CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION & RESEARCH

DESIGN
After Second World War, India emerged as a welfare state since its
independence and in a welfare state the welfare of the common citizens is the
responsibility of the state. Generally speaking, development can be conceptualized as
a movement from the less desirable to more desirable state of affairs. It includes,
increasing the leaving standard of the society, more equitable distribution of wealth,
political and economic empowerment, better education and health care services and
ensuring social justice, etc. Thus development is a process of change aiming at
socio-economic transformation of a society into a modern one1.
Since time immemorial, India has been the country of villages and almost 65
percent population of the country still resides in the countryside. Thus, it is difficult to
think in terms of success of a plan meant for socio-economic development of India
that neglects rural development.
Therefore, rural development is an inevitable part of the overall development.
In India, the concept of rural development came into vogue in the context of
agricultural development.2 Since an overwhelming majority of Indias population
lives in villages, so the development of its rural areas remained of vital significance
right after independence. At the international level, the Indian economy stands fourth.
However it is unfortunate that the process of economic development has uneven as
most of the rural areas are deprived of the development process. On the one hand the
growth of manufacturing, communication and service sector has been appreciable yet

Prakash, Jai, and Mishra, P.,(1995), Negative Impact of Rural Development Plans, Mohit
Publications, New Delhi, p.1
2
Report of the Rural Commission on Agriculture in India, Government Central Press, Bombay, 1928,
p. 631.

as a whole not much has been achieved in case of rural development. Adoption of
more serious and sincere effort in this field is the need of the hour.3
To this end, improving the health, education, availability of safe drinking
water, sanitation, roads and electricity have to be ensured in the rural areas to make
the process of development more even and equitable in the years to come. Thus the
growth of Indian economy has a direct bearing with the emphasis over rural
development as India is an agrarian country and agriculture sector alone contributes
about twenty percent of the GDP. Thus Indian government took various initiatives
towards the formulation and implementation of agricultural programmes to improve
the agricultural growth which ultimately led to increase the pace of rural
development.
In the strategy to develop India after independence, the focus of the
government was primarily on heavy industry, agricultural growth, improvement of
health and education and the allied sectors. However, it was realized, later on, that
without the participation of the common people in the process of development, the
realization of the developmental goals is a far distant reality.
1.1

CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

In simplest terms rural development refers to a strategy that is guided towards

improving the living standards of the rural masses by ensuring them the opportunities
to maximize their potential. In other words, rural development pertains to ensure
quality life as well economic well being of the people living in far flung and remote
areas.4 The term, rural development, connotes overall development of rural areas as
revealed in improved quality of life of the rural masses living in countryside. In this
context, rural development is a diverse, inclusive and wide ranging process and
phenomenon. Hence, it extends to agricultural development, crafts and cottage
industries, infrastructural growth, improvement in community services, and, above all,

http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/04/stories/2007040404861000.htm
Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003), Rural Development: Principles and Practice, Sage Publications London,
pp. 5
4

improvement in the quality of human capital in rural areas. 5 According to World

Bank, the strategy of rural development includes the increase in the quality of socioeconomic life of the rural people and the extension of the benefits of rural
developments even to the poorest segment of the rural society.6
Robert Chamber has defined rural development as a strategy to enable a
specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves and their
children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest amongst
those who seek livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the
benefits of rural development.7
Today, rural development has been viewed as a process directed towards
enhancing the quality of life and economic well being of the people residing in the
distant and sparsely populated areas. Thus the concept of rural development
emphasizes on conscious governmental efforts towards the improvement of rural
people in different walks of life in rural areas by extending them the opportunities of
employment and mitigating poverty by launching various programmes for rural
development. Rural development is primarily aimed at breaking the vicious circle of
poverty through better and higher agriculture production, equitable distribution of
resources, improvement in the quality of life and balanced development at the grass
roots level.8 The overall goal of rural development is to liberate the energies of rural
people so that they can realize their full potential and thus improve their capacity as
well as commitment to development, organize and govern themselves towards the
attainment of higher quality of life for the individual and for the entire community9.
1.2

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Rural development has remained the prime concern of Indian government

since independence. As a result the Indian government has adopted a comprehensive

system of planning in which rural poverty is attacked by the adoption of the system of
5

Singh, Katar (1999). Sustainable Development: Some Reflections, Presidential Address, Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 54(1), 6-41.
6
World Bank, Rural Development Sector Policy Paper, IBRD, Washington, D.C., 1975, p. 3.
7
Chambers, Robert, Rural Development: Putting the Last First, Longmans, London, 1983, p. 23.
8
Bajpai, S.K., Rural Development: Some Constraints in Kurukshetra, Vol. 30(23), 1982, p. 26.
9
Prakash, Jai, Mishra P.,(1995), Negative Impact of Rural Development Plans, Mohit Publications,
New Delhi, p.7

Five Year Plans. Through these plans a number of programmes and policies were
framed to overcome rural poverty by generating gainful employment opportunities for
the rural masses. Eradication of poverty, superstition, ignorance, diseases and removal
of inequalities at the local level were the primary concern of these programmes and
policies. The focus of these programmes launched during various Five Year Plans was
at raising the living standard of the common masses and increasing their income level.
Thus poverty elevation and employment generation at the local level are prominently
figured in the planed system of development in India.
The efforts towards planned development were started after independence
especially in 1951, when the First Five-Year Plan was launched. By keeping in view
the problem of hunger, the first Five Year Plan was oriented towards agriculture and
its allied activities. Thus, in the First Five-Year Plan growth thrust was expected
mainly from agriculture with the extension of infrastructure activities includingirrigation, power and transportation. Development of agriculture supplemented by
growth of small and cottage industries was the broad strategy under the First Five
Year Plan. These two sectors were taken as main employment generators. Thinking
was going on that in the poor agrarian economy of India, where self-employment is
the rule, removal of structural deficiencies and redistribution of land should be the
first priority in a poverty alleviation strategy. The central and state governments
stressed on the promotion of a variety of co-operatives as instruments for rural
development.10
The basic strategy of the Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61) like the First Plan
was that growth would act as the main vehicle of creating more employment
opportunities but emphasis shifted to industrial development consequently substantial
investment in heavy industry was sought to be made with the perception that rapid
industrialization would absorb the surplus rural labour in non-farm activities and that
the benefits of overall economic growth would reach the poor automatically. In
addition to this, an integrated cooperative marketing programme was also started as
per the recommendation given by All India Rural Credit Survey Report during this
plan.
10

Agrawal, Rajiki (1999). Planning and Development in India, Classical Publications, New Delhi, p.
88

During Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) due to the problem of food shortage,
the strategy for rural development was changed. The change was in favour of
increasing agricultural production especially production of food grains. Agriculture
was preferred as the main employment generator. Besides agriculture, it emphasized
on the expansion of rural based industries for creating more employment
opportunities in the rural sector.11
During 1970s and 1980s special attention was given to the problem of poverty
and unemployment. In all previous Five-Year Plans, employment generation was
considered to be natural consequence of economic growth.
Under Fourth Five-Year Plan12 many special employment programmes were
introduced in order to provide direct employment. One of the main endeavours of the
plan was to orient the policies and procedures of credit cooperatives and land
development banks in favour of small cultivators. It was asserted to assist the
cooperatives to equip them with the finance, organization and trained personnel. As
far as agro-industries are concerned, preference will continue to be given to
cooperatives in the matter of licensing and institutional finance. Furthermore,
provisions were framed with regard to the promotion of animal husbandry and its
allied activities.
The Fifth Five Year Plans (1974-79) strategy of direct attack on poverty
was still a macro strategy to accelerate growth and to redistribute income from the top
three deciles of the population to the bottom three deciles in an attempt to lift the
poorest of the poor above the poverty line. Priority was accorded to the
implementation of the schemes falling under the 20-Point Economic Programme
which was announced by the then Prime Minister on 1st July, 1975. The important
Command Area Programme for optimising the use of irrigation water and utilisation
of the potential created from selected commands of major irrigation works also took
time to make a start. Now the Command Area Development Authorities have been set
up and other infrastructure facilities developed.

11
12

Ibid, p. 89
Fourth Five-Year Plan (1980-85), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi,

In Sixth Five-Year Plan13 (1980-85) alleviation of rural poverty was the prime
objective for which direct means of reducing the incidence of poverty were sought to
be employed. Under this plan efforts were made to identify the households who are
living below the poverty line and help them by equipping them with the package of
appropriate technology and the transfer of assets. It includes Schedule Caste (SCs),
Schedule Tribes (STs), backwards, rural artisan, marginal farmers and landless
labourers. Moreover during this Plan, the underlying proposal was to strengthen the
process of democratic decentralization. To this end efforts were made to transfer all
such functions appropriate to the respective level of the Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs) which the latter can plan and implement. Further the role of these institutions
was also realized towards the planning and implementation of Integrated Rural
Development Programmes (IRDP) and National Rural Employment Programme
(NREP). This Plan also provides for the special central assistance to the development
of certain area programmes including Hill Areas and Tribal Areas.
Under Seventh Plan14 the special programmes for income generation for the
poor through assets endowment and wage employment for them were assented to be
continued at an accelerated pace. Although it was felt that the frontal attack on the
eradication of poverty through anti-poverty programmes is justified yet these
programmes for poverty alleviation cannot be sustained unless there is adequate
economic growth and resultant increase in production of goods and services. Thus it
was advocated that poverty alleviation programmes should be regarded as
supplementing the basic plan for overall economic growth for generating productive
assets and skills as well as incomes for the poor. Keeping in view the deficiencies
observed while implementing Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), it
was noticed that greater priority should be assigned to rural employment programmes
by shifting resources away from Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). It
was realized that employment programme can ensure more secure wage income to the
rural poor with the help of generating durable community assets. To this end a threepronged strategy was devised under this plan:

13
14

Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, 1980
Seventh Five-Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.

(a)

Formulation and implementation of poverty alleviation programmes with the

cooperation of rural local people through panchayati raj Institutions at various
levels in a decentralized manner.

(b)

The integrated approach in formulation and implementation of rural

development programmes to avoid multiplicity of organizations, leading to
duplication of management effort was advocated. Appropriate structural
mechanism for planned and integrated implementation of poverty and rural
development programmes was sought by strengthening and reshaping the
orientation of the local administrative machinery through the arrangements of
training to the local officials. Moreover, the cooperation of voluntary agencies
was further sought towards the formulation and implementation of antipoverty programmes during this plan.

(c)

Adoption of a new approach based on group action was emphasized during

this plan for the beneficiaries through the promotion of informal groups and
registered cooperative societies.
It was felt in Eighth Plan (1992-97) that for the purpose of eradication of

poverty, increase in employment and productivity is required. Further, it is necessary

that specific poverty eradication programmes for the purpose of generating minimum
level of income for the poor are to be formulated. The decline in poverty in rural areas
can be attributed to both the growth factor as well as the special employment
generation programmes started by the government for generating more income for
rural poor. Thus, rural development has been limited to a direct hit on poverty through
area-development programmes, special employment programmes and land reforms.15
Under Eighth Five Year Plan, more emphasis was placed over the role of voluntary
organizations in the process of rural development. A network of Non Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) was sought to be created on country-wide basis. For the
purpose of integrated development, efforts were required to be made to evolve a
system for giving single-window service to Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
working in the field of integrated development.
15

Singh, Ramsakal (2006). Rural Poverty An Analytical Study, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, p.
93

Besides, through integration all programmes for poverty eradication on pilot

basis a high degree of convergence was advocated to be attempted in a few districts. It
was sought to be done through an integration of the poverty alleviation programmes,
the area development programmes and sectoral schemes through taking a district as a
unit of planning, a district plan was suggested to be prepared, taking into account the
physical and human endowments of that area. For planning and implementation of the
district plan, the responsibility would vest in the zilla parishads or in the District Rural
Development Agencies (DRDAs).
Under the Eighth Five Year Plan for the purpose of realizing the goals of land
reforms it was felt that for early detection of surplus land the actual cultivators should
be made aware about their rights and they should be made enabled to claim their
benefits. Further, it was conceived that lands acquired should be covered under
profitable agronomic activities for the growth of output and reduction in poverty. It
was also sought in the Plan that land record management and capabilities and skills of
officials at lower level official should be provided necessary support for effecting
modernization.
The Ninth Plan16 (1997-2002) considered direct poverty alleviation
programmes important as the programmes were focused upon improving the
productive prospects of the economy and they also sought providing more
opportunities to involve the poor in the economic activities. Several programmes for
poverty eradication were restructured to increase the efficiency of the programs in
order to improve the condition of rural poor. Consequently the poverty alleviation
programmes were required to be integrated more effectively with programmes meant
for development of area and the various sectoral programmes and various subschemes for providing Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) and
Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) were merged
into the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). Moreover the Panchayats
at different level were sought to prepare the plans through district planning
committees and implement them. Besides, Ninth Five Year Plan especially
16

Ninth Five-Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi

emphasized the arrangement of at least following seven basic services viz.- primary
health services, safe drinking water, primary education to all, nutrition to school and
pre-school children, housing facilities for the poor, connectivity through roads for all
villages and dwellings, and the poor focused Public Distribution System (PDS). In
the Ninth Plan, it was required to identify those laws and policies state wise which are
not suitable for the poor and to modify them or repeal to serve the interest of the poor.
The focus of the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) has been on improving the
standards of living of the common people with ensuring the sources of income
generation by promoting speedy economic growth. It is further aimed at reducing the
poverty by creating adequate employment, infrastructure development, extension of
support facilities resultantly supplementing the income of the household

and

minimizing their risk of being unemployed. Towards the reduction of poverty in a

planned way it was conceived to implement the anti-poverty programmes in an
effective manner. The plan also envisage for tenancy reforms as an important strategy
to eliminate poverty. It includes computerization of land records, giving land
ownership rights to women, proper recording and digitalization of land records and
preventing separation of land from the tribal.
The Eleventh Five Year Plan17 (2007-2012) was primarily focused on a direct
reduction of the poor. It has been conceived in the plan that speedy development of
economy is required to minimize their number through the rapid expansion of
employment opportunities. To this end, effective implementation of anti-poverty
programmes and more and more investment in education, health, child nutrition,
sanitation facilities, etc. is required. In this plan the adoption of a multi-pronged
approach has been suggested in order to deal with the chronic and multi-faceted
nature of poverty in our country. This plan reaffirmed the strategy for poverty
reduction and inclusive growth through the successful implementation of poverty
reduction programmes. The plan further emphasized the empowerment of workers
under National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS). To promote savings
on the part of workers, initiative towards the opening of accounts either in banks or in
post offices has been encouraged on larger scale. To provide insurance cover to the
17

The Eleventh Five Year Plan document, Planning Commission of India

workers, different life and health insurance schemes have been envisioned. Besides, a
National Agency has been proposed under this plan to plan, organize and coordinate
the anti-poverty programmes outside the ministry which will act as the think tank to
provide requisite technical expertise and capacities.
Twelfth18 Five year plan (2012-17) recommended for the creation of Flexifund for rural development having an amount of 40,000 crores which will be shared in
the ratio of 70: 30 by the centre and state governments respectively to provide more
flexibility to states with regard to their specific financial needs in implementing their
various schemes for rural development. The plan also provided for expansion of
permissible works under MNREGA in order to develop its link with agricultural
activities. It also provided for preparation of labour budget for the purpose of
assessing the demand of work in advance so that employment could be provided as
per the demand. Further this plan also proposed the mandatory appointment of a fulltime Programme Officer at block level under MNREGA. Moreover the Plan further
proposed to constitute a three member professional team called as Cluster Facilitation
Teams (CFT). It will include specialists from community mobilization, hydrogeology,
earthen engineering, agriculture or its allied sectors to enable more professional
planning based on the watershed approach aimed at improved land and water
productivity.19 This plan also stressed upon the implementation of the National Rural
Livelihood Mission (NRLM) launched in 2011. It is popularly known as Aajeevika.
The mission constitutes a paradigm shift in the implementation of poverty alleviation
programmes in the country. It is built on the lessons from different ongoing
programmes of the centre and the states.
1.3

RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES- SHIFTING STRATEGIES

AND PARADIGMS

1.3.1 Rural Development in Pre-Independence Phase

Almost three decades before in the pre independence phase, some efforts in
the direction of rural development works had been started by various government
departments in the provinces. Unfortunately during this period development
18
19

The Twelfth Five Year Plan document, Planning Commission of India

Ibid.

10

expenditure was very low thus development in rural areas was primarily seen as the
fulfillment of basic needs of the people in the villages.

Therefore, the main

importance was accorded to the digging and repair of wells for improvement in
supply of drinking water and enhancing irrigation facilities, provision of seeds,
fertilizers and formation of credit societies. Although above stated items constitute
the important aspect of any rural development programme yet except some scattered
efforts, there found a complete lack of coordinated and systematic effort for the
development of village life as a whole in the pre-independence phase.20.
In the pre-independence phase, the British took little interest in development
of India in general and rural development in particular. All that has been done on
account of rural development was the outcome of compelling situations of the time to
exploit India in a better way. The British were not interested in developing India
socially as well economically as a result the economic conditions in rural areas hardly
improved and the rural people had to live in despair. In 1899, the death of numerous
people out of hunger due to famine compelled the British rulers in India to think about
common masses. The frequent famines forced the provinces to siege food grains by
the hoarders and to make necessary arrangements for the distribution of food grains in
famine affected areas.21. It is interesting to note that in the pre-independence phase,
rural development was started as a humanitarian effort without any executive and
legal backing which was extended later. In 1906, Provincial Research Institute and
Agricultural College were set up by Lord Curzon on the recommendations of famine
commissions constituted in 1866 and 1880 respectively.22
Nevertheless, not only sparingly efforts were made by British administration
in this direction of rural development but also the funds allocated to them were
meager. Moreover these efforts were undertaken without any sincerity and
commitment. The administrative efforts were primarily confined to revenue collection
and maintaining law and order instead of development.23 It reflects that during British
20

First Five Year Plan Document, Planning Commission of India

Mishra, B.B., (1983) District Administration and Rural Development Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, p.6
22
Mahaeshwari , Shriram, (1995), Rural Development in India: A Public Policy Approach, Sage
Publication, New Delhi, p.14.
23
Vidyarthi, L. P. (Ed.),(1982), Rural Development in South Asia, Concept Publishing Company, New
Delhi, p 20.
21

11

rule, rural development was not on the priority list. Consequently, the efforts in the
direction of rural development in pre-independence phase were either started by state
actors or by nationalist leaders and social reformers. Some of the prominent initiates
taken in pre-independence India are as under :
The Gurgaon Experiment:
F.L. Bryne, the then Deputy Commissioner of Gurgoan District, started this
rural development initiative to promote reforms in agriculture, health, education and
sanitation by mobilizing people in 1927. It was an effort in the direction of reduction
of poverty through public involvement by emphasizing self-help, dignity of labour
and generation of mass awareness through various means. Under this programme,
for the first time, a 'Village guide' was posted in each village who was to work as a
link to pass on new innovations to the villagers24. However this experiment failed
due its compulsive rather than voluntary approach which led to increase the gap
between rich and poor.
The Firka Development Scheme:
It was a government sponsored scheme stated by Madras government in 1946.
It was focused on , organizing the villagers for a happier, more prosperous and
fuller life in which the individual villagers had the opportunity to develop both as an
individual and as a unit of a well integrated society.25 The scheme was meant to
serve long term as well as short term objectives. The former includes- agriculture
development, promotion of cottage industries like khadi and animal husbandry and
thus achieving self reliance in food, shelter and clothing where the latter includes-the
fulfillment of basic facilities like drinking water, sanitation, communication, etc.
The Etawah Pilot Project:
This project was started by Albert Mayor in 1948 in the Etawa district of Uttar
Pradesh for rural reconstruction. It was launched in ninety seven villages of
Mahadeva block of this district. Under this project, the concept of decentralized
economy was inserted for promoting agro-industrial economy characterized by
growth of agriculture and horticulture and various forms of animal husbandry like

24
25

Madan , G.R.(1990), Indias Developing Villages, Allied Publishers. New Delhi, p.44.
Ibid. , p.39

12

piggery, fishery, poultry, etc.26. It also emphasized on self-reliance, citizens

participation, reshaping right kind of attitude, promotion of village leadership, etc.
The activities covered under this project include, agricultural demonstrations, soil
conservation, improvement in animal husbandry, village sanitation and the cooperation of various departments and non-official agencies27.
The Nilokheri Experiment:
The experiment was launched by the community development and cooperation
minister, S.K. Dev in 1948 after independence in Nillokheri town. The project
involves the rehabilitation of almost seven thousand displaced persons. Under this
project a Cooperative Vocational Training Centre was set up that had its own animal
husbandry activities including piggery, poultry, dairy, etc. and printing press, as well
as engineering workshops. Under this centre, vocational training was given to the
people as per their skill and choice.28
Sriniketan Experiment:
This experiment was initiated by Ravindra Nath Tagore in 1920 by
establishing the Institute for Rural Reconstruction at Shanti Niketan to study rural
problem in detail and to help villagers in the activities promotion of animal
husbandry, growth of agriculture, organization of cooperatives and increasing
sanitation in villages29. It was launched in a group of eight villages but it failed to
achieve its desired objectives due to lack of availability of markets, professional
training and absence of coordination, etc. 30.
Rural Reconstruction Programme by Mahatma Gandhi:
This programme was initiated by Mahatam Gandhi, in the year 1938 at Seva
Gram village of district Wardha in Gujarat. It was based on eighteen point programme
for rural reconstruction. It was initiated in response to the continuously decline of
rural industries. He believed that the extinction of village industry would complete
the ruin of 7 Lakhs villages. He gave special attention to revive rural crafts especially

26

Madan ,G.R.(1990), Op.cit, p.41

Krishnamachari, V.T., (1958), Community Development In India, Government of India; Publication
Division, New Delhi, p. 12
28
Madan, G.R.(1990), Op.cit, p.40
29
Rambhai, B. (1959). The Silent Revolution, Jiwan Prakashan, New Delhi, p. 10
30
Madan ,G.R.(1990), Op.cit, p.43
27

13

spinning and weaving, traditional oil press, grain processing and leather work31. The
essence of this programme was based on the doctrine of non- violence and truth. The
programme

was

basically

emphasized

on

the

philosophy

of

democratic

decentralization, promotion of Khadi and village industries to attain self-sufficiency at

grass-roots level.
The Bhoodan Movement:
It was launched by Achrya Vinoba Bhave requesting the owners of the land to
distribute some of their land to the landless. The basic objective of Bhoodan
campaign was to prevent the emergence of bloody revolution by solving the land
problems in a peaceful way. The real intention was to create the right atmosphere so
that progressive land reforms could follow32. His efforts were successful in the
beginning but later it was found in most of the cases that the donation of land proved
a deception as in real sense land was still retained by the owners of the land.33.
The pre-independence efforts in the direction of rural development were
proved ineffective and thus results in the realization of their objects. The
governmental efforts were not only adequate but were also undertaken half heartedly.
As far as the voluntary efforts were concerned, they were mostly individually initiated
and lacks systematic and organized efforts. Moreover, in the absence of any
governmental support most of them failed to realize their desired objectives.
1.3.2 Rural Development in Post-Independence Phase
The efforts for socio-economic development of India in a planned manner
indeed started immediately after independence in true sense. However, the strategy
for rural development has been subject to change due to shifting approaches and
paradigms of rural development consequently the emphasis and contents of rural
development programmes changed from time to time. In 1950s the emphasis was laid
on development of agriculture sector though innovations and development of
extension services with the perception that agricultural development is inevitable for
31

Madan ,G.R.(1990), Op.cit, p.42

Narayan, Shriman, (1978), Towards the Gandhian Plan, S. Chand & Co. , New Delhi, p.71
33
Pandey, B.P. (Ed.), (1991), Gandhi and Economic Development Radiant Publishers, New Delhi,
p.155
32

14

rural development and without extension of government machinery downward to field

no development plan can be effectively implemented. In 1970s, the focus of rural
development strategy has been shifted to direct action against poverty as the benefits
of economic growth were not reaching to the poor as perceived earlier that the fruits
of economic development were automatically percolate to lower levels and eradicate
poverty. Thus a need was felt to combat poverty through targeted poverty alleviation
programmes. A serious concern was felt for structural adjustments since late 1980s.
These programmes were primarily agriculture development programmes, area specific
or target group specific or activity specific or problem specific programmes.
1.4

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
ORIENTED STRATEGY

PROGRAMMEA

WELFARE

The critical assumption of this strategy is that people are not competent
enough to resolve their problems on their own and government intervention is needed
to help them in the form of financial and administrative resources. Indias First Five
Year Plan was dominated by this strategy. The plan gave high priority to agricultural
and rural development which sought to promote the well-being of rural population in
general and rural poor in particular all over the country through uniform spread of
available financial, material and other resources. It was undertaken under this
programme which exhibited the concern of India towards the promotion of equity and
national development. The welfare oriented programmes represented a mixed picture
of the rural poor benefited significantly through some of the programmes in a few
areas but not in others. This strategy has been criticized on two grounds first. It has
encouraged dependence and second it requires huge resources that are beyond the
means of government34.
Government started various projects for rural development. Among these
programmes, Community Development Programme (CDP) is the most important one.
The central idea behind this programme was to ensure better living standard to the
villagers by ensuring their active involvement. Etawah (by Albert Meyer) and
Nilokheri (by S.K. Dey) projects in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh respectively served as

34

Singh, Kartar and Singh Yatroha (2007), Changing Perspective and Paradigms of Rural
Development Rawat Publications, New Delhi, pp.31-32.

15

the

modals

for

nationwide

Community

Development

Programme

(CDP)

35

programme . The Community Development Programme (CDP) was aimed at

providing suitable infrastructure for extension work. The basic objective of the
movement was to attain the overall development of the human as well as the material
resources in rural areas on the basis of area and to develop local leadership and self
governing institution. Community Development Programme (CDP) was started on the
recommendations of the Krishnamachari Committee, on the October 2, 1952. Initially,
this programme was initiated with almost fifty five rural development projects
situated in selected areas in various states in India. A new geographical unit called
block consisting of about 300 villages was carved out. Each block had an extension
organisation including the Block Development Officer (BDO), subject specialist and
the Village Level Workers (VLWs). Earlier, different departments appointed their
own functionaries at the village level to implement their respective programmes with
the result that there was no synchronization in their efforts. But the Community
Development Programme (CDP) covered several activities like agriculture, animal
husbandry, health, education and employment.36
On October 2, 1953, for the purpose of implementing community development
projects another programme popularly known as National Extension Service (NES)
was launched which referred to the block level organization consisting of the BDO,
subject specialists, the VLWs, and the extension officers. Both the Community
Development Programme (CDP) and the National Extension Service (NES) were
aimed at the welfare of the whole rural population rather than to cater to the poor
people only. While the Community Development Programme (CDP) was intended to
last three years, the National Extension Service (NES) was to be a permanent multifunctional extension agency at the block level.37 The pattern of Community
Development Programme (CDP) was revised in 1958 when Nation Extension Service

35

Panday, Kishore Chandra, (1986), Rural Development in modern India, B.R. Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi, p. 393.
36
Singh, Hoshiar and Mohinder Singh, Public Administration in India: Theory and Practice, Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1989, p. 324.
37
Arora, Ramesh K. and Rajni Goyal (2004), Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues (2 nd
edn.), Wishwa Prakashan, New Delhi, p. 460.

16

Blocks were set up with lesser area and population coverage i.e. about 100 villages
with the population of sixty thousand to eighty thousand38.
The Community Development Programme (CDP) and the National Extension
Service (NES) were administered in a planned manner but both the programmes could
not achieve the objectives for which they were started. Problems like corruption,
misuse of power were emerged due to citizen-administration interaction which was
required for the implementation of the two schemes. A study team under the
chairmanship of Balwant Mehta was constituted to review the performance of
Community Development Programme (CDP) and National Extension Service (NES)
the most important finding of the committee was that Community Development
Programme (CDP) failed to ensure adequate public participation and only 19 percent
of the rural population of entire country benefited from community development
projects. The committee recommended an institutional restructuring of entire
machinery of Community Development Programme (CDP) by associating elected
representatives of people to control and guide bureaucracy at district, block and
village levels.39 Moreover without popular participation Community Development
Programme (CDP) appeared as government programme sustained more by hope than
achievement. Consequently the Community Development Programme (CDP) failed to
develop the economic conditions of the troubled poor and it failed in its economic
goals because as it lacked population planning as an integral part of the programme.40
1.4.1

Agricultural Development Programmes

The growth oriented strategy towards rural development is based on the

philosophy that rural people like others are rational decision makers it they are given
adequate opportunity and proper environment will try to maximize their incomes. The
critical assumption of the strategy is that the benefits of increased production will
gradually trickle down to the poor. This strategy formed the basis of predominant
agricultural development strategy of 1960s when programmes like-Intensive
38

Prakash, Jai and Misra, P. (1995), Negative Impact of Rural Development plans, Mohit Publications,
New Delhi, p.10
39
Report of the Team for the Study of Community Projects and National Extension Service,
Committee on Plan Projects, New Delhi, Government of India, 1957.
40
Panday, Kishore Chandra, (1986), Rural Development in Modern India, B.R. Publishing Corporation
New Delhi, pp. 393.

17

Agriculture District Programmes (IADP), Intensive Agriculture Area Programme

(IAAP), The Intensive Cattle Development Programme (ICDP), and High Yielding
Varieties Programme (HYVP) were launched41 to make the country self-reliant in
agricultural production. These programmes aimed at augmenting agricultural
production through the application of advance techniques and hybridized seeds and
better irrigation facilities for increasing level of agricultural produce.42
During 1950s the low level of agriculture productivity was taken seriously by
the government in India. The issue got worsened during the considerable decline in
the production of crops during the year facing drought (1957-58) which attracted the
attention of government towards the grim food situation. As an outcome a team of
experts from Ford Foundation was invited by the Indian government to look into the
matter and make recommendations accordingly. According to the observation of the
team there was no inherent soil or climatic or other physical reasons for the present
low productivity.43Consequently Intensive Agriculture District Programmes (IADP)
was launched in 1960-61 on the recommendation of the Agricultural Production
Team. The programme was aimed at devising the most effective ways towards
increasing agricultural produce by utilizing better practices, procedures and
approaches. In the beginning it was started in seven districts of selected seven states.
The seven districts selected were West Godavari in Andhra Pradesh, Shahabad in
Bihar, Raipur in Madhya Pradesh, Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu, Ludhiana in Punjab,
Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh and Pali in Rajasthan. The first four were selected for rice,
the next two for wheat and last one for millets. However, this programme was also
implemented in the remaining states (selecting one district from each) in India for
intensive development. This network was further extended to 114 districts out of
325.44
Due to the problem of acute shortage of food grains, India in 1965-66 and
1966-67 launched a programme known as High Yielding Varieties Programme
(HYVP) to increase agriculture production through utilization of better agriculture
41

Singh, Kartar and Yatroha Singh (2007), Op. cit. (p.32)

Arora, Ramesh K. and Goyal, Rajni, op. cit., p. 461
43
Madan, G.R. (2002). Indian Rural Problems, Radha Publications, New Delhi, p. 85
44
Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. (2002). Indian Economy: Its Development Experience (20 th edn.),
Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, p. 337
42

18

inputs including high yielding varieties of seeds and other agriculture inputs.
Adequate availability of irrigation facilities, fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides
were the prime requirements of the High Yielding Varieties (HYV) seeds.
Accordingly, they had to be introduced in the form of a package programme. The
primary objective was to provide farmers with adequate and timely supplies of new
inputs and, wherever necessary, the credit for purchase of these inputs for increasing
productivity of selected crops. Thus the promise of increasing agricultural production
and productivity held by the new varieties of seeds, India adopted this new
agricultural strategy based on High-Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) for the
first time in the kharif session of 1966 and was popularly known as High-Yielding
Varieties Programme (HYVP). The programme was initiated as a packaged
programme since it was crucially based on consistent and adequate supply of
fertilizers, high-yielding varieties of seeds, pesticides and insecticides and proper
irrigation facilities. Initially, it was launched in an area of 1.89 million hectares.45
Apart from development of agriculture sector the efforts for improving live
stock, various programmes were stated since Independence. In India, the first
systematic attempt was initiated towards the quality improvement of cattle during the
First Five Year Plan as adopting the `Key Village Scheme'. The programme was
rejuvenated by the initiation of the Intensive Cattle Development Projects (ICDPs) in
1965. Under the programme Intensive Cattle Development Projects (ICDPs) were
framed to extend the cattle owners a package of improved practices and envisaged
intensive coverage of 1 lakh cows and buffaloes of breedable-age for achieving
marked impact on milk production. These projects were located in selected areas
which had good potential and conditions to respond to cattle development
programmes.46
1.4.2

Area Development Programmes

Initially it was assumed that high economic growth would automatically take

care of the development of backward rural areas suffering from acute poverty and
unemployment but the most important lesson learnt from experiences of Integrated
45

Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. (2002), Indian Economy: Its Development Experience (20th edn.),
Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, pp. 337-38
46
http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/peoreport/cmpdmpeo/volume2/esof.pdf

19

Rural Development Programmes (IADP) and other similar programmes was that a
rising economic growth rate was no guarantee against poverty therefore a direct attack
on the basic problems of poverty and unemployment was required. Consequently
special programmes like Drought Prone -Area Programme, Command Area
Development Programme and Tribal Area Development Programme for the weaker
sections of society were introduced in seventies.47
The Rural Works Programme, which was instrumental in mitigating the
severity of droughts and providing relief in the drought affected areas was replaced by
the Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP) in 1973. The basic objective of the
programme was provision of employment through direct construction work of
permanent nature and more infrastructural oriented development. As these areas have
continued to suffer from chronic instability of weather and crop condition to mitigate
these problems a labour - intensive programme was launched. The major elements of
the programme were irrigation, soil conservation and afforestation and rural roads.48
Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP) is based on the area development approach.
It is a long-term strategy for restoring ecological balance, overcoming the conditions
of scarcity, effecting optimum utilization of land, water, livestock and human
resources,

changing

agronomic

management of irrigation etc.

49

practices,

animal

husbandry

development,

Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP) is a

centrally sponsored scheme and the allocation is shared by the Central and the
implementing state governments. A development block as in the case of all other
programmes, is made the basic unit of Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP). The
programme is administered through the District Rural Development Agencies in the
states.
The Command Area Development Programme (CAD), which was launched in
1973, was designed to correct the imbalances existing in irrigation projects and to
ensure an all-round development of the command area of the major irrigation projects.
CAD represented a new concept in rural development strategy, where instead of
separate departments for district developmental activities, each having its own
47

Singh, Kartar and Singh, Yatroha (2007), Op.cit. p.33.

Prakash, Jai and Misra,, P. (1995), Op.cit., p.12.
49
Jaiswal, N.K. and Kolte, N.V. (1981). Development of Drought Prone Area Programme, NIRD,
Hyderabad, p. 18
48

20

autonomy, the new organizational strategy would be an administrative unit based on

natural resource activity which cuts across the usual administrative boundaries.50
The Command Area Development approach aims at integrating a very wide
range of developmental, sectoral and functional components and sub-components
through articulation of a comprehensive strategy of development; which includes
distinct fields previously thought to be unrelated to agriculture. The major activities
undertaken under the Command Area Development Programme (CADP) includes
improvement of the existing irrigation system through development maintenance;
modernization and stabilization of canals; drainage works such as construction and
maintenance of drains; on-farm development which includes farm drainage works
realignment of field boundaries, farm road works, ground water development,
updating land records and realignment of field boundaries; agricultural development
which includes agricultural extension system, research and agricultural cooperatives;
macro development of command area which caters to road building, processing
industries, forestry, pastures, care of animals and control of diseases.
The hill areas present special problems relating to socio-economic
transformation and, therefore, a specific programme called Hill Area Development
Programme has been launched to tackle these problems. Integrated area development
approach has been applied in some selected hill areas. The main emphasis of the
programme was over identification of backward regions in states with sizeable hill
areas and formulation of a separate sub-plan for the development of these areas. Pilot
projects were taken up under this programme in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. The main strategy of development in these projects was integrated
development of agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, land development and
soil conservation, minor irrigation and other basic infrastructural facilities on
watershed basis.51
The Tribal Development Programme (TDP) was stated to foster the economic
development of the tribal population so as to join them in the national mainstream.
The projects comprises agriculture development including horticulture, land

50
51

http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/anu5409731459.pdf
Madan, G.R., op. cit., p. 90

21

development, soil conservation, minor irrigation, control of shifting cultivation and

cattle development52
In 1993, Employment Assurance Scheme53 (EAS) was launched to provide
about 100 days of assured casual manual employment during the lean agricultural
season. The scheme was introduced in 1778 identified backward blocks situated in
drought prone, desert, tribal and hill areas. Later the scheme was extended to
additional blocks covered under Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert
Development Programme (DDP) and blocks in flood prone areas. The Employment
Assurance Scheme (EAS) has since 1997 been extended to all the rural blocks in the
country. A maximum of two adults per family are to be provided employment under
the scheme. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) is a centrally sponsored scheme
with 75:25 cost sharing ratio between centre and states. Initially, the scheme was
demand-driven but from 1999, resources were allocated to states based on the
incidence of poverty.
1.5

SPECIFIC

TARGET

PROGRAMMESA

GROUP

SPECIFIC

STRATEGY
It was realized during later 1960s, that despite incentives to cooperative
farming for mitigating the effects of uneconomic holdings, the cooperative farming
culture could not develop among the smaller farmers. Thus, it was felt necessary that
the less affluent cultivators should be enabled through state and institutional support,
to improve their production potential and income level by adopting improved
agricultural practices. Therefore, accepting the recommendations of the All India
Rural Credit Committee, the scheme of setting up the Small Farmers Development
Agency (SFDA) was launched in 1969. It was also considered necessary to develop
marginal farmers and, therefore, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
Development Agency (MFAL) were also set up in the same year.54
The prime objective of Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and
Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL) was to
identify such farmers, investigate their problems and formulate programmes by which
52

Prakash, Jai and Misra,, P. (1995), Op. cit. , p.12.

Ninth Five-Year Plan (1995-2002), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.
54
Ibid.
53

22

they could be helped to overcome their handicaps. These covered- programmes were
related to agriculture, horticulture, cropping pattern, soil conservation, and land
shaping and development. Subsidiary projects like poultry, diary and goat and sheep
rearing were also undertaken. The agencies under the programme, set up at the district
level, were operated by the state governments and were funded by the Centre. They,
however, functioned under the control and supervision of the state level Coordination
and Review Committee. Each agency had its own governing body and executive staff
and worked in coordination with several other departments such as cooperatives,
animal husbandry and agriculture.55
Antyodaya scheme was introduced by the Janata Party government at the
Centre in 1978. Under this scheme five poorest families in a village were identified in
a Gram Sabha meeting. Each such family could be given loan and subsidies up to Rs.
5000 for taking up an occupation of its own choice. Loan was to be disbursed in kind
for the purchase of tools, equipments etc., which were to be hypothecated with the
bank issuing the loan. The activities that could be taken up under the programme were
to suit the experience and aptitude of the family members concerned. These could
include purchase of milk cattle, pig-rearing, shoe-making, goat rearing, horse cart
etc.56
Indra Awas Yojna (IAY) is the core programme for providing free housing to
BPL families in rural areas and targets SC/ Schedule Tribes (STs) households and
freed bonded labourers was started in 1985-86. It was first merged with the Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana (JRY) in 1989 and then spun off into a separate housing scheme for
the rural poor in 1996.
1.5.1

Anti-Poverty/Unemployment Removal Programmes

According to this paradigm the strategies are designed to achieve

simultaneously the goal of growth, equity and community participation. It was

realized that a fragmented approach towards development of rural areas facing
multiplicity of problems would not be fruitful as has been experienced so far having
implemented different programmes focused on particular issue or the problem. Thus
55
56

Arora, Ramesh K. and Goyal, Rajni, op. cit., pp. 471-472.

Madan, G.R., op. cit., p. 93

23

an Integrated strategy was advocated having a very comprehensive and integrated

view of basic problems of poverty, unemployment and inequality. The Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment
(TRYSEM) and Rural Employment Programme (REP) were introduced in adoption of
integrated strategy. But successful implementation of this strategy requires complex
decentralized matrix structures with permanent mechanisms for vertical and lateral
integration, a combination of generalist and specialist skills, institutional leadership,
social intervention capability and systems management57.
Many programmes have been launched to tackle poverty and unemployment.
As there is a cause and effect relationship between the two problems, the strategy
adopted in most of the programmes has been focused on targeting both of them. Crash
Scheme for Rural Employment introduced envisaged in 1971 was one of the earliest
such programme. In the wake of rural works programme and crash scheme for rural
employment the projects were selected for the pilot intensive rural employment and
the scheme was started in 1972-73 during 4th five year plan. The main objectives of
the scheme were to provide gainful employment on work projects which do not
require skill of higher order in a selected compact area to all those who offer their
service for wage employment58. This programme aimed to generate additional
employment through a network of rural projects of various kinds which are labourintensive and productive. The scheme had a two-fold objective: (i) a project in each
block to provide employment to 100 persons on an average continuously over a
working season of 10 months in a year, (ii) each project was to produce works or
assets of durable nature in consonance with the local development plans. The various
types of projects included schemes relating to minor irrigation, soil conservation and
aforestation, land reclamation, flood protection and anti-water logging, pisciculture,
drinking water and construction of roads.59
A Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Project (PIREP) was started in 1972 in
15 selected blocks to provide full employment to everyone who was willing to work.
This was an ad hoc scheme to crash employment and intensive rural employment
57

Singh, Kartar and Singh Yatroha (2007), Op. cit., p.34.

Prakash, Jai, and Misra,, P. (1995), Op. cit., p.13.
59
Datt, Ruddar and Sundharam, K.P.M. (2006), Indian Economy, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi,
p. 348
58

24

which gave way to the spreading Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA),
Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL),
Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP)etc.60
The Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS) of Maharashtra government was
introduced in 1972-73, it was the first scheme which provided the right to work in
India which mandated for the state to provide work to a person who is ready to do
manual labour work. The scheme aimed at providing gainful and productive
employment to an individual in approved rural works to raise the productivity of the
economy. Further the works undertaken were required to create durable community
assets in the area. The labour-intensive and productive work including minor
irrigation, water and soil conservation, nalla bunding, canal excavation, land
development, aforestation etc. were permitted under the scheme. Further the works
under the scheme were required to be implemented departmentally and not through
contractors so that at least 60 percent of the works expenditure is incurred on wages to
works and 40 percent in the form of materials, equipment, supervisory, expert and
administrative services.61
The Food for Work Programme62 was introduced in 1977 on the
recommendations that were made by several committees that the food grains could be
used as payment for the work to the persons living below poverty line. The
programme was conceived in the light of the fact that the government had
accumulated a buffer stock of over 20 million tons of food grains by 1977. Thus it
was advocated that food grains should be used as payment for part or whole of the
labour rendered in the execution of the specified projects. The main thrust of the
programme was on utilization of surplus food grains for the development along with
generating additional gainful employment for both men and women in the rural areas.
Moreover the programme was also aimed at creation of durable community assets to
strengthen the social infrastructure for increasing production and raising the living
standards in the rural areas.

60

Madan, G.R., op. cit., p. 94

Datt, Ruddar and Sundharam, K.P.M. op. cit., p. 349
62
Ibid, p. 350
61

25

The Scheme of Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) was

initiated in 1979 with the objective of providing basic technical and entrepreneurial
skills to the rural poor in the age group of 18 to 35 years to enable them to take up
income generating activities. Under Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment
(TRYSEM) technical skills were to be provided to rural youth from families below
the poverty line to enable them to take up self-employment in agriculture and allied
activities, industries, services and business activities. The scheme aimed at training
about 2 lakh rural youths per year to enable them to become self-employed for which
40 youths were to be selected from each block from the rural family having an income
less than Rs. 3,500 per year. Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were to be given
preference in selection of beneficiaries and a minimum of one-third of the rural
youths trained were to be women. However, this programme was merged into the
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana which was launched in April 1999.63
In the Fourth Round of the Concurrent Evaluation of Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP) in 1992-93 it was found that there has been a poor
convergence of Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) with
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). Further, it was also observed that
the rural youth trained under Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
were only interested in the stipendiary benefits under the scheme and therefore, had
not utilized the knowledge gained under the programme for furthering their selfemployment. Resultantly such expenditure on training had become infructuous
because of an absence of linkages between the employment opportunities available
and training provided. Thus Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
has been a weak link in the overall strategy for self-employment in rural areas64.
The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was started in selected
blocks in 1978-79 and was extended to all over country from 2nd October 1980. The
programme aimed at providing self-employment to the rural poor through acquisition
of productive assets or appropriate skills which would generate additional income on
a sustained basis to enable them to cross the poverty line. Assistance is provided in
63

Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. (2002), Indian Economy: Its Development Experience, Himalaya
Publishing House, Mumbai, pp. 201-02
64
Ninth Five-Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.

26

the form of subsidy and bank credit. The target group consists largely of small and
marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans living below the poverty
line. The programme has been providing assistance to rural poor in the form of
subsidy and bank credit for productive employment opportunities. Subsequently,
Training of Rural Youth for Self employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women
and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Improved Tool Kits to Rural
Artisans (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) were introduced as subprogrammes of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) to take care of the
specific needs of the rural population. Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP) though a programme of asset endowment, it also meant to provide selfemployment in a variety of activities like sericulture, animal husbandry and landbased activities in the primary sector; weaving, handicrafts etc. in the secondary
sector; and service and business activities in the tertiary sector. The main objective of
the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) is to evolve an operationally
integrated strategy for increasing production and productivity in agriculture and allied
sectors along with resource and income generation for vulnerable sections of the
population by improving the productivity of land by providing access to inputs like
water, improved seeds, and fertilizers for those who have some land. Diversification
of agriculture through animal husbandry, dairying, forestry, fishery, sericulture etc.
will benefit both the landless and the land holders.65
In 1982, a pilot scheme was launched for the Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) as a component under Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP) in 50 districts and it was later extended to all the
districts of India. The scheme aims at improving the living conditions of women and
thereby, children by providing opportunities for self-employment through skill upgradation, training, credit and other support services. The scheme seeks to encourage
collective action in the form of group activities; further the scheme also encourages
the habit of saving and credit among poor rural women to make them self-reliant.
Besides, the scheme also envisages that this target group would be the focus for
convergence of other services like family welfare, health care, nutrition, education,
65

Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi

27

child care, safe drinking water, sanitation and shelter to improve the welfare and
quality of life of the family and the community. 66 In the implementation of
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), some states like
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tripura and Gujarat have performed very well while in other
states, the performance and impact of this programme has been relatively poor.
The Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) scheme was
launched in July 1992, as a sub-scheme of Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP) in selected districts which was later extended to all the districts all over India.
Under the scheme a variety of artisans are supplied with a kit of improved hand tools
at 90 percent subsidy to a maximum of Rs.2000 for non-power driven tools and Rs.
4500 for power driven tools further if any additional finance required by the artisans it
can be provided through loans under Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP). By 1997 about 60 lakh toolkits have been distributed to rural artisans since
the inception of the scheme. According to findings of the study conducted regarding
evaluation of impact of Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) by
Development Alternatives, New Delhi, in two Districts of Uttar Pradesh, namely Agra
and Aligarh the income level of rural artisans have increased substantially with the
use of improved tools67.
In 1983 Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) was
introduced with twin objectives firstly for improving and expanding employment
opportunities for the rural landless with a view to provide guarantee of employment to
at least one member of every landless household up to 100 days in a year and
secondly for creating durable assets to strengthen the infrastructure for fulfilling the
growing requirements of the rural economy. A tendency to concentrate on assets
creation on the basis of departmental plans rather than on the basis of the
requirements determined locally and of the need to provide the requisite quantum of
employment to the landless labourers has been noticed. Concentration on road
projects was also initially observed which was later sought to be restricted to not more

66
67

Madan, G.R., op. cit., p. 587

Ninth Five-Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.

28

than 50 per cent of the total outlays are also confined to the priorities arising out of
the Minimum Needs Programme.68
The National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) was started during sixth
plan and the programme also continued under the seventh plan. The National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP) was meant to help that segment of rural population
which largely depended on wage employment and has virtually no source of income
during the lean agriculture period. Under the National Rural Employment Programme
(NREP) development projects and target group oriented employment generation
projects were closely intertwined. The programme was implemented as a centrallysponsored scheme. But its financial burden was to be shared between the central
government and the state governments on equal basis. The centre provided its share
partly in cash. Under the scheme a district level employment plan (disaggregated
block-wise) was prepared. This plan was required to estimate the number of persons
who could seek work under the scheme and the work opportunities likely to be
available. The programmes of works under the National Rural Employment
Programme (NREP) were formulated in the light of this information.69
In 1988-89, a centrally sponsored scheme, the Million Wells Scheme (MWS)
was launched as a sub-scheme of National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) to provide open
irrigation wells, free of cost, to individual poor, small and marginal farmers belonging
to SC/ST and freed bonded labourers. Under the scheme beneficiaries themselves are
asked to undertake construction of their wells through their own labour and local
labour for which they are paid. Contractors are banned under this programme. The
wage to material ratio is required to be maintained at 60:40. Tubewells and bore wells
are not permitted under the scheme. The impediments in the effective implementation
of Million Wells Scheme (MWS) as revealed by various field studies includeconstruction of wells without proper hydro-geological surveys; a declining water table
and its continuous depletion by overuse of pumping sets; limited success in rocky and
sandy strata; distance between wells affecting the rate of discharge. The scheme
remained the component of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) after merger in April 1989
68
69

Seventh Five-Year Plan , Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi

Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. op. cit., p. 201

29

but was delinked from Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) and made into an independent
scheme in January 1996. A total of 11.04 lakh wells have been constructed since the
inception of the programme till 1996-97 at an expenditure of Rs.4003.11 crore70.
In February 1989 the government announced a new wage employment
scheme, the Jawaharlal Nehru Rozgar Yojana (JNRY) for intensive employment
creation in 120 backward districts. However, later on it was felt that the objective and
thrust of the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) and Jawaharlal Nehru Rozgar Yojana
(JNRY) was identical. Therefore, these programme were merged into a single rural
employment programme on April 1, 1989 and it was given the name Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana (JRY).71
The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was meant to generate meaningful
employment opportunities for the unemployed and underemployed in rural areas
through the creation of economic infrastructure and community and social assets. The
primary objective of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) has been generation of additional
gainful employment for the unemployed and the underemployed in the rural areas and
its secondary objective was the creation of sustained employment by strengthening
the rural economic infrastructure and assets and improvement in the quality of life in
rural areas. Under the programme, in the selected 120 districts, one member per
family, living below the poverty line, would be provided employment for 50-100 days
a year. The scheme aims at benefiting 44 million poor rural families. On an average,
each village panchayat receives between Rs. 80000 and Rs. 100000 a year for this
programme. The type of work to be taken under the scheme by a village panchayat is
based on the felt needs of the people.72 Initially, the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
also included the Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) and the Million Wells Scheme (MWS).
Both these schemes were made into independent schemes in 1996. The Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was revamped from 1st April 1999 as the Jawahar Gram
Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). It now became a programme for the creation of rural
economic infrastructure with employment generation as a secondary objective. The
70

Ninth Five-Year Plan (1995-2002), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.
Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. op. cit., p. 202
72
Arora, Ramesh K. and Goyal, Rajni, Op. cit., p. 474
71

30

60:40 wage labour/material ratio in the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was relaxed.
The programme is implemented by the village panchayats and provides for specific
benefits to SC/ Schedule Tribes (STs), the disabled and the maintenance of
community assets created in the past73.
The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and its allied
programmes of self-employment and poverty alleviation suffered from sub-critical
investments, lack of bank credit, over-crowding in certain projects, and lack of market
linkages. A one-time provision of credit without follow-up action and lack of a
continuing relationship between borrowers and lenders also undermined the
programmes objectives. The marginal impact of self-employment programmes led to
the constitution of a committee by the Planning Commission in 1997 to review selfemployment and wage-employment programmes. The committee recommended the
merger of all self-employment programmes for the rural poor and a shift from the
individual beneficiary approach to a group-based approach. It emphasized the
identification of activity clusters in specific areas and strong training and marketing
linkages. The committees recommendations were accepted by the Government.
Consequently on the recommendation of the Committee the six employment
generation programmes viz.- Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
DWACRA, TRYSEM, Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA),
Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and Million Wells Scheme (MWS) were merged from
April 1, 1999 into a single self employment programme, known as Swaranjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
The Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is a programme based
on holistic approach aimed at developing of micro enterprises in rural areas though
organising the rural poor into self-help groups, capacity-building, planning of activity
clusters, infrastructure support, technology, credit and marketing linkages. Further,
the programme seeks to develop a network of agencies including- District Rural
Development Agencies (DRDAs), line departments of state governments, banks, Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and panchayati raj Institutions (PRIs) for
implementation of the programme in an integrated manner. The Swaran Jayanti Gram
73

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-07), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.

31

Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) advocates the need to focus on key activities and the
importance of activity clusters. Basic thrust of the programme is that the people have
to help themselves with the help of outside agencies, the banks, DRDA, nongovernment organizations etc. It is basically a participative approach; the outside
agencies merely assisting the Self Help Groups (SHGs) in the implementation of the
action-plan created by the latter. Thus taking lessons from loopholes of erstwhile
development programmes, the strategy strives for concerted and collective inroad into
poverty through self-employment opportunity74.
Besides the programme has in-built safeguards for the weaker sections as it
provides that 50 per cent of the self-help groups must be formed exclusively by
women and that 50 per cent of the benefits should flow to Schedule Caste (SCs) and
Schedule Tribes (STs) it also provides inclusion of disabled beneficiaries.
The Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is predominately credit
driven programme having credit and subsidy ratio of 3:1. The subsidy is fixed at 30
per cent of the project cost subject to a maximum of Rs. 7,500 per individual
beneficiary for those in the general category and 50 per cent of the project cost subject
to a maximum of Rs. 10,000 in the case of Schedule Caste/ Schedule Tribes (STs). In
the case of group projects, the subsidy is 50 per cent of the project cost subject to a
ceiling of Rs. 1.25 lakh. The financial burden under Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar
Yojana (SGSY) is shared in the ratio of 75:25 between the centre and state
governments75.
The National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) popularly known as
Aajeevika was launched in June 2011. The mission constitutes a paradigm shift in
the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes in the country. It is built on the
lessons from different ongoing programmes of the centre and the states. The
Missions primary objective is to reduce poverty by promoting diversified and gainful
self-employment and wage employment opportunities for sustainable increase in
incomes. 76

74

Singh, Surat, and Sinha, S.P., (2003), Strategies for Sustainable Rural Development, Deep and Deep
Publications, New Delhi, p. 35
75
Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-07), Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi,
76
The Twelfth Five Year(2012-17) Plan document, Planning Commission ,Government of India

32

1.6

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The present section deals with the review of literature which has direct bearing

on understanding the various dimensions of the research problem. For conducting any
piece of research study, review and survey of literature related to the study is of
paramount significance. Such a review helps in defining the problem in researchable
form. Moreover the survey of the related studies conducted by the other investigators
in the same field related to the problem in hand also helps the researcher in framing
the objectives and the corresponding hypotheses of the study. With the above
objective in view, the investigator also surveyed the relevant literature. A selective
review of literature has been done to understand and to comprehend the various
aspects of the research problem. In this section the researcher made an effort to
present the review of various books, journals and research studies related exclusively
with rural development and implementation of various rural development
programmes with particular emphasis over MNREGA. Apart from the books a review
of various articles based on research studies related with the research problem directly
or indirectly has also been carried out. The various scholars have come forward and
wrote extensively with regard to rural development schemes and programmes. A lot
of research work has been done by various scholars on different aspects of MNREGA.
Some of the significant work done on various aspects of rural development in general
and implementation of NREGA in particular has been discussed in the current
chapter.
1.6.1

Empirical Studies/Other Reports

The CAG report on performance audit77 of MNREGA, includes 200 districts

covered under first phase. This report incorporates the audit records of 513 gram
panchayats of 128 blocks from 68 districts in 26 states during the period February
2006 to March 2007. In this report some prominent issues have been highlighted
regarding the implementation of NREGA.
The report has revealed the absence of committed staff for implementation of
NREGA. As per NREGA Operational Guidelines, the programme officer at the
77

Performance Audit of Implementation of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005

(NREGA) http://icrindia.org/pdf/CAG_Draft_Report_NREGA_I.pdf

33

block level is supposed to be a full-time, dedicated post of rank equivalent to the

block development officer (BDO). The guidelines also made a provision for the
appointment of a gram rozgar sevak in each gram panchayats on full time basis. But
it is unfortunate that many states failed to make such appointment. The fundamental
excuse behind the non-compliance with these guidelines is the staff shortage. For the
maintenance of records and online management of data the CAG prescribes the
necessity of adequate staff.
In order to ensure transparency, the report has highlighted the shortcomings
with regard to the job cards and the maintenance of muster rolls. It further
recommended that the state governments must ensure that the job cards should not be
retained by gram panchayat under any circumstances. The report has also identified
that the mandatory bi-annual social audits provision has been frequently violated.
In context of works under taken under this scheme, it was observed by the
CAG that even non-permissible works are going to be executed. In this regard, the
CAG recommended that in the view of local conditions the state governments should
be empowered to expand the list of permissible works with the prior intimation to the
Ministry of Rural Development.
Regarding employment and wages, the CAG advocated that district-wise
Schedules of Rates (SOR) must be prepared after undertaking careful time and
motion studies for the NREGA workforce as also prescribed in operational
guidelines. The CAG has recommended that the state governments should ensure
payment of minimum wages.
Regarding unemployment allowance the CAG has indicted a number of state
governments for effectively scuttle the unemployment allowance. CAG has advised
the central government to consider amending NREGA rules to allow the centre to pay
part of the unemployment allowance, while instituting controls to minimize chances
of persons drawing unemployment allowance without demanding employment or
working.
In a report78 regarding implementation of MNREGA in Nuapada the most
backward district of Orrisa in India. It was found that stigma of late payment under
78

Annual Report 2011: Sustainable livelihoods and NREGA, p.150,http://www.lokadrusti.org/p=150

34

this scheme has restricted some people from job application. Although the workers
have realized their entitlements resulting in demand for facilities like drinking water,
shed and first aid. Still it was noticed that all facilities at all worksites have not been
ensured yet. The payment through bank account has brought a positive change and the
labourers are getting the right amount but where the labourers are motivated by the
middlemen and they are not going personally for money withdrawal as a result such
elements are getting scope to exploit the labourers. In case of timely payments, the
shortage of junior engineers at block level led to delay in work measurement and
delayed payment. It was found that the social audit by the department seems to be a
formality only where the peoples participation is seldom invited.
Mohan, S. (2007)79

described that the NREGA was started by the UPA

government on 1 April, 2008 across the country to provide guaranteed employment

for the rural people. She evaluated the functioning of NREGP since inception and
highlighted the weaknesses of NREGP at the national level. Through this study the
author noted that many districts where NREGA implemented, were not able to use the
financial allotment and did not provide the targeted 100 days employment to
applicants. A regional variation was also noted in the centrally released fund for
NREGA and a huge population is not willing to work under this Act because at the
outside work wage is higher than NREGA wage. Surprisingly it was found that much
corruption was observed in the distribution of unemployment allowance, fake muster
roll entries cited, scam in wage payment and a good roll of political approach was also
found in issuing of the job cards. During the worksite visits it was found that worksite
facilities like creche, first aid box, and drinking water facilities for workers are not
available. In the last the author gave the suggestion and solution of these types of
problems if government wants NREGA to become a fruitful Act for the people.
Mathur (2008)80 examined NREGA during the period of 2007-08 and
estimated that during this scheme, only 45 days employment was provided to one
household in a year. A good performance record of this scheme was found in

79

Mohan, S. (2007): "National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme; How Effective?", The
Administrator, Vol. L, pp.15-20.
80
Mathur, L. (2008), Employment Guarantee: Progress so Far, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
XLIII, No. 52, pp. 21-32.

35

backward states like Madhya Pradesh (68 days), Chhattisgarh (57 days) Rajasthan (87
days) in comparison to developed states like Maharashtra (14 days), and Tamil Nadu
(26 days). On the other hand NREGA further proved helpful to stop the migration of
poor and landless people. Due to the participation of women workers in the scheme
labour wage rates have been increased. In this study he found the very big role of
corruption in NREGA, like- inserting fake information in muster rolls, late payment
of wages and unemployment allowance.
Mehrotra (2008)81 has examined the performance of NREGA since its
inception. After thorough examination he found that level of corruption is very high in
all the programmes including NREGA. One important weakness of employment
generating programmes in India is that creation of less number of jobs per day for
example the SGRY, although it covered all Non-NREGS districts in the country till
March, 2008, yet it had generated only 26 person days per household of work in
2005-06 at the same time NREGA generated 43.1 person days work in the very first
year of the programme. The study also compared the state level performance of
SGRY and NFFWP with NREGA and stated that as a joint venture of SGRY and
NFFWP generated only 748 million, 856 million, 912 million and 1,116 million
person days work in 2002-03, 2003-04, 2004-05 and 2005-06 respectively whereas
NREGA generated 905 million person days in 2006-07 (only in 200 districts in first
phase) and 1,437 person days in 2007-08 (only 330 districts in second phase) In the
last the study also discussed the lack of awareness, definition of Household scheduled
of rates and wage, fund released, transparency in wage payment and work category
under NREGA at districts level.
Venkataiah (2008)82 examines the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
in Andhra Pradesh. This article is an attempt to understand the performance of the
scheme. There are three sections in the article. The first section deals with the main
components of NREGA, 2005 and the works undertaken in the country.

The

Performance of the programme is presented in the second section. The last section
presents the conclusions of the study. An examination of the progress of NREGS in
81

Mahrotra, Santosh (2008), NREG Two Years On: Where Do We Go From Here?, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. XLIII, No. 3., pp. 27-36.
82
Venkataiah. C., (2008), Inclusive Growth Strategy: A Study of NREGS in Andhra Pradesh, Indian
Journal of Public Administration, Vol. LIV No.4, pp, 850-865

36

the state reveals that there is wide gap between the promise and performance. Further
there is a wide variation among the districts in the implementation of the programme.
The major reasons are (I) making the Gram Sabha as ornamental body; (ii) lack of
technical staff to supervise the execution of works (iii) manipulation in issuing job
cards and preparing muster rolls (iv) use of machines and depriving employment to
the unemployed and to the poor (v) involvement of middlemen/contractor in the
execution of works (vi) lack of prior approval of the works by the PRIs (vii) lack of
facilities at the work place resulting into poor participation of women in the
programme (viii) large scale corruption at all levels of government agencies (ix) close
nexus between the ruling party and contractors (x) divergent political groups and
bringing pressure on the rural bureaucracy (xi) negative impact on the agricultural
growth due to wrong planning of activities etc. all the reasons have contributed for
ineffectiveness of the programme in Andhra Pradesh.
Khera and Nayak (2009)83 has attempted to access the effectiveness of
NREGA in their article entitled, "Women Workers and participations of the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act". This study had two broad purposes first, to
analyze the importance of NREGA as perceived by women workers and other was to
show the inherent weaknesses of NREGA. The study is based on a survey in 2008 in
the six northern Indian states such as Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Through this study researcher examines the
implementation of NREGA especially in context of women workers and also reveals
the barriers and paradoxes to women's participation. At the same time study provides
some strategic suggestion to increase the participation of women in NREGA. Study
concludes that if NREGA is implemented properly this scheme can play a pivot role
in women's empowerment and this Act will be known in future as an Act of blessing
for poverty and unemployment reduction.
Sharma (2009)84 has pointed out in his study about the objectives of
development planning in India since independence. He concluded that the main
objectives of our planning are growth, employment, social justice, spatial co83

Khera, R. and Nandini Nayak (2009), "Women Workers and Perceptions of the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act", Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. XLIV, No.43, pp.49-57.
84
Sharma, Neeraj (2009), "Poverty-Alleviation and Planning Process: A Case Study of Yamuna Nagar
District of Haryana", Indian Journal of Politics, Vol. 43 (4), pp.85-98.

37

ordination, quality of life, modernization and self reliance. Study finds that think tank
of Indian planning moves around the problems related to rural areas and therefore all
Indian planning documents emphasis was placed on common man, weaker section,
unemployment, poverty and inequality in all fields. But contrary to the benefits of all
the planning become centered to the better off section of Indian society. That's why
Sharma has made an endeavor to reveal the impact of various poverty alleviation
programmes with sample based study of rural areas in Yamuna Nagar district of
Haryana with the specific objectives of household assets, income, and employment
and consumption pattern. Study found that in Yamuna Nagar fruits of poverty
alleviation programmes are not reaching to the needy common population. The study
concludes that if government wants to reduce the poverty and provide a better way of
living to poor, it should increase the availability of productive assets, skill formation
and gainful employment opportunities to all.
Rajanna Ramesh (2009)85 conducted a study of NREGA in Karimanagar
District of Andhra Pradesh during 2008-09. To examine the impact of this programme
500 beneficiaries have been randomly selected in this study. They also depicted the
economic conditions like income and expenditure levels with the deficit and saving
pattern of the families, community, age wise particulars, occupational pattern and also
evaluated the impact of the programme before and after it is launched. The author
observed this aspect and find out that out of 500 NREGP workers, 68.6% are women
and the rest of the workers are men. Further this also reduced the wage discrimination
between men and women workers by increasing the minimum wages. The study
reveals that 51.6% of the workers are from backward class (B.C.) communities and
46.6% of workers are from Scheduled Castes category and the rest are from
Scheduled Tribes and other communities. They examined that the percentages of the
beneficiaries of the programme are 39% and 35% from youth in the age group less
than 30-40 and 20-30 years respectively which reflect that vast majority of NREGA
beneficiaries are below 40 years. They further observed that out of the participant
workers 66% of the workers are from the agricultural labourers and 10% are from
daily wage earners and rest of them belongs to the artisans and beedi rollers. They
85

Rajanna, Mamidipally and Ramesh, Gundeti (2009), NREGA as a facet of inclusive growth a study
of Karimnagar District (A.P), Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Publication, February, pp. 33-35.

38

endeavored to know the impact of NREGA programme a questionnaire was also

served to the workers to elicit the views on the programme before and after launching
of the programme in the area. They further observed that the income levels of the
workers have increased substantially, and daily wage income of all the workers was
increased to two fold in turn it helped in catering the minimum needs of the
beneficiaries. It was further revealed that prior to the implementation of this
programme most of the workers met their expenditure by indulging in debts and the
implementation of this programme helped in easing out their burden to some extent.
They also depicts that the saving levels of the workers increased substantially and this
also helped in paying the debts they made before the implementation of the
programme. The empirical findings of the study revealed that the improved living
and economic conditions reduced the income imbalances in the rural area, the
reduction in wage differences in various workers created equal wages to men and
women; this helped the workers to meet the raising prices in the market. As a
subsidiary activity NREGA work helped a lot in improving the main occupation of
the workers through enhancing their income levels which reduced their migration to
other areas. Further NREGA helped to some extent in reducing the disguised and
seasonal unemployment. The author also gave following suggestions towards the
effective implementation of this programme which includes. (i)Wages should be paid
to workers on time (ii) Health and life insurance is required not only during the
working days but also during other days and require transparency in recording day
wise details of all the beneficiaries who are willingly to participate in this programme
(iii) Effective social audit is necessary to eliminate bogus beneficiaries (iv) At the
field level, the qualified persons require to maintain the accurate records of the
beneficiaries (v) the programme is successful but it requires more transparency in the
implementation of the programme in future.
Singh & Kumar (2009)86 studied the various poverty alleviation programmes
as a challenge by all developing countries. The author describes the NREGS and its
main provisions. They selected Garhi Padla village in Kaithal District of Haryana for
their study. Garhi Padla village is one of the 63 villages in Kaithal block/district.
86

Singh Mohinder & Kumar Vijay, (2009), Implementation of NREGS in Haryana, Kurukshetra
Publication, Kurukshetra, pp 31-32.

39

Garhi Padla village has total 240 households, out of which 83 lived below poverty
line (BPL). National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme proved a boon for them.
The Programme Officer Kaithal visited the village and he gave detailed information
about the scheme and its provisions to the villagers and removed their illusions about
NREGS. They were motivated again by the Sarpanch and block level functionaries.
In their study the authors endeavoured to know the impact of the scheme on quality of
labourers life. In response to the questions raised, one woman labourer said: My
husband is not in a position to work due to illness. I am working here for the last
about 35 days and earning for meeting the basic needs of my family. During the
discussion it was observed that the women who were working under the scheme were
very happy and were experiencing independence. Hence, it is clear that this scheme
has done a great job in empowering the women of Garhi Padla village by reducing the
poverty and enabling them to meet their desired needs.
The paper of Pattanaik B.K. (2009)87 is an attempt to analyze the
implementation of NREGS and equity and efficiency issues in Hoshiarpur district of
Punjab. These findings are based on the primary data collected from 10 village
panchayats of the two blocks i.e. Mahilpur and Dasua of Hoshiarpur during 2007-08.
The primary data was collected from 95 job card holders in these 10 panchayats. In
this paper the author highlighted the main objectives and features of NREGS which
was enacted in 2005 by UPA government in 200 backward districts of India. He
further pointed out that scheme is a holistic measure and aimed at fulfilling one of the
important human rights, that is right to Employment at least to one member of family.
He highlighted the main objective of NREGS like the creation of durable assets and
strengthening the livelihood resource base of the rural poor for fighting poverty.
The salient features of NREGS stated by the author includes (i) a high share of
female employment (ii) the benefits are reflected in greater economic security, higher
farm wages, lower migration and building of infrastructure. The author pointed out
some of the lacunas under NREGS- which are (i) lack of professionals (ii) under
staffing (iii) administrative delays (iv) lack of peoples planning (v) poor quality of
work undertaken (vi) poor social audit process.
87

Despite all these demerits, the

Pattnaik, B.K. (2009), National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Some preliminary Findings
from Hoshiarpur District, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Publication, pp.35-40.

40

NREGS ranks among the most powerful initiatives ever undertaken for transformation
of rural livelihoods in India.
In this paper the emphasis was on efficiency issues. Therefore, he observed
during the field survey that only 55.6% of household have received full 100 days
employment in the year 2006-07 in the above panchayats while, the main
provision/objective of the scheme is to provide minimum of 100 days of employment
to at least one job card holder of each household. This apparently indicates that the
implementers of the scheme have failed to fulfill the promises ensured by the scheme.
Thus, this is an important ineffectiveness of the scheme.

The author further

emphasized on equity issues with regard to NREGS. The scheme aims at bringing
economic equality by giving larger share of access and opportunity to the
disadvantaged and economically weaker section of the society, such as women,
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and BPL households. The author observed and
calculated this aspect and found that more than 90% of the beneficiaries of the
NREGS are scheduled castes, the work force participation rate of women in NREGS
is 37.78%, which clearly indicates that the work force participation of women in rural
Punjab has enhanced astoundingly with the implementation of NREGS. The scheme
is also promoting age-group equity in the work force participation. The percentages
of the beneficiaries of the scheme are 25.56 and 40.0 for the youth in the age group
less than 30 and 31-40 years respectively. Moreover 50 per cent of the beneficiaries
of the scheme are either illiterate or educated up to primary. However, education has
a neutral effect on the NREGS. Illiterate, literate and educated unemployed have
equally benefited from NREGS.
The author suggested some points, which would improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of the scheme are as follows:
(i)

A Technical Assistant (preferable diploma in civil engineering) must be

placed at panchayat level for providing technical support in the
formulation of projects, identification and estimation of expenditures to be
incurred in the watershed and minor irrigation project activities.

(ii)

One of the general complaints of the beneficiaries is the lower wages as

compared to the prevailing market wage rate in the area. The wage rate in

41

the local area must be studied and NREGS wage rate should be revised
from time to time.
(iii)

Community, Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), panchayats and

gram sabhas participation is essential for the successful implementation of
the scheme.

(iv)

One Village Resource Group (VRG) need to be formulated to provide

guidance to the village panchayat in the formulation, implementation and
monitoring of the NREGS plan in the village.
Maulick (2009)88 highlighted the implication of NREGA in the Brabanki

district of Uttar Pradesh. Barabanki is about 29 kms from Lucknow, the capital of
Uttar Pradesh. It consists of scheduled castes population from 27 percent of the total
population of the district. Out of the total households, 47.21 percent households,
having a population of 3.14 lakhs are from below poverty line families. This study is
an attempt to understand the performance of NREGS in Barabanki district of U.P.
This district includes four villages namely, Alapur & Piprauli in Banki block and
Kasimganj & Khajurgaon in Dewa block, there are 62 Gram Panchayats under Banki
block having 14718 BPL households. Job cards issued were 16465 including 17117
members from the registered households. The number registered for work in the
scheme stood at 16480. The number of households demanding work was 2470
generating 47668 man days. Womans contribution was only 93 days. Out of 47668
man days generated, 60% were contributed by Schedule Caste (SCs), 35% by others
and less than 1% by women. Further, out of 2452 workers, 70% were from Schedule
Caste (SCs) and 30% belonged to other castes. Further he observed 76 gram
panchayats under Dewa block having 13423 BPL households. The number registered
for working in the scheme is 16845. All these households were issued job cards and
have 16945 eligible members. The number of households demanding work is only
2805 i.e. 16.65% out of 16845 households. Out of 2805, only 2795 households were
provided work. So the achievement is 99.64% to generate 34778 man days. Moreover,
out of 2840 members demanding work, 2822 i.e. 99.30% were provided work in

88

Maulick Barna, (2009), Implications of NREGA-district Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh: A Case Study,
Kurukshetra Publication, Kurukshetra, pp, 35-37.

42

which 69.41% workers were from scheduled castes. The participation of women in
the work was negligible.
The main findings of the study revealed that are
(i)

Majority of the beneficiary workers were in the age group of 18-35 years.

(ii)

The beneficiaries came from scheduled castes households.

(iii)

Women participation is very low.

(iv)

Material cost is on higher side and average day of employment is one-fifth

of the specified days i.e. 22 days against 100 days.

(v)

There has been no involvement of the contractor and the machines in the
works related to the schemes.
Sankari and Murygon (2009)89 highlighted the impact of NREGP in Udangudi

Panchayat Union, Tothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. The authors selected 16 villages
and a total of 80 beneficiaries were interviewed by random sampling method to assess
the impact of NREGP as a facet of inclusive growth. The data were collected during
the month of March 2009. This study highlighted the following hypothesis(i) there is
a high degree of correlation between income and expenditure (ii) there is a low degree
of correlation between income and saving. The authors observed that out of the 80
NREGP workers, 78% are women and the rest of the workers are men, and 59 per
cent are from backward class communities, 34 per cent of worker are from SC
category and rest are from ST communities. This study revealed that majority of the
workers are below 35 years of age and this is making use of the utilization of the
youth force in generating employment. Further the authors observed that the income
level of the workers have increased substantially.
The empirical findings of the study revealed that most of the beneficiaries
belonged to the age group ranging from 26 years to 35 years. The study revealed that
out of 80 respondents, 39 respondents have studied up to the primary level, 24
respondents up to the secondary level and 17 respondents were illiterate. Further out
of the total 78 per cent beneficiaries are married.

89

Sankari, V. and Murugoan C. Siva, (2009), Impact in Udangudi Panchayat Union, Tamil Nadu-A
case study, Kurukshetra Publication, Kurukshetra, pp 39-41.

43

In Udangudi panchayat union, out of 80 respondents, 35 respondent

households had income between Rs.15000-30000 i.e. 43 percent; only 13 percent
respondents were from the income group rouging between Rs.45000-60000 and there
is improvement in living and economic conditions. The study revealed that majority
of the beneficiaries had savings in the post office.
However, the authors suggested some points which are as follows:
(i)

Capacity building of the village panchayat and the gram sabha is required
for the planning and effective implementation of NREGP.

(ii)

There should be better co-ordination between the block level bureaucracy

and panchayat providing technical support to the gram panchayat in the
formulation, implementation and monitoring of the scheme;

(iii)

The role of gram panchayat and programme officer for providing

employment needs to be clearly demarcated.

(iv)

100 days offer of employment to a family in one financial year is in no

way sufficient to sustain a family.

There should have been some

weightage for below poverty line (BPL), landless families in providing job
opportunities.
Gupta (2010)90 in his article entitled An Analysis of NREGA: A Case Study of
Punjab District Mohali attempted to study the effectiveness of NREGA in District
Mohali in Punjab. District Mohali was selected to analyze the effectiveness of the
Act. In this district three block viz.. Majri, Kharar and Derabassi were selected. The
objective of the study was to analyze the effectiveness of the scheme in District
Mohalli in Punjab. Both primary as well as secondary data were collected. The
research was qualitative and quantitative in nature. Informal interviews were
conducted with programme officers at the block level and higher officials at the Zila
Parishad and district level. Observation method was also used to assess the field
realities. The effectiveness of MNREGA has been studied under various headings
such as (i) Registration and Issue of Job Cards (ii) Execution of Works (iii)
Employment & Wages (iv) Muster Rolls (v) Record Maintenance (vi) Social Audit &
90

Gupta Namita, (2010), An Analysis of NREGA: A Case Study of Punjab District Mohali, Indian
Journal of Public Administration, Vol. LVI, No.2, pp.233-244.

44

Monitoring. The aforementioned tables and analysis clearly illustrate a number of

interesting points that are also corroborated by other studies, (i) Registration and issue
of Job /cards were found to be satisfactory as far as the records of district Mohali was
concerned and NREGA had been successful in reaching the poorest of the poor (ii)
Though NREGA was implemented in all the villages of the district, yet there was 15
percent shortfall in target achievement. Non-obtaining of administrative approval and
technical sanction in advance leads to delay in taking up the work and provision of
employment to households (iii) The research revealed that the wages were paid as per
the rates decided by the government, however, many households do not prefer to take
employment under NREGA in Punjab as the wages offered under the scheme, were
very low as compared to market wages (iv) Muster Rolls were prepared and
maintained according to the guidelines of Ministry of Rural Development; however,
lack of digitization of Muster Rolls affected the transparency and accountability at the
grassroots level (v) the survey revealed that most of the registers were maintained at
the gram panchayat and the block level. However, many loopholes were identified in
the maintenance of these registers. One reason identified was lack of training to the
concerned officials about the maintenance of the registers (VI) Social audit and
monitoring could not prove effective, as there was only one complaint in the reported
year.
1.6.2

Articles
Puri, Manohar (2005)91 emphasised that, the scheme has to be implemented

very cautiously otherwise it will be eclipsed by corruption. Since the system will be
run by the panchayats, it will invite participation from more and more people.
Moreover, now the people are enjoying the right to information, against this
background, it will ensure greater accountability of Panchayati Raj bodies and the
district administration as well. The fear of corruption may be real but it should not be
forgotten that these arguments cannot be given as lessons for not implementing for the
poor.

91

Puri, Manohar, (2005), The National rural employment guarantee act, 2005, India Journal of
Public Administration (IJPA), 41(3), pp. 623-649.

45

Hirway, Indira (2005)92 states that the "The Act" neither mentions the long
term consequences of the act nor it does mentioned how the assets generated will be
directed to expand the mainstream employment. It needs to be accepted that the Act
should not result in the creation of a large permanent army of unskilled workers to be
supported by the national exchequers; this is something the country just cannot afford.
Datt, Ruddar (2005)93 states that NREGA also promise to provide temporary
relief. It is self-sustaining kind of investment that can take use to the goal of full
employment along with the goal of removal of poverty. The employment guarantee
plan announced in the common minimum programme has been designed to protect the
interests of the poor by detailing the rules of guarantee and imposing penalties for non
compliance.
Sud, Surinder (2005)94 explained that the finance minister Mr. Chidambaram
has announced that the National Food for Work Programme, launched in November
2004, would be redesigned as National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. In fact,
this is sought to be given statutory status by enacting National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act. A bill for this purpose was introduced by the government in the Lok
Sabha. The bill has been sent to the parliaments standing committee on Rural
Development for examination and its recommendations. A striking feature of this
legislation will be the provision for social audit of the employment- oriented
programme. The NREGA Bill requires the village panchayat to make available all
relevant documents including muster rolls of labourers, to the Gram Sabha for
conducting the social audit.
Petal, Amrit (2006)95 studied that the governments keenness to involve
Panchayati Raj Institutions directly in this scheme is laudable. Gram Panchayats and
Gram Sabhas would decide types of work to be undertaken in the villages and use of
funds earmarked under the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS).
Since, the scheme calls for significant involvement of local people and PRIs it is
92

Hirway, Indira, (2005), "NREGA: its consequences and problems", Economic and Political Weekly,
33(40), pp. 1543-1547.
93
Dutt, Ruddar, (2005), "Employment Guarantee Act - A half way measure", Mainstream, 43(9), 19
February, pp. 11-14.
94
Sud, Surinder, (2005), Budget and Employment, Kurukshetra, pp. 7-9.
95
Patel, Amrit, (2006), Role of PRIs in Implementing National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Publication, pp. 24-27.

46

absolutely essential to impart comprehensive training for transferring various skills. It

is also essential that the implementation process needs to be reviewed and monitored
regularly at the Panchayati Raj Institutions level thus implementing the scheme as an
integral part of rural development plan.
Singh J.N., Mishra, Anurag (2006)96 have attempted to analyses that backward
linkages or the advance planning is critical to the successful implementation of the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS). The basic components of
this advance planning include collaborative partnership and public accountability,
community participation, role of Pancyati Raj Institutions, co-ordination among the
agencies and resource support carefully planning the process of the implementation of
the scheme may go a long way towards earning bread for the empty bellies.
Singh, Puran (2006)97 in his article entitled National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme the author attempted to critically examine the various provisions
of this act /scheme with special reference to the delivery mechanism and role of
Panchayati Raj Institutions in implementation of the scheme and suggestions to make
it more effective. The author highlighted the following features of the scheme which
include (i) The registration of employment seekers will be done at the Gram
Panchayat level along with their full particulars. The registration will be done after a
proper enquiry for a period of at least five years. A job card will be issued with
photograph. The employment seekers will submit the applications to the Sarpanch of
the Gram Panchayat or the Programme Officer at the block level (ii) Minimum 100
days employment will be provided to all adult members of a registered family taken
together in a financial year, who are willing to do unskilled manual work in such a
manner that 1/3 opportunities are available to women (iii) The cost of material
component of works including wage to skilled and semi-skilled workers will be
restricted to 40% of the total project cost (iv) The contractors are not allowed to be
engaged in implementation of the NREGS projects. As far as practicable, the task
under the scheme shall be performed manually and not by machines (v). The applicant
shall be entitled to get unemployment allowance if the authorities fail to provide job
96

Singh, J.N. and Mishara Anurag, Backward Linkages of Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme,
Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Publication, pp. 30-34.
97
Singh Puran, (2006), National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra
Publication, pp 42-47.

47

within fifteen days of demand for job, which will be equal to one fourth of the wages
for the first 30 days and thereafter for the remaining period @ 50 per cent of the
wages which should not exceed 100 days, wages. The wage payments have to be
made on weekly basis. (vi). The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) i.e., Gram
Pranchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samitis at the block level and Zila Parishad
have been assigned a pivotal role in successful planning and implementation of
NREGS. The author has also pointed out the suggestions to make (NREGS) more
effective and these are (i) the government should launch an intensive awareness
programme through different media and make the masses aware of the objectives and
provisions of the scheme (ii) the government should appoint public information
officers at the central and state levels specifically for the purpose of NREGS. (iii)
Print media, small media like, folk, street theatre, group radio, doordarshan / video or
internet etc, can play a catalytic role in changing the mindset/behaviour of the people
(iv) Panchayat Raj Institutions should be made solely responsible for the
implementation of the NREGS, successfully.
Vanik, Anish (2008)98 analysed that Rameshwar, in remote Ambojhari, is a
place where the NREGA plays a vital role in making the lives of the rural poor better.
This happens in a variety of ways. From providing incomes that are more
remunerative and predictable than alternatives too allowing the quality of life to raise
itself above the very minimum. Rameshwar and other villages like it, more and less
remote, in Orisa and other places need the NREGA.
Ghosh, Gopi Nath (2008)99 highlighted that the process of social audit has
generated a new ray of hope for people like us who want to see a drastic change in the
quality of life of the poor people of our beloved country. Our colleagues noticed and
felt this hope on the faces of the common villagers of the Anantpur during those two
days of our observation. Perhaps it was the first time after independence, when
villagers of Anantpur and their Gram Sabha used their democratic power practically.
Ambasta, Pramathesh and Others (2008)100 stated that NREGA ranks first
among the most powerful initiatives ever undertaken for transformation of rural
98

Vanaik, Anish (2008), A Tale of Two Villages, Yojana, August, p. 17.

Ghosh, Gopi Nath (2008), Social Audit and NREGA, Yojana, August, p. 21.
100
Ambasta, Pramathesh et al. (2008), The Road Ahead, Yojana, August, pp. 55-56.
99

48

livelihoods in India. The NREGA programme, reformed on these lives, holds out the
prospect of not only transforming livelihoods of the poorest people of our country but
also heralding a revolution in rural governance in India.
Dreze, Jean and Others (2008)101 analysed that the diversity of these findings
is one overarching lesson. Corruption can be eradicated from NREGA, and the way to
do it is to enforce the transparency safeguards that are built into the Act and the
guidelines. Along with this, swift action needs to be taken whenever corruption is
exposed. This is not the time for a loss of nerve.
Rao, S.K. (2008)102 explained that the Act can provide much needed succouremployment which brings income, raises standard of living and assured income brings
a measure of stability, a respite from the uncertainty in cultivation spawned by
unpredictable weather, unforeseen pest attacks and fluctuating prices. Works taken
up, like road construction, soil conservation and afforestation will also improve
quality of life in villages- through the much needed infrastructure development.
Sudarshanam and Rao (2009)103 have analyzed the NREGS in context of
inclusive growth as a goal of Eleventh Five Year Plans on India. Although India is
emerging as an economic super power but is facing many social and economic
disparities. That is shown in the southern and northern states after economic reforms.
Due to this type of economic change weaker sections remained weak and richer
sections becoming richer. So to remove these types of disparities government of India
launched various schemes, but present study shows the inclusive strategies by
examining the NREGS. So, this study point out that how corruption can be minimized
up to some extent in NREGA? And this could be done by Right to Information Act
(2005) and it also discusses the role of gram panchayat in entitlements of NREGA.
More emphasis was laid on the RTI Act and social audit. Moreover it was suggested
that the member of Panchyat Raj bodies at various levels are to be educated about the
guidelines of the Act.

101

Dreze, Jean et al. (2008), Myth and Reality, Yojana, August, 2008, p. 68.
Rao, S.K., (2008), Need for Introspection, Yojana, August, p. 73.
103
Sudarshanam, G. and Rao, V.S. (2009): "Social Inclusion Strategies and the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme" Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. LV, No.4, pp. 829838.
102

49

Tomar & Yadav (2009)104 feel that over the year a plethora of poverty alleviation
programmes have been implemented in India and they opined that NREGA is the best
tool to eradicate poverty in rural India. The government support and assistance is
essential for the success of programme like NREGA. Therefore, the government
should come forward to allot huge amount of fund to this programme. In this article
the authors revealed that some of the indicated criticism points are as follows:(i)

The comptroller and Auditor General Report, 2007 underlined the fact that
the guidelines indicated in the NREGA have not been followed effectively.
The glaring deficiencies found in the working of NREGA include lack of
manpower, inadequate professional and administrative staff, lack of proper
project planning and monitoring, bureaucratic resistance, lack of
transparency and absence of social audit, inappropriate mode of payment,
poor maintenance of records etc.

(ii)

A study carried out by the Centre for Environment and Food Security
(CEFS) on the progress of NREGA in Orissa has revealed that out of
Rs.733/- crores spent under NREGA, more than Rs.500 crores was
unaccounted for probably siphoned off and misappropriated by
government officials. The research team also found that not a single
family in the 100 sampled villages was able to secure 100 days of wage
employment. Very few families got 20-40 days employment while rest got
5-20 days employment:

Fake job cards and fabricated muster rolls

exaggerated the benefits of the scheme. The social audit was non-existent.
(iii)

Lack of adequate and devoted administrative and technical staff for

NREGA is the main impediment responsible for procedural lapses.
Appointments of programme officers and gram rojgar sevaks have not
been carried out in some states.

There is no provision for proper

maintenance of job cards and muster rolls. The mandatory biennial social
audits are not taking place in many places.

104

Tomar, M.S. and Yadav, B.S. (2009), Need to Sharpen NREGS, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra
publication, December, pp.11-14.

50

The authors also suggested some points highlighted in the article, these are as
follows:(i)

For the purpose of effective implementation of the scheme trained and

fully committed fulltime functionaries who have professional experience
should be appointed.

(ii)

Effective efforts should be undertaken in order to reduce delay in payment

of wages to NREGA workers.

(iii)

It should be ensured at panchyat and block level that job cards, muster
rolls relating to the scheme are properly maintained.

(iv)

It should be ensured that accountability of those authorities who are

engaged in implementation process of the scheme should be established
strictly at each level starting from village to district level.

(v)

While planning, implementing and monitoring of NREGA work is done

the panchyat should play their role. Role of panchayats in proper planning,
implementation and monitoring of NREGA through preparation of
perspective plans, approval of shelf of projects and execution should be
encouraged.

(vi)

Some institutional mechanisms for making complaints or seeking redressal

of grievances must be evolved.
A study105 entitled Changing wage and relation: A study of MNREGA and its

impact on wage and work relations in Seoni district of Madhya Pradesh was
conducted by Abhishek Thakur. The main objectives of this study are to understand
the sources of livelihood in this area and the impact of MNREGA on their sources of
livelihood. The study also attempts to understand the change in daily private wage
rate after the implementation of MNREGA and it compares the wage rate with that of
before its implementation. Also, the study attempted to understand the impact of
MNREGA on the changing relationship between farmers and labourers and on the
pattern of agriculture. A total number of 4 villages of Seoni and Keolari Blocks in the
Seoni district of Madhya Pradesh were chosen for the study. A sample of 56 persons
105

Thakur, Abhishek, (2011), A Study on MGNREGA and its impact on wage and work relation, A
Project Report Submitted to Academic Council of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences.

51

was chosen for the study which includes those labourers who have completed 100
days of work under MNREGA and those farmers who own vast stretch of land. The
primary data was collected through in-depth interview. It was found in the study that
the private wage rate has increased and the relations between farmers and labourers
were altered and the agriculture pattern has also changed due to the implementation of
MNREGA.
1.6.3 Book Reviews
Mudgal Rahul106 wrote a book entitled Rural Development: Policies and
Management containing Six chapters. The author highlighted the need of devising
management procedures for rural development in the introductory chapter of the
book. He emphasized that these procedures should be based upon-empirical realities,
system thinking, participatory in nature and pilot testing.
The Second chapter entitled Planning Policy and implementation deals with
various approaches for planning, policy and implementation of rural development
programmes. He explained, Top-down, Bottom-up and Hybrid approaches for
planning and implementation in context of rural development
In the third chapter, Inter-government Relations and rural policy the author
analyzed the various impacts of rural policy over the society. The focus of the chapter
has been on the role of state in decision making process and on the implementations
for different social groups of the resulting policy prescriptions and their
implementation.
The fourth chapter of the book entitled Inter-government Relations and Rural
Policy highlighted (on the basis of study conducted in Gloucester-shire, a rural area
in U.K.) that beyond localized policy arena (where both elites and managers appear to
exercise decision making power) the central government decision relating to public
housing, education, transport and so on were far influential in initiating change in
rural areas of Gloucestershire. Moreover it was found that local states with

106

Mudgal, Rahul, (2006), Rural Development: Policies and Management, Son & Sons. New Delhi.

52

jurisdictions over rural areas did not appear to be able to or willing to promote radical
local action against the tide of the fundamental function and the aims of central state.
In the fifth chapter the contribution of rural residents to the formulation and
implementation of policy for rural areas has been examined. The chapter entitled
Peoples participation in Rural Planning explores the extent to which rural
communities can exert influence over the construction or outcome of the policy. The
analysis includes not only theoretical perspectives but also the practical perspectives
in examining both the potential for participation and specific examples of public
involvement in decision making and service provision.
In the sixth concluding chapter entitled Some Lessons the author discussed
about the notion of rural state, the nature of constraint about the notion of rural state
and extent of constraint on state action on planning and in policy to achieve particular
goals. The prospects for radical change have also been considered and it is felt that a
political-economic analysis of constraint on policy and planning for rural areas tends
to produce gloomy and pessimistic conclusions.
The book entitled Rural development Macro-Micro Realities edited by
Sisodia107 is a result of the papers presented in a national seminar on Rural
development organized by the Madhya Pradesh Institute of Rural Development. The
book has been thematically divided into five parts. The first part of the book entitled
Changing Patterns, Perspectives and Paradigms of rural development has three
chapters that discuss the basic issue of changing pattern of rural development. This
part provides adequate details of paradigm shift along with the present scenario of
rural development in the country as a whole
The second part entitled Changing Politics, Strategies and Programmes of
poverty Alleviation has two chapters one related to poverty alleviation programmes
where the case of SHG.-self help groups has been discussed whereas the other chapter
deals with issue of food security. The third part of the book contains four chapters.
Two of them analyses the issue of rural development in context of globalization and
other two chapters are based upon empirical evidences gathered from the field. The
107

Sisodia, Yatendra Singh, (2007), Rural Development Macro-Micro Realities, Rawat Publications,
New Delhi

53

fourth part has five chapters.

The first chapter of this part provides a macro

perspective of decentralization after 73rd Constitutional Amendment. Other three

chapters elaborate the issues of specific states viz. Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and
Punjab. The last chapter of this part discusses EDUSAT programme. The fifth part
contains only one chapter which addresses the issue of development from the point of
view of population pressure and migration.
In a field visit108 to assess the implementation of NREGA in Haryana a team
headed by the secretary rural development visited Kaluana the highest spender and
Govindpura the lowest spender Gram Panchyats (GPs) of Dabwali and Rania Blocks
respectively in Sirsa district. The two Gram Panchyats were selected with extreme
situation to study why it is so in two adjacent Gram Panchyats. The tour report has
highlighted both positive and negative aspect. On positive side the report revealed
that NREGS has made impact on hike in wage rate (from Rs. 50-100 to Rs. 200-250)
in the area around Kaluana Gram Panchyat. The women workers explained how they
are able to buy clothes now for their children and pay school fees with the earnings
from NREGS. It was found that a scheduled caste worker Lilu Ram who was almost
doing the bonded labour (Sirkati) prior to NREGA but he could repay his debt with
the help of the wages he earned from NREGS.
On negative front the BDO and Sarpanch decided the activities to be taken up
and there was no system of holding Gram Sabha meetings for selection and approval
of works was found. Lack of motivation for MNREGA among the officials was
noticed. They are not even aware of the basic provisions of the Act. It was also
informed by some of the jobseekers in Govindpura Gram Panchyat that the Sarpanch
is reluctant to discharge his legal commitment. Once the workers starts getting wage
employment and exercise their rights under the Act, there would be dearth of workers
in the field of local elites thus social tension was noticed at high level and there was
clear divide between haves and have-nots. No records like job cards, muster rolls
could be seen at the worksite nor were the citizen information boards found at any of
the four worksites visited in Kaluana. The other records prescribed to be kept at the
108

Tour Report on the visit of Sirsa (Haryana) by a Team of Officers headed by Shri B.K. Sinha,
Secretary (RD) on 21st & 22nd May, 2010 to have first hand information on the implementation of
MNREGA in the State.

54

Gram Panchyats level especially the prescribed registers and the muster rolls were
also not shown. Nowhere worksite facilities were noticed.
It was also revealed during the visit that all MNREGA activities are sarpanch
centric. If the sarpanch is good he is able to present a satisfactory picture like the
Kaluana Gram Panchyat of Dabwali block where locals and the workers are satisfied
and happy but if the sarpanch is not good than nothing is taking shape like that is
happening in Gobindpura Gram Panchyat of Rania block where Shri Jarnail Singh
(sarpanch) could not even issue the job cards to the wage seeking households where
entire worker community registered their dissatisfaction over the manner in which
sarpanch and the BDO was negatively handling the issue.
1.7

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Almost one decade has been passed since the passage of MNREGA and it is

the right time to evaluate the performance of wage employment scheme under the
Act. The effective implementation of MNREGA is not only crucial for employment
generation to rural poor but it has a wider agenda of creating durable assets for
developing rural infrastructure at the grass root level by ensuring development allinclusive and sustainable. Thus present study has been conducted with objectives
given below and to test concerned hypotheses to examine the implementation of
specified provisions of MNREGA. Apart from this, issue of corruption in the
implementation of MNREGS has been also included in the present study. The
underlying rationale of present study is that the findings of the present study would
help policy framers as well executors in designing and implementing the scheme
further.
1.8

OBJECTIVES

Following are the main objectives of the present study:

To examine the level of awareness among the beneficiaries about the
provisions of this Act.
To find out whether the beneficiaries have been provided employment for the
requisite number of days.
55

 To examine whether the beneficiaries have been provided the prescribed

wages.
To find out that the women have been provided employment as promised
under the Act.
To examine whether any type of corruption exists in the execution of work
under this Act.
1.9

HYPOTHESES
Following are the main hypotheses of the present study:
1. There is a lack of awareness about the provisions of the Act on the part of
beneficiaries.
2. The beneficiaries have not been issued job cards within the stipulated time
frame.
3. The beneficiaries have not been provided employment for the requisite
number of days.
4. The beneficiaries are not paid as per the provisions of the Act.
5. The beneficiaries have not been provided the basic amenities at the work site
as prescribed under the Act.

1.10

METHODOLOGY
In the present study, two districts viz. Rohtak and Shaib Ajit Singh (SAS)

Nagar (Mohali) from the state of Haryana and Punjab respectively has been selected
for conducting research. In Rohtak district there are 5 blocks and 151 gram
panchayats whereas in Shaib Ajit Singh (SAS) Nagar there are 3 blocks and 376 gram
panchayats which constitutes the universe of the study. Out of this, 10 percent sample
of the entire universe has been selected through random sampling method which
includes 15 gram panchayats from Rohtak district and 38 gram panchayats from Shaib
Ajit Singh (SAS) Nagar. In all, 53 gram panchayats have been taken into
consideration. Ten beneficiaries have been selected from each village panchayat
through random sampling method. Thus the total sample included 530 beneficiaries
56

who have been given employment under this Act. The data pertaining to the study
have been obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data have
been collected with the help of two schedules which have been administered to the
beneficiaries, and the elected representatives of selected village Panchayat
respectively. The secondary data pertaining to the study has been obtained from
various sources which mainly include records, websites of MNREGA: www.
nrega.nic.in,www.hirdnilokheri.com, various Publication of Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India, Department of Rural Development, Government
of Haryana, Manual of the MNREGA, Books, Journals, Research Articles.

57