectives envisaged in the MOU are also included.

iii

Acknowledgements
We express our sincere gratitude to His Excellency Mahinda Rajapakse, President of the
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka for requesting the Ministry of Coconut
Development and Janatha Estate Development and the Coconut Research Institute to
undertake a study on the problems of the coconut industry of Tanzania. We also thank Hon.
Prof G.L. Peiris, Minister of External Affairs, Secretary and Assistant Director/Africa of the
above Ministry for facilitating this visit through diplomatic consultations.
We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by Hon. Eng. C.K. Chiza M.P.
Minister of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives and senior officers of the ministry
for making all logistical arrangements for this visit.
Special thanks are due to Dr. Joseph Ndunguru, Officer in Charge and staff of the Mikocheni
Agricultural Research Institute, Tanzania for organizing discussions and field visits.
The assistance received from Hon. Madam Duma, Deputy Minister of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar and senior officials of the
Ministry during our visit to Zanzibar is also gratefully acknowledged.
We earnestly hope that the recommendations made in this report will assist to develop the
coconut industry of Tanzania and to further strengthen the cooperation, good will and
friendly relations between our countries.
Hon. Jagath Pushpakumara
Prof. H.P.M. Gunasena
Dr. Nayanie Aratchige
Mr. P.A.H. Nimal Appuhamy
Members of the Sri Lankan Expert Delegation

iv

01. BACKGROUND:
President of the United Republic of Tanzania His Excellency Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete has made
a request to His Excellency President Mahinda Rajapakse of the Democratic Socialist
Republic of Sri Lanka to assist in solving a crisis in the coconut industry of Tanzania during an
official visit to Tanzania from 27th 29th June 2013. This request was followed up by the
Ministry of External Affairs in Sri Lanka by requesting the Ministry of Coconut Development
and Janatha Estate Development to take appropriate action by fielding a team of experts to
visit and propose recommendations to solve the above mentioned problems of the coconut
industry of Tanzania. The Coconut Research Institute under the direction of the Ministry of
Coconut Development and Janatha Estate Development commenced the processes of
communication through the diplomatic channels to obtain preliminary information on the
problems of the coconut industry in Tanzania. The information on the current status of the
Tanzanian coconut industry was obtained through the High Commission of the United
Republic of Tanzania based in New Delhi via and the Sri Lankan High Commission in New
Delhi and the Ministry of External Affairs in Colombo. Based on this preliminary information,
a team of four members were proposed to visit Tanzania from 14th 20th October 2013 to
study and make proposals to improve the coconut industry in Tanzania.
The team included the following members:
Hon. Jagath Pushpakumara, Minister, Coconut Development and Janatha
Estate Development (Team Leader),
Prof. H.P.M. Gunasena, Chairman, Coconut Research Board (Agronomist),
Dr. Nayanie S. Aratchige, Principal Entomologist and
Mr. P.A.H. Nimal Appuhamy, Principal Technology Transfer Officer.
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa, boarded by Kenya and Uganda to
the North, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west and Zambia,
Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The commercial capital is Dar es Salaam while
Dodoma is the center of Tanzania and official capital of the country where the national
assembly is located. Tanzania is 947,300, sq.km (345,087 sq. miles) and the 13th largest
country in Africa lying between latitude 10and 120 South and longitude 300and 400 East. The
1

total population in Tanzania is 44,928,923 and about 44% is under 15 year age group. The
rural population is over 80% and population distribution is highly uneven with population
densities varying from one person/sq.km in arid regions to 51 persons/sq.km in well
watered highlands.

Map of Tanzania and Zanzibar Islands

It is a tropical country with temperatures varying between 100C and 200C during cold and
hot seasons respectively. The annual average temperature is 320C, with a hot season from
November February (25-310C) and the cold periods from May August (15-200C). Tanzania
has two major rainfall regimes, one is uni - modal (October April) and the other is bi modal (October December and March May). The uni - modal rainfall is experienced in
southern, central and western parts of the country and the latter is in the north from Lake
Victoria extending to the east coast. The annual rainfall is about 1200 mm with a dry period
of 7 months. Zanzibar Islands which form a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania with its own
government known as the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar also grow coconut from

very early times. It has a number of islands and the main ones are called Zanzibar and
Pemba. It has an area of 2650 sq. km (1020 sq. miles) with a population of 1,303,569.
Coconut is a food and cash crop and second only to cloves. These islands receive more
rainfall than the mainland Tanzania and ideal for the cultivation of coconut, spices and other
cash crops.
Tanzanias economy is agriculturally based contributing more than 25% to the gross
domestic product. It also provides 85% of exports and employs 80% of the workforce. The
extent of arable land is 12.25% and only 1.79% of the land is devoted to permanent crops.
Tanzania grows a large array of agricultural crops for domestic consumption and export.
These include coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, pyrethrum, cashew nuts, tobacco, cloves, corn,
wheat, cassava, banana and vegetables. Livestock production includes cattle, sheep and
goats. Cashew, coffee, tea, cotton, sisal, cloves and pyrethrum account for the vast majority
of export earnings.
02. THE COCONUT INDUSTRY IN TANZANIA
In Tanzania coconut is grown by smallholder farmers with extents of about 0.5 1.0 ha
covering about 265,000 ha mainly along the coastal belt of mainland Tanzania and islands of
Zanzibar. Other regions where coconuts are commonly grown include Kigoma region, Kyela
in Mbeya region and around the shore of Lake Victoria.

Plate 01 Meeting with Hon. Eng. C.K. Chiza, Minister of Agriculture, Food Security and
Cooperatives, Tanzania

The total number of coconut palms is reported as 25 million supporting the livelihoods of
about 600,000 households. Coconut yield in Tanzania is reported to be low ranging from 3035 nuts per palm or 0.5 tons of copra per ha. The total production is around 875 million
nuts, equivalent to 58,000 tons of oil (Ngereza, 2013). The common coconut varieties grown
in Tanzania and Zanzibar islands are East African Tall (EAT) and Pemba Red Dwarf or Pemba
Dwarf. The EAT has so many forms with various fruit colours and forms as it is highly cross
pollinated whereas the Pemba dwarf is mainly self-pollinated. The extent of coconut in
Zanzibar is estimated as 5.7 million palms on 61,000 ha, 4.6 million in the main island
Unguja and 1.1 million in Pemba, producing about 164 million nuts of which 113 million is
used for home consumption and 51 million for copra. According to Ngereza, (2013) coconut
is an important oil crop in Tanzania as 3 - 4 nuts are consumed per household. However,
there is serious a concern that the increasing domestic demand cannot be met due to the
declining production and poor land productivity.
The low coconut yields have been attributed to the following reasons:

Presence of sub-optimal growing conditions, in particular inadequate and unevenly

distributed rainfall. The long term average rainfall has been 1200 mm per annum
although the coconut palm requires a well distributed rainfall of about 2000 mm
annually. The most critical period of drought is between June and October during
which only 12% of the rain is received and from December to mid-March, only 10%
of the rainfall is received

Aging of coconut palm population, most palms are senile and above 60 years old

Lack of a replanting programme to replace the old and senile palms

Severe incidence of lethal yellowing disease (LYD) caused by phytoplasma

Lack of planting materials that are adapted to biotic and abiotic conditions,
especially to mitigate/adapt to the climate change effects

Poor crop husbandry practices and overall neglect of plantation management

Inefficient extension services

Severe attacks by pests, in particular coreid bug, rhinoceros weevil, black beetle,
whitefly and Aceria mite

Other factors such as low producer prices and lack of efficient processing techniques

Inadequate investment policies for promoting the coconut industry

03. THE NATIONAL COCONUT DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (NCDP)

Having recognized the serious decline in coconut productivity and in order to overcome the
consequences, the United Republic of Tanzania in 1979/80 has taken a policy decision to
initiate a National Coconut Development Programme (NCDP) to promote coconut
production and utilization. This project was funded by the Federal Republic of Germany
through the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and a loan from IDA and with
domestic funding from Tanzanian government. In 1981, additional support was provided by
the World Bank as a loan agreement with the government of Tanzania. The total cost of this
project from different sources of funding amounted to US $ 44,135,658. This project
covered the whole coastal belt of Tanzania and Islands of Zanzibar. Due to the long term
nature of the crop, this project was planned for 25 years; it commenced in 1979 and ended
in November 2004.
The overall objective of this project was to promote coconut production and utilization,
consumption and processing. The project was designed to generate appropriate
technologies through research for the development of the coconut sector and to
disseminate the findings to the coconut growers in collaboration with the National
Agricultural Extension System.
Its specific objectives were:
-

Breeding improved planting materials adaptable to drought and lethal yellowing

disease

Developing seed farms and nursery management to produce high quality seedlings

Developing and introducing to farmers integrated plant protection measures against

economically important pests and diseases

Developing improved coconut based farming

recommendations to the small scale coconut growers

Developing improved small scale processing technologies and making these available
to the end users

systems

and

providing

3.1 Achievements and Impacts of the NCDP

The NCDP has immensely contributed to the development of the coconut industry in
Tanzania over long period of 25 years. Kullaya et al., (2013) summarized the impacts of this
project as follows;

Coconut growing area has increased by 10% from 240,000 ha to 265,000 ha

Average nuts /palm has increased by 52% from 23 to 35 nuts/palm

Annual coconut production has increased by 62% from 544.4 mn nuts in 1986 to
898.3 mn nuts in 2004. This production is equivalent to 83,000 mt of oil, making
coconut oil the major edible oil of the country

Annual planting rates have increased by 1-2%

Effective IPM packages have been developed for major pests of coconut such as
rhinoceros beetle, coried bug and Aceria mite

Small scale oil processing techniques, mainly the development of a multi-bladed

rotary grater, ram press and bridge or screw press

Production of value added products such as timber for furniture and shells for
ornamentals has been developed

Farmers have shifted their pattern of coconut utilization from consumption to

market orientation earning more incomes. Coconut by-products were the most
important sources of income contributing to 50% of the cash income of the coconut
farmers on mainland Tanzania. In Zanzibar (Unguja) crop has accounted for 62% of
the cash income

Infrastructure facilities have been improved such as construction of offices,

laboratories, workshops and sub stations have been established for field
experimentation

Human resources have been developed, both with short term training and
postgraduate level training for staff. Under this project 296 persons have attended
short courses, 68 have undertaken study tours, formal training for 55 at Diploma
6

level, 26 BSc, 24 MSc and 13 PhD programmes outside the country. Therefore, the
coconut sector has developed remarkable capacity to sustainably continue coconut
R&D in the future

The Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI) has been established and
institutionalized under the National Agricultural Research System and mandated for
promoting research and development of the coconut sub sector

3.2 Establishment of the Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI):

The NCDP has led to the institutionalizing of the coconut research and development by
creating the Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI) in 1996, within the premises
of the NCDP and uses its facilities. MARI is mandated to continue the activities of the NCDP
and consolidate the R&D related to coconut productivity improvement and processing.
MARI located at Dar es Salaam has established a head office in the premises of the NCDP
with facilities for financial and general administration, research facilities for coconut
breeding, agronomy, pest and disease control, biotechnology, postharvest technology,
socio-economics and extension.

Plate 02 Mikocheni Agricultural

Research Institute, Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania

Plate 03 Briefing the delegation on the status of coconut production in Tanzania

The institute has also established two sub-stations at Chambezi and Mkuranga in the coastal
region and two trial sites at Kifumangao and Tereni in Mafia. Sub stations were also
established in Selem and Bambi in Zanzibar.
04. CHALLENGES AHEAD
The NCDP project has achieved its objectives and could be termed a success story. The
major issues that have to be addressed for the future will be the development of improved
coconut varieties resistant to LYD, drought and climate change effects, production of
quality planting materials that will be needed for replanting and new plantings, up scaling
IPM technologies for pest control, including new pest occurrences such as the whitefly,
development of suitable farming system models considering the agro-ecological and socioeconomic status of the coconut smallholders, marketability of products and income
generating capacity, development of processing techniques for product diversification and
quality maintenance to improve the value chain focusing on domestic and foreign markets.
Although the NCDP has achieved success in R&D and extension programmes and built up
considerable capacity in human resources at higher levels, with necessary infrastructure for
the development of the coconut sector, it is clear that achievements are becoming nullified
and activities have virtually come to a standstill. The coconut sector is presently lagging
behind and not been able to maintain the momentum that it had during the project period.

According to our information lack of regular funding from the national government is
identified as the main problem.

Plate 04 Discussion with

the research staff of the
MARI

In order to overcome the funding constraints and to give more priority for coconut
development, Kullaya et al., (2013) has proposed a change in the organizational structure of
the coconut sector by establishing a Coconut Development Board. Although the outcomes
expected by establishing a Board is not explained by Kullaya et al., (2013), it is assumed that
it will give necessary authority and independence for canvassing of funds from the national
government

and

foreign

donors,

interaction

with

local

and foreign

research

centers/institutions, universities and a wide range of public and private sector stakeholders.
Furthermore, MARI is mandated with many other crops such as cassava, banana, vegetables
etc. and among these, one is coconut. Therefore, coconut does not receive the attention
that it deserves as a smallholder livelihood crop which could be developed for poverty
alleviation, income generation and export. Some of the other major coconut growing
countries have established Boards/Authorities exclusively for coconut development. The
Coconut Authority of the Philippines is mandated with all aspects of development of
coconut. In India, there are several Boards for coconut such as the Coconut Development
Board, Coir Board while research is mandated with the Central Plantation Crop Research
Institute (CPCRI). In Sri Lanka there are three Boards for coconut development namely,
Coconut Research Board for research and officer training, Coconut Cultivation Board for
field level extension and training of farmers and Coconut Development Authority for
9

industry development and marketing. Considering the emerging global importance of

coconut and its local importance as a food and industrial crop, particularly to the people in
the coastal areas of mainland Tanzania and Islands of Zanzibar, the establishment of
Coconut Development Board will make a positive impact on the coconut industry.
05. CURRENT SITUATION OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
5.1 Coconut breeding and varietal improvement:
The objectives of varietal improvement focus on high yielding varieties with
resistance/tolerance to LYD and drought, germplasm collection, maintenance and
characterization and evaluation, improvement of the East African Tall (EAT) through
selection and cross breeding, evaluating different genetic materials under local conditions
and production and dissemination of improved EAT seed nuts.
A major constraint to the coconut production in Tanzania is the lack of suitable high yielding
varieties which could stand biotic and abiotic stresses and in particular resistant varieties for
LYD and drought. Thus, development of varieties has been the main thrust of research even
before the commencement of the NCDP. With the commencement of the NCDP several
activities have been initiated to develop suitable coconut varieties. Thus, exotic germplasm
has been introduced to broaden the genetic pool and seed farms have been established.
Improvement of EAT through selection has been undertaken, and production and evaluation
of breeders test material, germplasm maintenance and evaluation and characterization and
embryo culture are in progress. The main coconut variety grown in Tanzania is EAT and
Pemba Red Dwarf in Zanzibar islands. In the programmes carried out so far introduced
hybrids have been highly susceptible to LYD and drought. Probably the hybrids were not
adapted to the local growing conditions with prolonged drought periods. Therefore, the
local variety EAT has been identified as the possible candidate for further research as it has
been tolerant to high moisture stress and LYD under local growing conditions. This
programme should be continued.
A 54 ac seed garden has been established at Chambezi station. The seed nuts for this seed
garden were from six locations based on early performance for LYD resistance. About
60,000 improved seed nuts have been produced from the seed farm and issued to the
nursery operators. 30 different crosses with EAT x resistant/tolerant to LYD are being
10

evaluated for yield, LYD and resistance to drought. 27 ac germplasm collection has also been
established and are being evaluated at Chambezi sub station.

Plate 05 Visit to coconut plantations in Tanzania and Zanzibar Islands

A biotechnology programme is also in progress to support the coconut breeding
programme. In collaboration with international research institutes, techniques for embryo
culture have been developed to facilitate exchange of germplasm for varietal improvement.
MARI has also well-developed up to date laboratory facilities for biotechnology research.
The varietal development has yielded valuable results for future work. Breeding research
should be continued as this is the key to the development of suitable varieties. Therefore,
breeding objectives should be clearly identified and include high yield, resistance to diseases
particularly LYD and major pests, drought and products that the country plans to develop for
local use or export. However, depending on EAT alone might constraint the development of
new varieties.
The varieties that have shown resistance to LYD in other countries such as Jamaica or
crosses have shown adequate resistance in evaluating trials in Tanzania. The breeding for
resistance to LYD by crossing surviving palms from heavily diseased area has not been
successful as the survivor palms were not resistant rather they were escapes (Kullaya et al.,
2013). However, evidence from other countries where phytoplasma diseases have been
reported indicates contrary evidence. The Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kerala,
India has been able to identify resistant tall palms to the Kerala root wilt disease which is

11

caused by a phytoplasma in disease hot spots in farmers fields. These tall palms have been
crossed with Malayan Green Dwarf and Sri Lankan Green Dwarf and these have shown
resistance. These crosses have been evaluated for more than 20 years and show promise.
Similarly in Sri Lanka, a few Sri Lankan Tall palms have shown resistance to the phytoplasma
caused Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease (WCLWD) found in the southern province since
2006. Also Sri Lanka Green Dwarf has been identified as resistant to the above wilt disease.
These crosses that are promising are being further evaluated. During the visit to the
Chembezi seed garden few Sri Lanka Green Dwarf palms showing some resistance was
noted, although their growth was poor due to the effect of severe drought. As the
phytoplasma caused diseases of coconut are a major problem, it will be highly desirable to
establish a long term resistance breeding programme to identify the most resistant/tolerant
varieties. A further advantage is that MARI is well equipped for molecular breeding which
could be incorporated in to this programme.
5.2 Agronomy and farming systems development:
As an outcome of the NCDP, impressive progress was achieved in the improvement of
coconut production and utilization through research and development activities. Research
on crop husbandry practices such as cover cropping, intercropping, weeding and soil water
conservation was done and recommendations have been made. Income of the small scale
coconut farmers is generally low due to a number of reasons including low yield and land
productivity, low price for fresh nuts, oil and coconut products, market constraints specially
in remote areas as well as poor processing and lack of product diversification.
However, certain important technical areas including soil and moisture conservation, land
suitability classification for coconut, soil fertility management practices, inorganic and
organic fertilizer use for both bearing and young palms, fertilizer recommendations based
on leaf nutrient analysis, irrigation systems etc. were not given due priority during the NCDP
period.
Agronomic research focused on the development of sustainable farming systems for the
small coconut growers. Extensive on-farm and on-station trials have been conducted on 07
sites covering different agro-ecological regions and soil types representing major coconut
soils (Chambezi for coastal soils, Mkuranga for red brown sandy loams, Maramba and

12

Mingano for red brown, Selem for white sands, Bambi for red brown clay loam over
limestone and Naapa for valley bottoms).
The conclusions of these trials indicate that low annual rainfall in the coastal Tanzania as the
major constraint for crop productivity. The low total rainfall and extended periods of
drought causes significant yield reductions in coconut and intercrops. The coconut hybrids
although more precocious suffers heavily due to drought, where as local EAT were less
affected. Various methods of coconut land management such as intercropping, circle
weeding and cover cropping were cost effective.
In the coastal belt intercropping and mixed cropping have been common and coconut palms
have been intercropped with fruit trees, cereals, root crops and grain legumes. On-farm
trials have shown that wider spacing of coconut palms at 10 x 15m sustains intercropping
with many food and cash crops. Coconut, citrus and sweet potato model has been
recommended for rehabilitation of coconut lands.
In order to maintain high nut production levels in coconut plantations, the effect of
prolonged dry periods should be minimized. In addition to soil moisture conservation
measures, suitable irrigation systems where possible should be used during water stress
periods for high level of nut production and productivity of other crops grown with coconut.
Irrigation could be practiced in areas where ground water or permanent water sources are
available. Rain water harvesting technologies in coconut lands could also be promoted.
Soil types in coconut growing areas and land suitability classification for coconut cultivation
in Tanzania are important in making crop management recommendations. Soil suitability
classification will help to identify the most potential areas for coconut cultivation for
allocation of resources. Crop diversification programmes could be introduced to low
potential areas.
Soil fertility level and nut production has a direct relationship. Nut production of coconut
could be enhanced by improving the fertility levels of coconut growing soils. Continuous
cultivation of coconuts with other crops such as cassava without adequate replacement of
plant nutrients have caused soil degradation in terms of plant nutrients and physical

13

properties. Chemical fertilizer application or application of organic manure with adequate

chemical supplementation is encouraged through the extension system.
5.3 Pests and diseases management
Productivity of the coconut industry in Tanzania and Zanzibar is constrained by four (4)
severe pest incidences and the lethal yellowing disease (LYD) caused by a phytoplasma.
Coreid bug (Pesudotheraptus wayi), rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes monoceros), Aceria mite
(Aceria guerreronis) and a spiraling whitefly species which is believed to be introduced from
Asia (as informed by the scientists at MARI) were observed as contributing substantially to
yield loss in mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar Islands. Coreid bug infests crops such as citrus,
mango, guava and many other crops while the spiraling whitefly was observed on almost all
palm species encountered during the field visits. Aceria mite and rhinoceros beetles were
observed only on coconut palms. In addition to these four major pests, termites (particularly
in seedlings in the nursery), scale insects and mealy bugs were also observed as pests of
coconut in Tanzania and Zanzibar. In the seedling nursery in Zanzibar Islands, the
germination percentage of the seed nuts was as low as 25% and the major factors that
contribute to the low germination appear to be termite damage and small size nuts due to
Aceria mite and coreid bug damage.
During the NCDP, the emphasis has been given to develop integrated pest management
(IPM) strategies for coreid bug, rhinoceros beetle and Aceria mite. In terms of disease
management, priority has been given to research on LYD. However, ever since the
termination of the project in 2004, no work has been carried out on pests and disease
management in coconut. This has caused serious damage reaching an epidemic level of the
said pests and the disease. In addition, the severe infestations of spiraling whitefly (possibly
Aleurodicus disperus, as it has been reported in Kenya by Mware et al., (2010) damage has a
recent origin. No work has been carried out on this pest though it has caused serious
damage in coconut and other palms species.
Appearance of sooty mold, most likely not originated from the spiraling whitefly was also
common in some palms. This may be due to other secondary pest attacks such as coccids.
Critical drought period between June-October during which only about 12% of the rain is
received and from December-March where only 10% of the rain is received might have
14

contributed to higher pest incidences in coconut. Almost all coconut palms appeared to be
moisture stressed and in the coconut palms, sugars and amino acids are increased to
maintain the osmotic potential when they are under moisture stress (Ranasinghe and
Jayasekara, 1989). This may contribute substantially to increase the reproduction rate of
especially sap feeding insects. Another possible cause for high pest incidences is the poor
agronomic practices due to which the palm vigour to withstand pest attacks is lowered.

Plate 06 Pests of coconut

a major problem in Tanzania

Management of pests and diseases of coconut is the most important aspect that should be
considered in developing a viable coconut industry in Tanzania and Zanzibar. It was
observed, though several agronomic practices could be recommended and end-product
development could be achieved, without controlling the pests and diseases which come at a
high cost, coconut growers will not be tempted to grow coconuts and therefore research on
pests and disease management needs to be given the highest priority.
It was observed that a considerable amount of work has been done during the NCDP period
and after that the research have not been continued due to lack of funds. This was observed
as a serious drawback; especially this has seriously affected the morale of the scientists as
well.
Coconut coreid bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi: Coconut coreid bug is the most important pest
that causes severe crop losses in coconuts in Tanzania and Zanzibar. As mentioned by the
scientists at MARI, the yield loss in terms of immature nut fall is as high as 80% but it can

15

reach even up to 100% if deformation and size reduction of the nuts are taken in to account
in some instances. During the visit, coreid bug damage was commonly seen in the mainland
Tanzania and also in Zanzibar and out of the surviving nuts on the palms, up to 100% nuts
were damaged by this pest and the nuts were severely undersized and deformed with
sunken necrotic lesions and gum exudates. In a heap of harvested nuts in Zanzibar, more
than 90% of nuts were damaged by coreid bug and they were severely undersized. Other
food crops such as mango, cashew and guava are also attacked by the coreid bug.

Plate 07 Coreid bug damage

to button nuts

Plate 08- A heap of severely

undersized coconut due to
coconut mite and coreid bug
damage
All cultivars observed in Tanzania and Zanzibar appear to be equally susceptible to coreid
bug damage and within the severely infested palms only few palms were either free of
damage or less damaged.

16

Control of coreid bug has been attempted by using pyrethroid (lambda cyhalothrin 5% EC)
and by the predatory weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda (Seguni et al., 2013). Despite the
promising results obtained, use of pesticides has not been recommended due to high cost of
application and practical difficulties in applying chemicals due to tall stature of coconut
palms (Seguni et al., 2013). Therefore, more emphasis has been given in developing and
promoting biological control methods.
Considerable effort has been made on the studies related to use of weaver ant (O.
longinoda) as a predator to control the coreid bug and it has been successfully used in
farmers fields (Seguni, et al., 2013). Inhibition of effect of Pheidole megacephala, a
competitor ant has also been achieved using toxic bait (AMDRO-Hydramethylnon) (Seguni et
al., 2013). Entomologists at MARI are of the view that, although aerial ropes to interconnect
palms and nests of weaver ants enhance their activity, practical problems are there because
the ants prefer other crops such as mango and cashew than coconut. During the field visits,
weaver ant nests were not observed on coconut palms confirming the view of the MARI
entomologists.
It is clear that the use of weaver ants is a successful method of controlling coreid bugs
(Seguni et al., 2013). It has also been identified that enhancing the weaver ant activity
through cultural methods is the most sustainable method of controlling this pest. Except for
the weaver ant, other possible biological control agents have not been explored.
Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes monoceros: Rhinoceros beetle is the second most important
pest in Tanzania and Zanzibar. It is regarded as a serious pest particularly on young plants of
1-4 years of age as repeated damage to such plants could be lethal. In almost all the
plantations that were visited during the field visits in Tanzania and Zanzibar, more than 60%
palms had been attacked by rhinoceros beetle. It was understood that they are
predominantly breed on coconut logs. The remaining trunk parts that were left behind after
the death of the palm due to LYD have provided a good source of breeding media for
rhinoceros beetles.
During the NCDP period, several methods to manage rhinoceros beetle (biological control
and cultural control) have been studied and some of them have been recommended singly
or in combinations (Seguni et al., 2013). However other methods such as use of pheromone
17

traps, application of burnt engine oil/coal tar, naphthalene balls, covering base of the
seedling with poly bags have not been tested. The recommended pheromone is Ethyl 4methyl octanoate which is marketed by Pest Control India (Pvt) LTD (www.pcil.in), ChemTica
International, Costa Rica (www.chemtica.com) and many other suppliers. Traps made of
polyvinyl chloride tubes and held vertically have shown to be effective in Sri Lanka and
elsewhere. One trap per ha installed in large plantation or in number of small plantations in
a synchronized manner has reduced the rhinoceros beetle damage considerably over long
run (N.I. Suwandarathne, Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka, 2013, pers. comm.).

Plate 09 - Polyvinyl chloride traps are used to control

O. rhinoceros in Sri Lanka

Aceria mite, Aceria guerreronis: Aceria mite has been recognized as a serious pest of
Tanzania and Zanzibar only recently. As in many countries in Africa and Asia, this is regarded
as an invasive pest which has spread from its original areas in Central and South America
(Navia et al., 2005). Crop loss due to Aceria mite has been reported to be quite high (Seguni
et al., 2013). The damage incidence in terms of percentage nuts damaged by the pest in a
palm was as high as 90% in some instances in the coconut plantations that were seen during
the field visits in Tanzania and Zanzibar. None of the commercial varieties appear to be
resistant to the Aceria mite nevertheless some palms within heavily infested populations
were less attacked than their counterparts. Aceria mite damage appears to be one of the
major causes for severe button nut fall and prolonged droughts might have significant
impact on this, as observed in Sri Lanka (Aratchige et al., 2012a)

18

In Tanzania, use of chemicals to control the Aceria mite has not been attempted probably
due to high cost involved in this practice. The use of the entomopathogenic fungus,
Hirsutella thompsonii has been attempted but with inconclusive results due to high
dependence of the fungus on humidity (Seguni et al., 2013). Effect of single application of H.
thompsonii is of short duration and producing inconsistent results in Sri Lanka too (Fernando
et al., 2007). Neem as a ground application of locally prepared product such as ground seeds
and chopped leaves has been tested and the results have not been promising. Several
predatory mites have been reported in association with the Aceria mite worldwide (Navia et
al, 2013). However during the NCDP, use of predatory mites has not been evaluated though
this has been regarded as one of the major control strategies against the Aceria mite in
other countries. In Sri Lanka, in late 1990s predatory mites have been identified as the most
important component in IPM package for the Aceria mite. Effectiveness of Neoseiulus baraki
has been proven in Sri Lanka (Fernando et al., 2010, Aratchige et al., 2012b) and mass
production method of the same has been developed (Aratchige et al, 2010., Kumara et al.,
unpublished data). Release of N. baraki at the rate of 5,000 mites per palm at 3-4 months
interval on to quarter of the plantation has been recommended and to carry out this
recommendation a national level project under the Ministry of Coconut Development and
Janatha Estate Development is in place. Under this project, 20 predatory mites mass
breeding laboratories will be established in all coconut growing areas in the country.
Spiraling whitefly: Spiraling whitefly, presumably A. disperus, is among the most important
pests of coconut in Tanzania and Zanzibar. Approximately 70%of the palms that were
observed during the field visits were severely damaged by this pest. In most of the damaged
palms only 2-3 young fronds were free of damage. None of the varieties were apparently
resistant to the spiraling whitefly damage. The pest has already reached epidemic
proportions. The importance of controlling this pest lies not only within the context as a
pest but also as a potential vector of plant pathogens.

19

Plate 10 Coconut leaflets damaged by spiraling whitefly

Spiraling whitefly was observed on a wide host range, including cassava, citrus, mango,
cashew, banana/plantain, amaranthus, acacia, frangipani, castor bean, morning glory, shoeflower (Hibiscus), bougainvillea, taro and many other crops, ornamental palms, foliage,
flowering plants and weeds. In many of these plants, populations were quite heavy and it
was especially observed with ornamental palms.

Plate 11 - Spiraling whitefly damage a wide range of crops

Apparently no research has been conducted on the control of spiraling whitefly damage on
coconut. Information on research on spiraling whitefly control in cassava which is the staple
food in Tanzania and Zanzibar was also not available. An urgent need of prime importance is
there in developing a research programme to address the issues related to this invasive
pest.

20

Other pests of minor importance: Seedling death due to termite damage was observed in
the nursery that was visited in Zanzibar. Germination was as low as 25% and termite
damage and poor quality seed nuts (due to size reduction resulted from poor growth of nuts
and pest damage) may have contributed to this. In general, termite infestations are higher
in clay soils than in sandy soils. The soil in the nursery beds was with higher clay content and
this might have contributed significantly to the high termite damage.
Very low damages due to scale insects were also observed particularly in Zanzibar but they
appear to be under control by natural enemies.

Plate 12 - Coconut seedling nursery

in Zanzibar

Coconut lethal yellowing disease: Coconut lethal yellowing diseases (LYD) caused by
phytoplasma is by far the predominant and the most important disease in Tanzania.
Currently, the disease is not reported in Zanzibar and Pemba and inland districts of
Morogoro, Kilosa, Kilombero and Ulanga (Mpunami et al., 2013). Why these areas are
currently free from the disease is not clear and worth studying, especially for the purpose of
imposing quarantine regulations to minimize the risk of introducing the disease to
unaffected areas. LYD has a long history in Tanzania and since 1960s, 38% of the palms in
coconut plantations have been killed by the disease (Mpunami et al., 2013). According to
the Plant Pathologists at MARI, losses due to LYD are higher in Southern Tanzania than in
Northern Tanzania. It is speculated that the long stand of coconut in the Northern Tanzania
with long term exposure to the disease might be the reason for lower losses due to the
diseases in Northern Tanzania than in the Southern Tanzania.

21

Plate 13 Lethal Yellowing (LYD) is a serious disease in Tanzania

Plate 14 Standing dead palm

trunks

due

to

LYD

promote

breeding of O. rhinoceros

During the NCDP, all aspects related to LYD (disease symptomatology, diagnostics based on
molecular and serological methods, epidemiology, epidemics, impact on the coconut
industry, etiology, screening of varieties for resistance, resistance breeding, vectors) have
been studied in details and some information are documented. A well scrutinized and
planned research programme has been in place and it is perhaps the highest prioritized
research programme at MARI.
The achievable and the most sustainable methods in the endemic areas seem to be the
introduction of resistant varieties to LYD. Exotic varieties and crosses as well as the local
varieties/forms have been assessed for susceptibility to the disease. Different varieties (both
tall and dwarf) have shown different levels of susceptibility to the disease (Mpunami et al.,
22

2013) but none of them have been totally resistant to the disease. The dwarf varieties such
as SLGD, Malayan Green Dwarf (MGD) and king coconut that have been reported as
resistant varieties elsewhere have shown low survival rates. SLGD has shown a survival rate
as low as 3.3%, (Mpunami et al., 2013). However, during the field visits, very few SLGD
palms were observed free from the disease and as informed by the scientists at MARI, the
others died probably due to disease as well as due to extreme drought stress. Also high
disease pressure might have resulted in breaking down of disease resistance in some dwarf
varieties. The surviving SLGD palms showed symptoms of drought stress. SLGD is apparently
resistant to WCLWD in Sri Lanka. The disease pressure is expected to be lower in WCLWD
affected areas in Sri Lanka compared to LYD affected areas in the world (S.A.C.N. Perera,
Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka, 2013, pers. comm.). However, SLGD could be
considered as a marginally resistant variety and may be suitable in less damaged areas with
adequate moisture conservation practices until a better performer is found by the plant
breeders. It may not be suitable as a commercial variety but may fulfill coconut
requirements in households. In Sri Lanka also SLGD is distributed among the growers for
home gardens and tourists hotels in the WCLWD affected areas.
Changing the research strategy of NCDP to give a higher priority to test the subpopulations
of EAT is an important step in developing resistant varieties to LYD. The criteria used in
selection of subpopulations of EAT are acceptable and reasonable. All sub-populations are
susceptible to the disease in varying degree and the most interesting observation is that
sub-populations from Pemba and Zanzibar where the disease has not so far been reported
are also susceptible to the disease. According to Mpunami et al., (2013), the most promising
tall candidate appears to be EAT-LBS sub-population. However, even marginally susceptible
varieties should not be discarded especially eradication of the disease is out of focus now in
Tanzania and living-with-the disease will be a better approach where location specific
recommendations could be made for resistant varieties. Better agronomic practices on the
selected varieties may contribute to increasing vigour of the palms and eventually ability to
withstand the disease in long run.
A commendable work has been carried out towards the development of resistant varieties
for LYD and if continued without financial or any other logistical constraints, a promising
variety could be expected in the future. All in all, one or few EAT sub-populations will be
23

ideally the most promising variety or varieties that is resistant/tolerant to the disease. The
development of a long term resistance breeding programme is suggested.
Studies conducted on identification of vectors had been in the correct direction and the
effort is also admirable. However, little modifications to the methodologies might have
developed better results. For instance, acquisition feeding by putative vectors before
introducing them in to the test seedlings might improve the results in serological testing
(but this should be thoroughly tested). Selection of Diastrombus mkurangai as a putative
vector is acceptable and it is also more practically feasible to work with few potential
vectors rather than working with a whole bunch of possible candidates at once. Similar
inconclusive results have been obtained with other phytoplasma disease-vector systems as
well.
5.4 Coconut processing and product development
A postharvest and processing unit was established in 1991 to undertake research and
development on processing methods and equipment for small scale coconut oil processing
and other coconut byproducts. The main products are coconut oil, copra, coconut toddy and
handicrafts. Coconut processing and product R&D is at a very early stage of development.
Except for the manufacture of coconut oil, other coconut products like desiccated coconut,
coconut cream, coconut milk powder, fibre and fibre products and charcoal and activated
carbon are not manufactured in Tanzania. This may be as the nut supply is limited for
commercial scale operations, lack of access to appropriate technologies, skilled managerial
and technical staff and infrastructure and market outlets.
Household level coconut oil processing is common in Tanzania as in many other African
countries. It is an important source of edible oil. Coconut oil is also manufactured by a few
millers for making soap. In these mills sun dried copra is used, but the sun drying procedure
of copra is unhygienic due to uneven drying of kernels over several days. Due to high
moisture content the copra develop molds and breeds copra weevils resulting in poor
quality oil.
Copra has been an export item in the past years; however as production declined copra
exports have been reduced. Copra in two forms exists; edible copra for consumption and
milling copra used in industry. Sun drying is the most common method of drying copra for
24

making oil but it takes at least a week to dry the kernels. Often sun drying produces copra
with varying moisture contents and in rainy weather it is very difficult to dry copra. Kiln
drying is also used using a heat chamber that is dug into the ground. Heat is generated by
burning coconut shells, coconut husks and firewood. More efficient small scale kilns or
copra dryers are available in many other countries for drying copra. These kilns evenly dry
fresh kernels and make copra of good quality. It is necessary to introduce these inexpensive
technologies for the oil millers for more efficient production of quality oil.

Plate 15 Copra drying for

making coconut oil in Zanzibar

The development of coconut graters has been given prominence for coconut oil processing
on small scale. The traditional coconut grater is serrated single blade mounted on wooden
stool on which the operator sits and scrapes a half of the husked coconut. As this is a very
laborious and inefficient procedure, a six bladed rotary grater has been designed. This
grater is more efficient, easier and faster in operation and the grating recovery rate of 96%
and an increase in oil yield by about 20% can be achieved.
A manually operated, high pressure ram press is used to extract oil from the residual
gratings. The ram press has an oil extraction efficiency of 85% and can press on average 3640kg of copra per day to produce 14kg of oil (Temu et al., 2013). The ram press has several
advantages; oil extraction process is efficient and more edible oil could be extracted which
could also be used for making cosmetics, does not need fuel energy and coconut cake could
be used as an animal feed. Therefore the promotion of the ram press could increase
employment and incomes of small scale coconut growers.

25

A more efficient method for oil extraction by the use of a bridge or screw press involving a
water assisted low pressure technique has been developed (Temu, 1997). In this method
the moisture of the scrapings are raised to about 11 14% by adding scrapings of fresh
coconut. The bridge press is used to produce VCO at MARI.
The production of virgin coconut oil (VCO) at MARI is a major breakthrough in coconut oil
utilization. VCO is different from the white coconut oil by its physical form and method of
extraction. VCO is obtained from mature fresh kernel by wet processing or dry processing. In
wet processing fresh kernel is subjected to squeezing and the milk is obtained. The milk is
subjected to mild heating and finally colourless oil is obtained. In dry processing dried
grated kernels of coconut is subjected to expelling below 600C by cold press to get the oil. It
is a colourless, odorless oil. VCO is generally manufactured after removal of the testa, which
makes it colorless, but in modern processing mills the testa is also included as it contains
vitamins and antioxidants. In this oil the color is pale white. As VCO contain medium chain
fatty acids, it is claimed to have several health benefits. VCO production is increasing world
over due to vast health benefits and the current production is inadequate to meet the global
market. Tanzania should place more emphasis on VCO production as it could be promoted
in the local market and for export.

Plate 16 VCO production at

MARI

26

Besides oil, several commercial products could be made from the coconut palm. These
include coconut toddy, shell charcoal, wood based products, leaves and handicrafts. These
are important items for diversifying the coconut industry; provide employment
opportunities and incomes to the coconut growers. Coconut toddy is extracted by cutting
the unopened coconut flowers and extracting the sap that oozes out. Unfermented coconut
toddy is a healthy drink and when fermented it forms into an alcoholic drink. In some
countries toddy is produced at industrial level for the manufacture of alcoholic drinks. Toddy
could also be used for making sweeteners. Various types of handicrafts can be made from
coconut palm and in many coconut growing countries this is a thriving tourist attraction.
Coconut leaves are used for thatching roofs of houses and tourist hotels has been a good
move to attract the tourists. These products deserve more attention of the authorities as
economically viable small industries could be set up for various products. This is of particular
importance as tourism plays an important component of the Tanzanian economy.
Tanzania has not exploited the potential of coconut timber as a valuable wood resource for
house construction, furniture making and various other purposes. In other coconut growing
countries timber is used in construction works; rafters are used extensively for the roof,
novel furniture such as chairs and tables, door and window frames, curios etc. When
polished coconut furniture is very attractive, also very durable. The use of coconut timber
could also prevent the destruction of natural forest to harvest timber, while conserving the
environment. During the field visit it was observed that LYD affected and senile palms
remain in the field and unutilized for timber. In fact, these rotting stems are excellent
breeding grounds for rhinoceros beetle. The coconut plantations, both in mainland Tanzania
and Zanzibar are very old and if replaced systematically a vibrant timber industry could be
developed. However, it is important to create awareness on utility value of coconut timber
and train the wood workers on utilization of timber for various purposes.
The primary stage of development of the coconut processing and product development is
noted. This unexploited potential will be an important area for investment to promote
coconut production and to develop a viable coconut processing and product diversification
industry. The investment on value chain development is necessary to revitalize the coconut
industry in Tanzania and Zanzibar islands. Therefore, training in the production of VCO,
copra drying for oil extraction, production of other sap products such as toddy and treacle
27

and production of handicrafts are proposed to develop small industries to support the
smallholder coconut growers and entrepreneurs.
5.5 Coconut Extension Services
The Coconut Extension Services (CES) was created in the first phase of NCDP to facilitate
dissemination of research finding to smallholder farmers. CES also monitored results of the
research recommendations at the field level as well as channeling problems of farmers as
feedback for research. Basic approaches used to accelerate technology transfer and
adoption were communication and education providing services such as training and supply
of planting materials. CES operating under the NCDP accomplished remarkable progress
during the period from 1979/80 to 2004 in extension activities. Major programmes
implemented and achievements of CES were:

More than 1,000 extension personnel and 300,000 of coconut households have been
trained on improved crop production methods and product development and value
addition in both Tanzania and Zanzibar. Coconut growers, traders, nursery operators
and processers were provided with services, technical guidance and information by
CES to enhance their productivity through contact farmers. In addition to coconut
extension, cashew extension activities were also merged and operated through same
extension officers from 1992 to 1995. In this manner, coconut extension services
were later converted to a more crop based system to cover the overall agricultural
needs of farmers.

Under the NCDP, emphasis was placed in training of officers at all levels and more on
coconut cultivation and plantation management. Field training programmes and
workshops were held regularly.

With the adoption of recommendations provided by the extension services farmers

were able to improve their plantations. Coconut based farming systems became
prominent in the small holder sector. Intercropping coconut lands with citrus and
mangoes showed significant improvement in household income generation.

28

Selection of mother palms and the collection of seed nuts were the responsibilities
of 284 village and district extension officers within the coconut based farming
systems. These seed nuts were collected on soft loan basis from NCDP. Seed nuts
were issued to loan recipients and they were provided with formal and informal
training on nursery management and seedlings selection. The loan recipients either
planted seedlings in their coconut lands or sold to outsiders to earn extra income.
Within 10 year periods from 1985 1995 more than 2.7 million seedlings raised with
the effort of CES.

Technology packages were developed for dissemination to farming communities

with suitable adaptations to suit the regional needs of the farming system. In order
to reduce the threat of bush fires by controlling weeds several campaigns, field days,
and extension training sessions were conducted. Advisory leaflets and booklets were
issued to farmers, extension personnel and the general public for effective
technology dissemination. Over 2,500 diaries were printed and distributed annually
from 1991 2001 periods.

Organizational changes of coconut extension services during NCDP: Extension services

underwent several name changes and activities since its inception in 1979/1980. In 1986
CES was entrusted with the organization of coconut and nursery development works. In
1993, this section was merged with the Production Promotion Unit of the cashew
improvement project and became Tree-crops Extension Support Unit. In March 1996, Treecrops Extension Support Unit became Coconut Extension Liaison Unit and continued
coconut-based training and extension, nursery development and preparation, production
and dissemination of extension materials and products and by products of coconut palm.
Seed nuts and Nursery Services Unit was created under CES in 1989/90 for
production/procurement and distribution of seed nuts and seedlings.
Different methods and approaches were used to disseminate technologies to the end users.
CES used four main channels for dissemination of technology and information as follows:
1.

Kilimo extension organization channel: This channel was used at national level with
Regional Coconut Extension Officers, Regional Subject Matter Specialist, Regional

29

Agricultural Development Officers, planning and implementing of regional activities.

Organization of farmer field days, demonstration plots, training courses for village
extension officers and nursery operators were implemented.
2.

Elimu school system: This system covered primary and secondary schools. This
channel was at national levels via provision of teaching materials and briefing to
teachers.

3.

Radio and exhibitions: Radio was the one of the most effective ways to disseminate
information and advice to growers. Due to wide coverage radio progammes were
extensively used for extension activities.

4.

Training and Visit (T & V): T & V proposed and adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture
in 1990/91 for implementing the national extension policy and facilitating the delivery
of appropriate massages. This involved regular training of extension staff in technical
and extension communication skills and interaction with researchers. Coconut
contract farmers were used to educate coconut growers under the T & V system.

Based on specific needs and farmers problems workshops were organized for extension
workers and to review the progress and planning activities in different regions before the
season. The district and regional extension staff attended these meetings.
Inadequate supply of quality planting materials was one of the major constraints to develop
the coconut industry. The extension officer and farmers have poor knowledge on mother
palm selection. Therefore the supply of quality planting materials was a major task of
regional and district agricultural officers. Different categories of nurseries were maintained.
CES produced a variety of audio-visual materials to educate the general public and farming
communities. The Information and Training Unit established within the CES collected and
processed information from within and outside and formulated recommendations to
disseminate through training programmes at various levels. This Unit in collaboration with
other relevant organizations also produced various audio-visual aids. In the early years of
NCDP, Coconut Extension Services developed 8- point package of recommendations
considering the local conditions of coconut small holders. These packages were based on incountry research and research done in other coconut producing countries. The packages of

30

recommendations were on bush fire control, pest and disease control, particularly
rhinoceros beetle and coreid bug, intercropping and mixed cropping, site selection, land
cleaning and preparation, nursery establishment and management, seedling section and
planting, weed control (circle and complete weeding) and small scale oil processing.
Eight extension packages 13 leaflets were produced for free distribution at training
programmes of extension workers and farmers. These were distributed in offices, field visits,
trainings, seminars and workshops. Some comprehensive booklets with illustrations, photos,
and charts for easy understanding were produced. They were produced in the local
language, Kiswahili and English.
A quarterly cashew and coconut newsletter was introduced. Main topics were extension
advices, crop news, family health and development in cashew and coconut research. Two
thousand five hundred (2,500) copies were produced in each quarter and distributed free.
But the publication was stopped from 1996 due to budget constraints.
Diaries and Calendars were introduced in 1991 and continued up to 2011 with specific
guidelines. Estate sector in Tanzania contributed about 5% of the coconut produced in the
country. Estate sub sector was assisted by coconut extension services by providing
personalized advisory services.
Farmer field plots programmes were arranged to test the performance of technologies at
farm levels, test the acceptance of recommendations at field level. Demonstration Plots,
Adaptive Research Trials and Research Verification Plots, Seed nut Loan Scheme,
Agricultural Shows and Exhibitions were organized.
The government of Tanzania has not continued the extension services provided to coconut
growers after the termination of the NCDP in 2004 due to various reasons. Technology
support services, farmer training and educational programmes and supply of improved
planting materials could not be continued as expected due to insufficient funding and
disarrangement of the extension organizational structure. As a result, the efficiency of
technology dissemination and adoption hampered badly during the last nine year period.
The technologies developed, tested and recommended for use will be of no value if they do
not reach the intended target groups. To rehabilitate the coconut cultivation and processing

31

sectors in Tanzania, a well-planned extension intervention coupled with the supply of

improved planting materials and other inputs is required to promote recommended
agronomic practices.

Under the present organizational and administrative set up, the field extension workers are
entrusted with multiple extension responsibilities not only on coconut but also all other
agricultural crops. The perennial nature of coconut and low nut production naturally deprive
extension workers from attending coconut extension activities.
Farmer group approach is the most effective way to deliver extension and educational
services at the field level. Under the NCDP, extension activities have been focused on
individual farmer basis and this is observed as a less effective extension methodology than
the farmer group approach. In Sri Lanka extension services are provided on individual
farmer basis for specific issues of the farmer (e.g. providing technical guidance for
controlling a particular pest) as well as on farmer group approach. The coconut grower
groups (CBOs) are formed at the village level and within these programmes advisory services
on specific issues are provided while supplying inputs to maintain healthy coconut
plantations. For example trapping of red palm weevil, a major pest of coconut is done
through mass trapping programmes in villages through Kapruka Purawara Programmes,
which are community based organizations. Marketing of the produce can also be done more
efficiently through such programmes.

Farmer participatory extension and educational activities such as Farmer Field Schools
create motivational environment for self-learning and adoption. This has been attempted
to a certain degree during the NCDP through Farmers Field Days. It is however, necessary to
continue these types of activities for effective extension programmes. Electronic mass
media and newspapers could be effectively used for farmer and public awareness activities
due to wide coverage.

For effective technology development and transfer, it is necessary to encourage interaction

between research and extension through mechanism such as Research and Extension
Dialogues at regular intervals. Research and extension dialogues provide a good platform for

32

discussing burning and new issues in the industry and based on them, the researcher can
develop new strategies/ research programmes to address these issues. It is also a good
opportunity for the researchers to transfer new technologies to the extension workers.
Absence of such programmes in Tanzania is seen as a drawback in coconut extension
programmes.

Properly designed field demonstrations with package of technologies could be established in

farmers lands with the direct involvement of the extension field workers. Other growers in
the same group could observe the overall benefits of technologies and be convinced on the
adoption of the same technologies. Economic and physical impact of coconut based farmer
systems could be demonstrated as a tool of convincing other coconut growers for adoption.

Farming system research (FSR) approach was introduced after realizing that farmers are
slow in adopting some proven technologies. The purpose is to ensure that proven
technologies were appropriate, affordable and demand driven considering the famer needs,
concerns, and opportunities. Mixed cropping and intercropping were the most common
cropping systems in Tanzania. Planting coconut at wide spacing allows sustainable
intercropping with a wide variety of food and cash crops. Coconut, citrus and sweet potato
model was the most profitable.
Intercropping could be promoted in small coconut holdings to enable them to optimize the
use of limited resources of land and labour. Coconut based farming systems have improved
the food security and income of small holders. In more profitable systems coconut and
citrus as permanent crops have been used while cowpeas, pineapples, maize, sweet
potatoes and cassava are variable annuals. Depending on the potential of the land, coconut
growers have the opportunity of choosing one or more combination of annual crops.

33

Plate

17

Coconut

intercropping with cassava in

Zanzibar

Rearing animal in coconut lands is a popular practice in Tanzania and Zanzibar Islands. The
most popular livestock species are poultry and others are cattle, sheep and goats. With
proper planning, field extension workers could promote livestock integrated farming
systems for profitability enhancement in coconut small holdings. Pasture and leguminous
trees like Gliricidia could be cultivated in between coconut rows to feed livestock. The
organic manure from livestock could be applied to coconut and other crops to improve the
nut production and profitability of coconut holdings.
06. RECOMMENDATIONS
A.

Assistance Offered by the Coconut Research Institute Sri Lanka

Breeding and crop improvement

Implement a collaborative resistance breeding programme for

tolerance/resistance to LYD. (Selection of resistant palms in disease hotspots ,
hybridization with dwarf varieties viz. Sri Lanka Green Dwarf)

Provision of Sri Lanka Green Dwarf germplasm for the resistance breeding
programme

Training on resistance breeding for LYD with special reference to method of

quick diagnosis of diseased palms, vector transmission studies and quarantine
procedures.

34

 Pest and disease management

Group training for scientists, extension officers and technicians on different

aspects of integrated management (IPM) of main coconut pests, red weevils,
black beetle, Aceria mite and other pests

Collaborative research in biological control of coconut pests, search for bioagents for new pests such as Aceria mite and whitefly

Coconut processing and product diversification

Technical assistance
machinery/equipment

Technical assistance in establishing pilot plants/demonstration projects on

coconut products

Group training on coconut processing techniques, VCO, coconut oil, copra

drying, small scale coir production etc.

in

selecting

appropriate

coconut

processing

Agronomy of coconut and farming systems

Training on improved coconut production technologies, field operations for soil

fertility management, moisture conservation such as mulching of manure
circle, burial of coconut husks in pits, cultivation of leguminous cover crops and
construction of contour drains and bunds.

Training on climate change adaptation through the use of tree based

agroforestry systems, mixed cropping, intercropping, livestock farming in
coconut plantations, including physiological aspects relating to coconut yield.

Identification of suitable irrigation methods, rain water harvesting etc.

if

sufficient ground water or permanent water sources are available.

Provide training on classification of soils and mapping best areas for growing
coconuts based on the soil and ecological suitability

Assistance in development of extension materials, technical guides etc. on

coconut production, pest control and processing etc.

35

B.

Proposed R & D activities for consideration by MARI, Tanzania

Breeding and crop Improvement

Identify breeding objectives by focusing on high yield, biotic and abiotic

stresses including LYD resistant, drought and climate change effects and
potential high value uses such as coconut oil, virgin coconut oil etc.

Establish seed gardens to produce adequate number of quality planting

materials of elite varieties for replanting and new plantings

Augment quality plant material production by mass selection, hybridization and

farmer participatory mode

Strengthen the gene pool by exchange of germplasm and identify traits for
breeding programmes

Application of molecular breeding, use of plumule culture techniques for mass

multiplication of elite material

Screen resistant varieties for LYD using EAT sub-populations

Pest and disease management

Develop separate research programmes for coreid bug, rhinoceros beetle,

Aceria mite and whitefly led by Senior Entomologists as team leaders

Promote proper agronomic practices for moisture conservation (mulching,

husk burial, rain water harvesting) to decrease the drought stress to the palms
and thereby lower the susceptibility to pests and diseases

Identification of resistant coconut varieties for Aceria mite

Maintaining field sanitation by removal of breeding sites (dead coconut logs,

plant debris) of rhinoceros beetle

Research on the use pheromones to control the rhinoceros beetle

36

Research on other methods (use of naphthalene balls, covering base of the

seedlings with polybags) to control rhinoceros beetle

Develop a research programme covering all aspects related yield loss, biology,
ecology, host plant range and preference, population dynamics, biological
control and identification of suitable kairamones (in view of developing suitable
pheromone traps to catch the pest) for the spiraling whitefly

Impose quarantine regulations to prevent spread of LYD to unaffected areas, in

Tanzania and Zanzibar. Avoid transportation of planting materials from
endemic areas to the areas from which disease has not been reported,
disinfestation of aircrafts and vessels before landing in Zanzibar

Production of technical guidelines for the management of coconut pests

Coconut product development

Establishment of model processing units of products for demonstration

purposes

Extension Services

Identify separate extension arm dedicated to disseminate technological

information related to the coconut growers and processors

Formation of farmer groups at village level to channel all extension and

supportive services

Promote extension programmes through electronic mass media and

newspapers

Conduct research and extension dialogues at regular intervals to discuss the

special needs in the industry and to transfer the new technologies to the
extension workers

Establishment of field demonstrations on various agronomic and pest and

disease management practices

37

 Policy Issues:

National government to provide an enabling policy environment to

encourage foreign investments on R&D to upscale specific areas of research
such as breeding, IPM, product development and diversification etc.

National government to consider establishing a Coconut Development Board

to focus on the development of the whole coconut sector; research,
development and industrial applications.

National government to provide basic financial resources in the annual

allocations for the development of the coconut sector

07.

Mode of Cooperation between the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and

Cooperatives and the Coconut Development and Janatha Estate Development and
the Coconut Research Institute

A formal Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Democratic Socialist Republic

of Sri Lanka and United Republic of Tanzania is required to implement the above proposals
to assist in the development of the coconut industry in Tanzania. It is suggested to include
the following broad areas of cooperation in the MOU:

Exchange of scientific and technical information on coconut production, processing and

value addition

Cooperation in coconut research and development

Exchange of scientist on coconut research and technology

Professional training and capacity building in coconut production and processing

technologies

Other forms of cooperation as mutually agreed by both parties, which facilitate the
objectives envisaged for the purpose of this Memorandum

38

REFERENCES
Aratchige N.S., Fernando L.C.P., de Silva P.H.P.R., Perera K.F.G., Hettiarachchi C.S.,
Waidyarathne K.P. and Jayawaredena S.M.V. (2010). A new tray-type arena to mass
rear Neoseiulus baraki, a predatory mite of Aceria mite, Aceria guerreronis in the
laboratory. Crop Protection. 29:556-560.
Aratchige N.S., Fernando L.C.P., Waidyarathne K.P. and Chandrasiri K.A.S. (2012a).
Population dynamics of Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae) and its predatory
mite, Neoseiulus baraki (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in two coconut growing areas in Sri
Lanka. Experimental and Applied Acarology. 56:319-325. ISSN 0168-8162. DOI:
10.1007/s10493-012-9519-z.

Aratchige N.S., Fernando L.C.P., Kumara A.D.N.T., Jayalath K.V.N.N., Perera K.F.G.
and Suwandarathne N.I. (2012b). Biological control of Aceria mite: Effect of
inundative release of the predatory mite, Neoseiulus baraki (Acari: Phytoseiidae). In:
L.S.K. Hettiarachchi and I.S.B. Abeysinghe (Eds.) Proceedings of the 4th Symposium
on Plantation Crop Research Technological Innovations for Sustainable Plantation
Economy. Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka, St. Coombs, Talawakelle, 22100, Sri
Lanka. Pp.125-133.
Fernando L.C.P., Manoj P., Hapuarachchi D.C.L., Edgington S. (2007). Evaluation of
four isolates of Hirsutella thompsonii against Aceria mite (Aceria guerreronis) in Sri
Lanka. Crop Protection. 26:10621066.
Fernando L.C.P., Waidyarathne K.P., Perera K.F.G. and de Silva P.H.P.R. (2010).
Evidence for suppressing coconut mite Aceria guerreronis by inundative release of
predatory mite, Neoseiulus baraki. Biol. Control. 53:108-111.
Kullaya, A. et al., (2013). Twenty five years of coconut research for development in
Tanzania , Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute. Dar es Salaam, Ministry of
Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, Tanzania.
Mpunami A., Mugini J., Tembo P, Luka F. and Chalamila S. (2013). Disease Control
Research. In: Kullaya A., Temu N., Seguni Z., Mpunami A., Chipungahelo G.,

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Masumbuko L., Mkumbo K. and MAdulu R. (eds). Twenty five years of coconut
research and development in Tanzania. Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Pp. 99-155.
Mware, B., Olubayo F., Narla R., Songa J., Amata R., Kyamanywa S. and Ateka E.M.
(2010). First record of spiraling whitefly in coastal Kenya: emergence, host range,
distribution and association with cassava brown streak virus disease. Int. J. Agric.
Biol., 12: 411415.
Navia D., de Moraes G.J., Roderick G. and Navajas M. (2005). The invasive Aceria
mite Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae): origin and invasion sources inferred
from mitochondrial (16S) and nuclear (ITS) sequences. Bull. Entomol. Res. 95:505
516.
Navia D., Gondim Jr. M.G.C., Aratchige N.S. and Moraes G.J. de. (2013). A review of
the status of the coconut mite Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae), A major
tropical mite pest. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 59:67-94.
Ngereza, Andrew Jacob (2013). Country Report on Coconut Research and
Development in Tanzania,Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI)
presented at the Coconut conference, Mombasa 17th 23rd September 2013.

Ranasinghe C.S. and Jayasekara C. (1989). Physiological and biochemical characters

of different varieties and cultivars of coconut. Abstract in Proc. Sri Lanka Association
of the Advancement of Science. December 1989, Colombo.
Seguni Z., Nyange V., Materu C., Mwingira G. and Mrima B. (2013). Pest Control
Research. In: Kullaya A., Temu N., Seguni Z., Mpunami A., Chipungahelo G.,
Masumbuko L., Mkumbo K. and MAdulu R. (eds). Twenty five years of coconut
research and development in Tanzania. Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Pp. 78-98.

40

Annex I
PERSONS MET DURING THE VISIT
Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, The United Republic of Tanzania

Hon. Eng. C.K. Chiza MP, Minister of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, The
United Republic of Tanzania

Mr. Job David Mika, Private Secretary to Hon. Minister of Agriculture, The United
Republic of Tanzania

Dr. Fidelis Myaka, Deputy Director, Research and Development, Ministry of Agriculture,
Food Security and Cooperatives, The United Republic of Tanzania

Dr. Joseph Ndunguru, Officer in Charge, Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute, The
United Republic of Tanzania

Dr. Alois Kullaya, Former Director, Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute, The United
Republic of Tanzania

Mr. Newton Temu, Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute, The United Republic of
Tanzania

Dr. Linus Masumbuko, Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute, The United Republic of
Tanzania

Dr. Andrew Jacob Ngereza, Principal Agricultural Research Officer, Mikocheni

Agricultural Research Institute, The United Republic of Tanzania

Mr. Karimu B. Mtambo, Director, National Food Security, Ministry of Agriculture, Food
Security and Cooperatives, The United Republic of Tanzania

Christophur L. Makru, MAFC

Mr.Deogratias Lwezaurs, MAFC

Eng. Seth Pidusetema, MAFC

Mr. Hussain Mansoor, MAFC

Cooperatives

Eng. Rajuba N. Mtune, MAFC

Dr. Zuberi Seguni, Invited Entomologist

Nicholar Niangem, COSTED

Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and

The United Republic of Tanzania

41

Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar

Hon. Duma, Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Natural Resources, The Revolutionary
Government of Zanzibar

Mr. Juma All Juma, Deputy Principal Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar

Mr. Affan O. Maalim, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar

Ms. Redemptor M. Tibaigana, Second Secretary (Asia-Pacific), Ministry of Foreign Affairs

and International Cooperation, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

42

Annex 2
PROGRAMME OF THE VISIT
ITINERARY FOR THE DELEGATION FROM SRI LANKA, 14 20 OCTOBER 2013
Date

Time

Event

Responsible

14/10/2013

13.20 hrs

Arrival

15/10/2013

10.00 14.00 hrs

Visit Mikocheni Agricultural

Research Institute and Receive
Presentations

14.00 15.00 hrs

Lunch

Dr. Ngereza, Officer-In-Charge,

Mikocheni Agricultural Research
Institute

16/10/2013

Starting 9.00 hrs

the whole day

Field Visit Chambezi

East African Tall Seed Farm
Lethal Diseased palms
Virgin coconut oil processing
Farmer Field School for
Integrated Pest Management for
rhinoceros beetle control

Officer-in-charge, Mikocheni
Agricultural Research Institute

17/10/2013

Whole day

Travel to Zanzibar
Courtesy call Minister,
Agriculture and Natural
Resources
Visit Kizimbani Research
Institute
Seed farm at Kidichi

Officer-in-charge, Kizimbani

18/10/2013

Whole day

Travel back to Dar Es Salaam and

report writing

Delegation

19/10/2013

9.00-10.00 hrs

Wrap up at Ministry of Agriculture

Food Security and Cooperatives

Director of Research and

Development

13.00-15.00 hrs

Lunch with Minister for Agriculture

Food Security & Cooperatives

Permanent Secretary

12.50 hrs

Departure with QR

Delegation

20/10/2013

43

Officer In charge Mikocheni

Agricultural Research Institute
Director of Research and
Development