INDIAN

NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The First Major Challenge: The Revolt of 1857

The Revolt

11 May, 1857- sepoys from Meerut enter Red Fort, declare Bahadur Shah II as the
Shahenshah-e-Hindustan.
Revolt spread to North, Central and Western India. South remained quiet. Punjab and
Bengal marginally affected.

A Sepoy Mutiny

19th Infantry at Berhampur refused to use the new enfield rifle, disbanded in March
1857
34th Native Infantry Mangal Pandey fired at Seargeant Major of his regiment.
Overpowered, executed and his regiment disbanded
7th Oudh Regiment defied its officers. Disbanded

Leaders of the Revolt

Kanpur Nana Saheb- adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Had refused family title, and
Banished from Poona, was living near Kanpur
Lucknow- Begum Hazrat Mahal and her son Birjis Quadr
Bareilly - Khan Bahadur
Bihar- Kunwar Singh 70 yr old man on the brink of bankruptcy.
Jhansi Rani Lakshmibhai- Lord Dalhousie, had refused to allow her adopted son to
succeed to the throne after her husband died and had annexed the state by the application
of doctrine of Lapse.

Reasons for sepoy revolt

First in 1824 47th Regiment at Barrackpur was ordered to go to Burma. To the religious
hindu, crossing the sea meant loss of caste. Sepoys refused to comply. Regiment disbanded
and rebels hanged.
Afghan war- fleeing sepoys were forced to eat and drink whatever came their way. On their
return they were outcasted.
Rumours about govts secret designs to promote conversions to Christianity
Mixing of bone dust in atta and beef and pig fat in cartridges of enfield rifle.
Low wages
Almost every agricultural family in Oudh had a representative in the army, whatever
happened there was of immediate concern to the sepoy.
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From Sepoy struggle to mass struggle

British rule adversely affected interests of almost all sections of society.

Peasants excessive taxes made them progressively indebted and impoverished
Landed aristocracy- in Oudh, the taluqdars lost all their power and privileges. Several
thousand taluqdars whose lands were confiscated
Artisans and Craftsmen by annexing Indian states, the company cut off their major
source of patronage. Moreover, British policy discouraged Indian Handicrafts and
promoted British goods.
Orthodox Hindus and Muslims feared that through social legislation the british were
trying to destroy their religion and culture. Reforming zeal of British, under the influence of
utilitarianism had aroused considerable suspicion, resentment and opposition.

Indians against Indians

Merchants, intelligentsia and Indian rulers not only kept aloof, but actively supported the
British.
Almost half of Indian soldiers not only did not revolt but fought against their own
countrymen.
Apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had not political
perspective or a definite vision of the future.

2. Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

Resistance took three broad forms: civil rebellions, tribal uprisings, and peasant movements.

Civil rebellions

Often led by deposed rajas, nawabs, uprooted zamindars, poliygars, and officers of
conquered India states
Rack-rented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized workers backbone/mass base
These sudden, localized revolts often too place because of local grievances
Major cause rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration and
land revenue system.

Causes of rebellion

Heavy taxation on land leading peasants into indebtedness and sale of land
Zamindars and poligars lost control over their land either due to the extinction of their
rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of their rights due to their inability to pay
land revenue
Corruption in lower levels, of police, judiciary and administration.
Ruining of local handicrafts as a result of free trade in India and levy of discriminatory
tariffs against Indian goods in Britain.
Scholarly and priestly class who were financially supported by earlier rulers also actively
incited hatred and rebellion against foreign rule.
Foreign character of British rule. Indians felt humiliated being under a foreigners heel.

Instances of civil rebellion

Bengal

Sanyasi Rebellion led by religious monks and dispossessed zamindars, made famous by
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his novel Anand Math, lasted from 1763-1816
Chuar Uprising Bengal and Bihar from 1766 to 1772 and again from 1795 to 1816

South India

Raja of Vizianagram revolted in 1794

Poligars of Tamil Nadu in 1790s

Western India

Saurashtra, Kolis of Gujarat, Maharastra

Northern India

Western UP and Haryana

Characteristics of Civil Rebellions

Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were
backward looking and traditional in outlook.
Their resistance represented no societal alternative
Its basic objective was to restore earlier forms of rule and social relations
Suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the Revolt of 1857 did not
spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India..
The historical significance of these civil uprisings lies in that they established strong and
valuable local traditions of resistance to British Rule.

Tribal Uprisings
Causes of Tribal Uprisings

Colonial administration ended their relative isolation and brought them fully within the
ambit of colonialism
Recognized Chiefs as Zamindars and introduced new system of land revenue and taxation
of tribals.
Introduced large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen.
Middlemen were outsiders who increasingly took possession of tribal lands and ensnared
the tribals in a web of debt.
Usurped forest lands and placed restrictions on access to forest products, forest lands and
village common lands.
Oppression and extortion by policemen and other petty officials
Beggar
Disruption of old agrarian order of the tribal communities provided the common factor for
all the uprisings.

Features

Uprisings were broad based, involving thousands of tribals, often the entire population of a
region
Ethnic ties, were a basic feature of the tribal rebellions
Rebels saw themselves not as a discreet class but as having a tribal identity
Fellow tribals were never attacked unless they had collaborated with the enemy
Often there were no attacks on non-tribal poor, who worked in villages in supportive
economic roles, such as telis, gwalas, lohars.
Normally rebelled when no alternative. Began with looting, attacking outsiders and
expelling them from villages, which led to clashes with authorities and the tribals moved to
armed resistance and elementary organization
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Often, religious and charismatic leaders messiahs- emerged at this stage and promised
divine intervention and end to their sufferings.

Instances of Tribal Uprisings

Santhal Hool or Uprising

Live in the area between Bhagal pur and Rajmahal, known as Daman-i-koh,
To expel the outsiders the dikus proclaimed complete annihilation of the alien regime
1854- tribal heads, the majhis and parganites, began to meet and discuss possibility of
revolting
Called an assembly of nearly 6000 santhals, representing 400 villages at Bhaganidihi on 30
June 1855
Decided to revolt, and for all, the usher in Satyug, The reign of truth, and True Justice.
Santhals believed their actions had the blessings of God (Thakur)
Sido and Kanhu- principal rebel leaders
60000 santhals mobilized
Bands of 1500-2000, they attacked the mahajans and zamindars and their houses, police
stations, railway construction sites, the dak (post) carriers, - in fact all the symbols of diku
Helped by a large number of poor dikus
Crushed ruthlessly by the British, more than 15000 santhals killed.

Kols of Chhotanagpur

Rebelled from 1820-1837

Rebellion (ulgulam ) of Munda Tribesmen

Led by Birsa Munda , 1899-1900

Born in a poor share-cropper household in 1874, had a vision of God in 1895
Declared himself to be a divine messenger, possessing miraculous powers.
Religious movement soon acquired an agrarian and political content
On chrismas eve of 1899, Birsa proclaimed a rebellion to establish Munda Rule, in the
land and encourage the killing of Thikadars, and jagirdars.
Satyug will be established in place of the present kalyug
Non-tribal poor were not to be attacked.
Gathered more than 6000 Mundas armed with swords, spears, battle-axes
Captured in beginning of Feb, 1900 and died in Jail in June.

3. Peasants Movements and Uprisings After

1857
Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
Reasons for discontentment

Planters compelled the tenants to grown indigo

Forced the peasants to take a meager amount as advance and enter into fraudulent
contracts
Price paid for the indigo plant was far below the market price.
Forced to grow indigo on the best land whether or not he wanted.
Planters maintained or hired bands of lathiyals (armed retainers)

Hem Chandra Kar, Deputy Magistrate of Kalaroa, Bengal, misread an official letter and on 17th
august proclaimed that in case of disputes relating to Indigo ryots , ryots shall retain the
possession of land and shall sow on them what crops they please.

Beginning made by Govindpur ryots in Nadia district, under Digambar Biswas and
Bishnu Biswas.
Spread to all indigo districts of Bengal
Planters couldnt withstand the united resistance and gradually began to close their
factories.
Cultivation of indigo was virtually wiped out of Bengal by 1860
Reason for success: tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the
ryots. Complete unity among Hindu and muslim peasants.
Leadership was provided by more well-off ryots and in some cases petty zamindars
Intelligentsia of Bengal helped by organizing a powerful compaign in support
Harish Chandra Mukherjee: editor of Hindu Patriot- published regular reports on
planters oppression, officials partisanship and peasant resistance.
Din Bandhu Mitra: Neel Darpan, play vividly portayed oppression by the planters
Intelligentsias role was to have an abiding impact on the emerging nationlist intellectuals.
Missionaries too extended support to the planters
Government response was restrained appointed committee to inquire into the problem.
Report exposed coercion and corruption underlying the entire system of indigo plantation.
Govt. issued a notification in Nov. 1860 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo.

Several instances of agrarian unrest during the 1870s and 1880s. These were caused by the efforts
of the zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal limits.

Peasants were no longer in the mood to tolerate

Ryots refused paying high rents and challenged zamindars in court.
Main form of struggle was that of legal resistance.
There was very little violence
Many disputes were settled by 1885 partially under official pressure and persuasion and
partially out of the zamindars fear that the united peasantry would drag them into
prolonged and costly litigation.
Govt. passed the Bengal Tenancy Act in 1885 to protect the tenants from the worst aspects
of zamindari oppression
Complete Hindu-Muslim solidarity among Bengal peasants
Number of young Indian intellectuals supported the peasants cause.

Peasant movements in Maharastra

Under Ryotwari system, tension grew between peasants and the money lenders, most of
whom were outsiders Marwaris or Gujaratis.
Early 1860s, American Civil War led to soar in Cotton exports which had pushed up prices.
End of civil war in 1864 brought about an acute depression in cotton exports and a crash in
prices.
Simultaneously, in 1867, the govt. raised the land revenue by 50 percent.
Situation was worsened by bad harvest.
Peasants had to go to the money lenders.
Gradually peasants began to turn against the perceived cause of his misery, the
moneylender.
Social boycott of outsider
Soon transformed into agrarian riots when it did not prove very effective.
12 May, 1874, peasants gathere in Supa, in Bhimtari taluq, on the bazaar day began
systematic attact on the moneylenders houses and shops. Burnt debt bonds and deeds.
Govt. acted with speed and soon repressed.
Active phase lasted only about three weeks.
Modern nationalist intelligentsia of Maharashtra supported the cause.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, led by Ranade, organized a successful campaign among the
peasants, against land revenue settlement of 1867.

Certain shift in the nature of peasant movements after 1857.

Princes, chiefs etc having been crushed, peasants emerged as the main force in agrarian
movements. They fought directly for their own demands, centered almost wholly on
economic issues, and against their immediate enemies.
Their struggle was directed towards specific and limited objectives and redressal of
particular grievances.
Limited territorial reach.
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Lacked continuity or long-term organization.

Lack of adequate understanding of colonialism of colonial economic structure and
colonial state
Did not possess a new ideology, and a new social, economic and political programme.

Important organizations before Congress

1. British Indian Association of Calcutta (1851)

Landholders Society (1838) and British Indian Society (1843) merged to form BIA
Owned newspaper titled Hindu Patriot, with strong political tone
First President Radhakanta Deb, Secretary Devendranath Tagore
Sent first petition to British Parliament in 1852, pleading
i. Separation of legislature from executive
ii. Inclusion of Indians in legislative council
iii. Increased employment of Indians in higher services
iv. Simultaneous civil service exam in Britain and India
v. Extension of permanent settlement to other parts of India
vi. Abolition of salt duty, excise duty, stamp duties
vii. Increased grant for education
Charter act of 1853 belied all its expectations
Proceedings were moderate and very few achievements

2. East Indian Association (1866)

Initiative of Dadabhai Naoroji, to present the correct information of India to the British
public and parliament
By 1869 it had branches in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras
Popularity declined by 1881
1867-68 per capita income in India Rs 20.

3. Indian Association (1876)

Formed by S N Bannerjee and Anand Mohan Bose

Most important pre-congress nationalist organization
Newspaper owned Bengalee, by S N Bannerjee
Main issues for which IA fought
i. Raising of age limit for Indian Civil service
ii. Carried agitations against reactionary measures of Lord Lytton
1. Vernacular press Act (1878): The act provided for confiscation of printing
press etc if government believed that it was publishing seditious material
and had flouted an official warning
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2. Arms Act (1878): the act aimed at disarming Indians, as it made

mandatory for all Indians possessing arms to have licenses
iii. Sought better working conditions for workers on English owned plantations
iv. Organized all India campaign in favor of Ilbert Bill (1883) of Lord Rippon. The bill
sought to empower the Indian district magistrates and sessions judge to try
Europeans in criminal cases
Summoned All Indian National Conference in December 1883. Second session in
December 1885 in Calcutta (same time as INC was held in Bombay). The conference
merged with Congress in December 1886.
4. Bombay Association (1852), Madras Native Association(1852), National Indian Association
(1867, Mary Carpenter), Indian Society (1873, Anand Mohan Bose in London), Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha (1870, Justice Ranade, brought out quarterly journals to educate Indians on
economic questions), Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884, M Viraraghavachariar, G V Subraminiya
Iyer, P Anand Chandu), Bombay Presidency Association (1885, KT Telang, Pherozshah Mehta,
split from D Naoroji)

The Indian National Congress Early Years

Formation of INC: Allan Octavian Hume an ex-ICS officer established INC

Safety Valve Theory: INC was created by British Viceroy, Dufferin acting through a British ex-
civilin, Hume to act as a safety valve against popular discontent. Dufferin was afraid that
educated Indians might provide leadership to the masses and organize a rebellion against the
Government.
Why INC succeeded?
o Humes initiative was more acceptable to Indians as he was free from regional loyalties.
o Early nationalists had an exaggerated idea of Humes influence with the govt.
o Nationalists did no want to arouse official hostility towards their efforts at so early
stage.
First Meeting December 28, 1885 in the hall of Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. W
C Bannerjee was the first President and Hume was GS. Attended by 72 delegates
Second meeting Calcutta, December 1886. Dadabhai Naoroji as President. National
Conference merged with INC. 436 delegates. By 1889 it had 2000 delegates.
Early Demands Resolutions based on broadly 3 types of grievances
o Political: Reform of legislative council, start of self-govt.
o Administrative: Simultaneous ICS exams in India and Britain, Separation of Judiciary,
Execution by trial by Jury, repeal of Arms Act, high jobs in the army for Indians
o Economic: Based on Naorojis The poverty and Un-British Rule in India
Reduccvtion in military expenditure and home charges
More funds for technical education
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Extension of permanent settlement to other areas

The congress did not take up the question of social reforms
Proceedings were conducted democratically, with issues being decided through debates and
discussions and occasionally through voting
Drawbacks of early nationalist:
o Very few of the reforms for which they agitated were introduced by the British
o Moderates did not assign an important role to masses or toe mass struggle in their
work. The movement was confined to the high stratum of the educated elite.
o Political activities were concentrated in the Presidencies only.
o Constitutional agitation and slow, orderly political progress.
o Intermittent manner of politics. Congress for the moderates was not a political party but
an annual three day show.
Fell into doldrums in 1890s until G K Gokhale emerged. He rejected the title of Knighthood by
the British, refused a position in the council of secretary of state for India.

RISE OF MILITANT NATIONALISM

Reasons of the rise

Famine at the close of century, Bubonic plague and high handed measures of Lord Curzon
Curtailment of the power of Calcutta Corporation in 1889: reduced the number of elected
Indian members
Universities Act, 1904: Brought down the number of elected senate members. Transferred the
power of ultimate decision in the matters of college affiliation and school recognition to the
government officials. Tried to fix minimum college fees.
Official secrets Act, 1904: Tightened the security
Partition of Bengal, 1905: Announced on 19th of July. Actual partition October 16th.
o Divided Bengal into East Bengal and assam.
o Official reason : Bengal was too large to be administered by a single provincial
government
o Real Motive: Weaken the power on Bengal as Calcutta was hotspot for nationalism. The
division made Bengalis minority in Bengal. The British also started wooing the Muslims
of Assam.
Increased unemployment among educated youth.
Rise of Modern Japan after 1868, defeat of Russia (1905), defeat of Italian army at the hands of
Ethiopians at Adowa (1896), British reverses in Boer war, Chinese boycott of American goods in
protest against immigration laws.

Major Centers
Bengal

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Ashwini Kumar Dutt: District Barisal, a strong base of Swadeshi Movement

Aurobindo Ghosh: Systematic critique of moderates in articles New Lamps for Old.
Rabindranath Tagore: Contributed to patriotic thought through poems and short stories. Called
for development of Atma Shaki self reliance through swadeshi enterprises and national
education. Made suggestions for mass contact through Yatras and melas, use of mother tongue
in educational and political work. Through Shantiniketan experimented with new forms of
education

Punjab

Lala Lajpat Rai: advocated technical education and technical self help. Advocated Hindu alone
congress and unity with muslims was an illusion.

Maharashtra

Bal Gangadhar Tilak: used religious orthodoxy as means of mass contact by organizing Ganpati
festival from 1894. Shivaji festival from 1896. Experimented with no-rent campaign in 1896-97.
Advocated for swaraj. Keasari in Marathi and Mahratta in English, two newspapers were his
mouth piece.

Partition of Bengal

Curzons most unpopular measure (July 1905)

According to Curzon
a) Province of Bengal had become too big and unwieldy to be administered effectively by a
single provincial government. Thus it was partitioned into two parts. 1)Eastern Bengal
and Assam 2) Rest of Bengal.
Actual motive was political. To dethrone Calcutta from its position, as the centre from which
the congress party is manipulated throughout Bengal and indeed the whole of India.
With partition Bengalis were reduced to a minority in Bengal itself as the new Bengal proper
was to have only 17 million Bengalis compared to the 37 million oriya and Hindi speaking
people.
Simultaneously the British were aiming to woo the Muslims with partition.

SWADESHI MOVEMENT

Of ones own country

New technique accepted by SN Bannerji and others at Town Hall meeting in Calcutta, Aug 7,
1905.
Banaras Session, 1905: congress took up swadeshi call, presided over by G K Gokhale. It
supported the twin technique of swadeshi and boycott movements for Bengal

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October 16, 1905- Actual day of Partition, was declared day of mourning throughout Bengal.
Chullahs kept unlit and people tied rakhi (symbol of brotherhood), Vande Mataram overnight
became the national song of Bengal, and later theme song of national movement.
Lok Manya Tilak took the movement to various parts of india especially to Bombay and
Poona.
Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat took the swadeshi message to Punjab and parts of Northern India
Syed Haider Raza led the movement in Delhi
Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to Madras presidency

Regions which kept away

Bihar, Orissa and Assam kept away. Here the educated Bengalis had become increasingly
unpopular due to their dominant position in the services and profession. Counter elite
movements developed here with the spread of education, ultimately resulting in demands for a
separate province of Orissa.
United Provinces: as congress political activity had died down after an initial spurt in the late
1880s. Leaders still felt that considerable local gains could be made through cooperation with
the provincial government.

Govt. Action and public reaction

Crackdown came soon enough particularly on students. Fined, expelled, arrested or beaten up
by police.
Led to a movement for boycott of official educational institutions and the organization of
national schools.
Vande mataram banned, press controlled through newpaper acts.
Congress session of Calcutta 1906 under Naoroji, declared that goal of INC was self-
government, like the colonies of Canada and Australia.

Moderate-Extremist Divide

Moderates believed that techniques like boycott should be used only in special circumstances
and for specific purpose. They were keen to get the movement back to its traditional mode of
mendicancy. They were totally opposed to an all-out struggle against the British Rule.
Extremists were all for extending the boycott to other areas and for refusing cooperation to
the government and making the task of administration impossible. This method of agitation
against the foreign rule came to be known as passive resistance.

Critical Appraisal

Boycott of foreign goods most successful

Significant revival of handlooms, silk-weaving and other traditional artisan crafts.
Number of attempts wer made to promote modern industries.
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Jogendra Chandra Ghosh set up an association in March 1904, to raise funds for sending
students abroad (usually japan) to get technical training
Banga Lakshmi Cotton Mills was launched in August 1906.
Taking cue from Tagores Shantiniketan, the Bengal National College was set up in the
vernacular medium with Aurbindo as its Principal. Planned as parallel university under the
National Council of education, but failed to get any colleges affiliated to it.
Bengal Technical insititute was set up and dozen other national schools, but failed to get
students due to negligible job prospects.
Period also saw first attempts to politicize labour unrest. Examples protest walkout from
the Burn Company in Howrah, in September 1905, a tram strike in Calcutta, printers srike,
etc.
Pioneer labour leaders Ashwini kumar Banerji, Prabhat Kusum Roychaudhari,
Apurbakumar Ghosh
Emergence of Samitis ( or corps of national volunteers) was one of the major achievements
of the movement in mass contanct. Engaged in activities like physical and moral training of
members, social work during famines, epidemics, or religious festivals, preaching the
swadeshi message through journals, pamphlets etc, Disappeared or became terrorist secret
societies during first round of repression in 1908-09.
All india muslim league set up in 1906- during the height of swadeshi movement communal
riots broke out, due to success of British divide and rule policy.
Contribution of movement was most marked in cultural sphere.
Amar Sonar Bangla Tagore
Swadeshi influence could be seen in Bengali Folk music (Paligeet and Jari gan)
In Art, R N Tagore, broke the dominance of victorian naturalism over indian art and sought
inspiration from the rich indigenous tradtion of the Mughal, rajputs, and Ajanta paintings.
Nandlal Bose who left a major imprint on Indian Art was first recipient of a scholarship
offered by the indian Society of Oriental Art, 1907,
Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray Scientists
Militant nationalists did not know how to go beyond a more vigorous agitation and arrange
mass movements. Consequently they too came to a political dead end by 1907.

RISE OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM

After 1905 several newspapers, particularly Sandhya and Yugantar of Bengal and Kal of
Maharashtra and few nationalist leaders secretly began to advocate revolutionary terrorism.
Their activities took the form of (i) assassination of oppressive officials or traitors from their
own ranks and (ii) dacoities to raise funds for purchase of arms (swadeshi dacoities)
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1907- unsuccessful attempt was made on life Lieutenant Governor Fuller of Bengal.
Hemachandra Kanungo of Anushillan Samiti, went abroad to get military training. After his
return, a combined religious school and a bomb factory was set up.
Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki Kennedy Murders ( April 30, 1908) while the real target was
magistrate Kingsford of Muzaffarpur. Chaki shot himself and Bose was tried and hanged.
Pulin Das Dacca Anushillan in East Bengal had branches throughout benga and beyond
Jatindra Nath Mukherji led Yugantar Party a loose confederation of groups, tried to build
international contacts, so as to organize a military conspiracy at an opportune time.
V D Savarkar organized Abhinav bharat in 1904, a secret society of revolutionaries, which he
led from Nasik
Shyamji Krishnaverma in London started a centre in 1905 for Indian students (india house).,
along with a journal (indian Sociologist) and an Indian home rule league. In 1907 his India house
was taken over by Savarkars group.
Madam Bhikaji kama- Parsi Revolutionary in Geneva was private secretary to Naoroji
Virendranath Chattopadhyay Berlin
Sohan Sigh Bhakra Ghadar, Sanfrancisco. British Columbia and Pacific coast of USA, the
revolutionary movement acquired a mass base. About 15000 Indians, mostly Sikh were racially
discriminated.

SURAT SPLIT OF 1907

British adopted a new policy The policy of Carrot and Stick

o Outright repression (applicable chiefly to extremists)
o Concessions to rally the moderates
o Divide and rule
Total split in the nationalist ranks at Surat Session of 1907 Extremists and Moderates
Allahabad convention, 1908, made the split definitive by drawing up a constitution which fixed
the congress methods as strictly constitutional and limited to bringing about a steady reform
of the existing system of administration.

INDIAN COUNCIL ACT OF 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)

Formally introduced the principle of elections for the first time

Allowed somewhat greater powers for discussing budget, putting questions and sponsoring
resolutions (to members of legislative councils), barring the army and foreign policy.
An official majority was established in the Imperial legislative council (27 elected out of 60)
o 8 reserved for muslim
o 6 for landlord
o 2 for british capitalist
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Separate electorate for Muslims encouraged growth of muslim communalism

Income qualification for muslim voters considerably lower than that for the Hindu.
Totally revised within 9 years by Montague-Chelmsford (1918)
Moderates were unhappy and began to think in extremist lines.

SEPARATIST TRENDS IN INDIAN NATIONALIST POLITICS THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

Seeds were sown in 1880s when Syed Ahmed khan sought to use it as a counterpoise to the
national movement
Asked muslims to shun all politics and remain politically passive
British actively promoted and supported
Certain Hindu tinge in the political works and ideas of the militant nationalism
1906- Muslim League was founded in Dacca, by a group of Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats, upper
class muslims like Aga Khan, Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-mulk.
Branch set up in London in 1908 by Amir Ali
Activities were against the national congress and the Hindus and not against the British
Muslim political elite got a huge shock in December 1911 with the annulment of partition by
George V at Delhi Durbar
Muslims were further alienated by Britains refusal to help Turkey in the Italian and Balkan
Wars (1911-12).
Younger Muslim intellectuals, the so called Young Party, got dissatisfied with the loyalist and
slavish mentality of the upper class leadership of Muslim League. captured league in 1912, and
began steering towards greater militancy. In their social composition they tended to be very
much like the radical hindu nationalists, insofar as they were seldom titled Zamindars.
1912- the brillian congress leader MA Jinnah invited to join league, which adopted setting up of
self-government as one of its objectives. In the same year Aga Khan resigned as President
Ahrar Movement (Militant nationalist movement) Maulana mahammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khanl,
Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, and Mazhar-ul-Haq.
o Got support from Ulema, belonging to deoband school
o Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Al Hilal newspaper (1912)

GHADAR MOVEMENT

Crucial role played by Lala Hardayal, a political exile from India and Bhai Parmanand, Sohan
Singh Bhakra, etc
Working committee set up and weekly paper, The Ghadar was started for free circulation. ,
Headquarter at San Francisco, called Yugantar Ashram.
Ghadar militants immediately began an extensive propaganda campaign, they toured
extensively , visiting mills and farms where most of the Punjabi immigrant labour worked.
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Powerful impact made by the poems that appeared in The Ghadar, soon collected and
published as Ghadar di Gooonj.
Ghadar was circulated widely among Indians in North America and within a few months it had
reached groups settled in the Phillippines, Hong Kong, China, the Malay States, Singapore,
Trinindad, the Honduras, and of course India.
1914 three events influenced the course of the Ghadar Movement
a. arrest and escape of Har Dayal (active association with Ghadar came to an
abrupt end)
b. Komagata Maru incident: Sept 29, 1914, a shipload of would be sikh and punjabi
Muslim immigrants from India were turned back from Vancouver by the
Canadian immigration authorities. On their return clashed with police in Budge-
Budge near Calcutta.
c. Outbreak of First World war: ailan-e-jung of Ghadar Party was issued and
circulated widely. Leaders persuaded Indians living abroad to go back to india
and organize an armed rebellion.
Around 8000 emigrants returned to india, 5000 were allowed to proceed unhindered. Govt was
fully informed of the plans and hence returnees were scrutinized.
But Punjab in 1914 was very different from what the Ghadarites had been led to expect they
found the Punjabis were in no mood to join the romantic adventure of the Ghadar. Militants
from abroad tried persuading to no avail.
Chief Khalsa Diwan proclaiking its loyalty to the sovereign, declared them to be fallen Sikhs
and criminals, and helped govt. to track them down.

Strengths of Ghadar

Propaganda effort motivated and educated an entire generation.

Democratic and egalitarian ideology
Internationalist outlook

Weaknesses of Ghadar

Completely underestimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level organization,
ideological, strategic, tactical and financial.
Sounded the bugle of war without much preparation
Failed to generate an effective and sustained leadership that was capable of integrating the
various aspects of the movement.
Almost non-existent organizational structure

FIRST WORLD WAR AND FREEDOM STRUGGLE

Revolutionary Activities

16

War years offered a great opportunity for indian revolutionaries. Troops were drained out of India. The
war brough home the possibility of financial and military help from Germany and Turkey.
The number of political dacoities and murders reached its highest.

Jatin Mukherjee disruption of rail communications, seizure of Fort William in Calcutta,

landing of German arms, caught near Balasore in Orissa, died a heros death.
Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal cooperated with returned Ghadarites in Punjab.

Lucknow Pact of 1916

An objective basis emerged during the war years for a sort of joint platform of the moderates,
extremists, and Young Party controlled muslim League, for putting constitutional, but still quite
intense pressure on the British Govt, in return for war support.
Tilak (extremist) was eager to strike a compromise with his old congress enemies after his
return from jail, in 1914.
Pherozshah Mehta refused to yield even while other moderates were willing.
Major element which united congress was the sudden rise of Theosophical Society leader,
Annie Besant. She believed that substantial measure of self-governance was necessary for an
Indo-British friendship and that only way of achieving this was through a nation-wide agitaition
and organization modeled on the British Radical and the Irish Home Rule movements.
In Dec, 1915 it was decide that the Tilak group be allowed to re-enter Congress (Mehta had
died meanwhile)
Congress and Muslim League met simultaneously in Bombay
At Lucknow, Dec, 1916, a common demand was raised for representative govt. at the centre as
well as provinces, and dominion status for india.
Hindu Muslim political differences wer sought to be resolved by the famous Lucknow pact.
o Congress accepted the separate electorates and a bargain was struk over the
distribution of seats
o Muslim leaders accepted under representation in Muslim majority areas (40% -Bengal),
in return for over representation in muslim minority areas (30% - Bombay)
Lucknow session was also first united congress since 1907.

Home Rule League

2 Home rule leagues Besants and Tilaks

Annie Besant- announced plans in 1915, September.
o Worked to that end through her Madras newspapers New india and
Commonwealth followed by Young india from Bombay
Tilak forestalled her by starting his Home Rule league in April 1916.
The two avoided friction by demarcating their activities
17

o Tilak Maharashtra (excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar
o Besants- Rest of india
Both operated from Poona
1917- Tilaks 14000 members; Besants 27000
Activities of Leagues
o Organizing group discussion and reading rooms in cities
o Distributing mass sale of pamphlets (arguments for self rule)
o Lecture tours
Demand was made wholly on secular basis
Aug 1917, Montague, the secretary of state, promised a responsible govt. to India
Demand for home Rule or self govt. could no longer be treated as seditious
By the end of WW I, the leader of the Home Rule League who had aroused the masses were
now unable to show the way forward. The stage was set for the entry of Gandhi.

GANDHI AND HIS THOUGHT

Satyagraha force of truth was devised by Gandhi to describe an approach which sought victory not
by the forcible defeat of the opponent but by bringing about a change in his heart through ones own
suffering or self-sacrifice.
Ahimsa
The basic Gandhian technique was put into action in S. Africa from 1906. This involved training of
discipline cadres (at Tolstoy Far, and the Phoenix settlement), non violent satyagraha through peaceful
violation of specific laws, mass courting arrests, occasional hartals, and spectacular marches. It
included a careful attention to organization and financial details, a readiness for negotiations and
compromises, at times leading to abrupt withdrawals, and the cultivation of certain Gandhian
peculiarities (vegetarianism, nature therapy, experiments in sexual self-restraints etc)
The social ideals of Ghandhi are incorporated in Hind Swaraj (1909), where he asserted tha the
realenemy was not the British Colonial domination but the modern industrial civilization itself.

Gandhis arrival to India, Jan 1915

Political Mentor Gokhale
Organized his ashram in Ahmedabad
First major public appearance opening of BHU, Feb 1916.

Champaran

In the early 19th century, European planters compelled the peasants to grow indigo on a part of
their holdings (Tinkathia system)
Towards the end of 19th century, German synthetic dye forced indigo out of market
18

European planters released the cultivators from their obligation of cultivating indigo, but
enhanced the rent and other illegal dues.
Gandhi, accompanied by Rajendra Prasad, mazhar ul Haq, J B Kriplani and Mahadev Desai
reached Champaran in 1917 after invitation of the peasants
Grievances of peasants were given all-India publicity
Govt. abolished Tinkathia System
Gandhi was compared to Lord Rama and the planters to Rakshasas.
He was thought of an holyman with miracle powers, who could end all exploitation.

Kheda

Suffered from repeated famines and plague after 1899 make revenue payment difficult
1917-18, a poor harvest coincided with high prices of kerosene, ironware, cloth and salt
The farm labour employed by Pattidars (small peasant proprietors) had successfully forced
them to hike up their wages
pattidars appeals for remission of revenue were ignored by the govt.
as the yields were less than 1/4th of normal, they were entitled under revenue code to a total
remission of land revenues.
Gandhi organized first real peasant satyagraha, asking peasants to withhold revenue and fight
onto death
Vallabhai Patel a young lawyer of kheda joined Gandhi in touring villages
Govt. issued secret instructions directing that revenue should be recovered from only those
peasants who could pay
The movement was withdrawn
Sustained village work continued by the volunteers was to build up over years a sold Gandhian
base in Gujarat

Ahmedabad

Feb- March 1918- purely internal conflict between Gujarat mill owners and their workers over
the question of plague bonus of 1917
Employers wanted to withdraw it once the epidemic had passed
Workers demanded 50% hike in wages in lieu of the plague bonus to take care of the rise in cost
of living during the war
Owners were willing to offer only 20%
Ahmedabad strike, March 1918-under Gandhis leadership
First use of weapon of Hunger Strike
Success and workers got a 35% wage increase
Gandhian hold on the Ahmedabad workers was consolidated through the Textile labour
association of 1920.
19

Till the early 1919, Gandhi by and large did not intervene in the matters of all-India politics. It was the
provocative enactment of Rowlatt Act in Feb 1919, which made him launch an all iNDIA satyagraha.

Montague-Chelmsford Reform (jULY 1918)

Central legislative assembly came to have 2 houses

o Legislative council
o Council of states
Majority of elected members
The legislative however, had no control of the Governor General and his executive council
Provincial councils enlarged and were to have elected majorities
Diarchy System division of subjects between council and Governor (latter being more
powerful)
Voters- Men with property
All important powers remained with Governor- General and his executive council
In provinces it was Governor

ROWLATT ACT AND GANDHIS FIRST ALL INDIA SATYAGRAHA

Govt. passed the act in 1919, inspite of stiff opposition from the Indian members of the council
It entailed detaining anyone without trial for a maximum period of 2 years.
Gandhi March 23 1919- called for all India Hartal on March 30 (later postponed to April 6th)
Gandhi used three types of political network
o Home rule league
o Certain pan islamist groups
o A satyagraha sabha with Gandhi himself started at Bombay in Feb, 1919.
o Gandhi developed excellent relations with Abdu Bari of Firangi Mahal Ulama Lucknow,
who along with other radicle leaders of Muslim League came out in favour of satyagraha
against rowlatt act.
o Satyagraha Sabha concentrated on publicing propaganda literature and collecting
signatures of satyagraha pledge.
o Elemental movement, almost entirely urban, with lower middle class groups and
artisans playing a more important role than industrial workers.
o Demonstrations and hartals in most of the towns on March 30 and april 6th and these
were generally accompanies by violence and disorder.
o In Punjab due to strong reactions, army was called in.
o Gandhiji withdrew the movement on 18 April after the Jalianwala massacre

Jallianwala Bagh Incident

Baisakhi Day of April 13, 1919

20

Peaceful unarmed crowd

Dyers troops fired official record 379 deaths
Brutality stunned the entire nation
Tagore renounced his Knighthood
Gandhiji returned Kaiser-e-Hind medal (For Boer war)
Committee under Lord Hunter set up (4 British, 3 indians)
Indemnity Act, simultaneous to the commission, passed to protects its officers
Dyer was removed from active service by the British but absolved from all guilt.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)

Rowlatt act, Jallianwala Bagh, Martial law in Punjab triggered the movement
Furthermore, Reform of 1919 with ill considered scheme of diarchy
Harsh peace treaty imposed on the defeated Ottoman empire
Khilafat movement: (Ali Brothers- Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali)
o Turkish caliph sultan must retain control over the Muslim holy places
o He must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend Islamic Faith
o Jazirut-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine) must remain under muslim suzerainty
o May 14, 1920 Treaty with Turkey
o May 28, 1920 Hunter Commission Report
o Gandhi who had been in close touch with Khilafat leaders suggested that it adopt a
programme of non-violent non-cooperation to protest the governments behaviour
Allahabad meeting of the Central Khilafat Committee (June 9, 1920) unanimously accepted
the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement
Movement was formally launched in 1st August, 1920 after the expiry of the notice that Gandhi
had given to viceroy in his letter of 22 June in which he had asserted the right recognized from
time immemorial of the subject to refuse to assist a ruler who misrules.
Congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-cooperation as its own programme
Dec 1920, Nagpur Annual Session
o Surrender of titles
o Triple boycott of schools, courts, and councils
o Boycott of foreign goods
o Promotion of national schools, arbitration courts, the khadi
o Maintenance of a Hindu-muslim unity
o And strict non-violence
Gandhis insistence crucial changes brought in congress
o A regular four anna membership to enable the poor to become members
o A hierarchy of village- taluka- district or town committees
21

o Reorganization of PCCs on a linguistic basis

o No. of delegates to be fixed on no. of population
o 15 member working committee
Adoption of the movment by the congress gave it a new energy, and from Jan. 1921, it began to
register considerable success.
1921-22 an unprecedented movement
Ali brothers and Gandhi undertook a nation-wide tour
Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat vidyapeeth came
into existence
Boycott of law court was not as successful
Boycott of foreign goods was most successful
Khadi became symbol of freedom
AICC Vijayawada Session, march 1921
o Collection of funds
o Enrolment of members
o Distribution of Charkha
July 1921, All India Khilafat Conference held at Karachi,
o Mohammad Ali No muslim should serve in the British indian Army
Congress adopted similar resolution
Permitted PCCs to sanction mass civil disobedience wherever they thought the people were
ready.
1921-22 Ekka Movement (Madari Pasi) Awadh
o conversion of produce rent (batai) to cash rent
o movement crushed by police in June 1922.
Nov, 1921 day of arrival of prince of Wales in Bombay
o Day of hartal all over the country
o Police firing 59 deaths 400 wounded
o Congress volunteer corps emerged as a powerful parallel police
Dec, 1921 Govt. declared volunteer corps illegal
o Leaders (except Gandhi) arrested
o Public meetings, assemblies band
o Newspapers gaged
Gandhi Bardoli Taluka, Surat District mass civil disobedience
o But before the movement could take off Chauri Chaura took place in Gorakhpur village
o Feb5, 1922 Volnteer body which was picketing local bazaar protesting against liquor
sales were thrashed by the police and opened fire.
o Entire procession attacked police station and set it afire
Gandhi decided to suspend the entire movement
Feb 12, 1922 the Non-cooperation movement came to an end
Gndhi arrested on March 10, 1922 jailed for 6 years
22

Nov, 1922- Kamal Pasha deprived the sultan of his power, abolished caliphate in 1924
o This broke the back of khilafat movement
o Hindu-Muslim unity gave way to communal riots, 1922-27

Peasant Movements and Nationalism in the 1920s

20th century peasant movements were marked by a new feature: they were deeply influenced by and
in their turn had a marked impact on the ongoing struggle for national freedom
Kisan Sabha Avadh, UP

Following annexation of Avadh in 1856, the second half of the 19th century had seen the
strengthening of the hold of taluqdars or big landlords over the agrarian society.
Had led to exorbitant rents, illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana, and arbitrary ejectments or
bedakhli
More active members of Home Rule League in UP initiated the proess of organization of
peasants of the province on modern lines into kisan sabhas.
UP Kisan Sabha was set up in Feb 1918 Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi, with
support of M M Malviya
Baba Ramachandra, emerged as the strongest leader
Difference emerged on ways of working between non-cooperators and the ones who preferred
constitutional agitation ( MM Malviya group)
Non cooperators set up an alternative Oudh Kisan Sabha at Pratapgarh on 17 Oct. 1920.
o Succedded in integrating under its banner all the grassroots kisan sabhas that had
emerged in the districts of Avadh (over 330 Kisan Sabhas)
o Asked the kisans to refuse to till bedakhli land, not offer hari and begar (forms of unpaid
labour), to boycott those who did not accept these conditions and to solve their
disputes through panchayats.
In January 1921, the nature of peasant activity underwent a marked change. looting of
bazaars, houses, granaries and clashes with police.
Govt. quikly suppressed the outbreak of violence. And pushed through the Oudh Rent
(Amendment) Act, and though it brought little relief to the tenants, it helped rouse hopes and
in its own way assisted in the decline of the movement

Eka Movement Avadh UP

Northern Avadh
Initial thrust provided by Congress and Khilafat leaders
Main grievances extraction of rent that was generally 50% higher than the recorded rent,
oppression of thekedars.

23

Eka meetings were marked by religious ritual. Assembled peasants vowed that they would pay
only the recorded rent buy pay it on time.
Demanded commutation of produce rent (batai) to cash rent
Developed its own grass roots leadership in form of Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders
who were not particularly inclined to accept the discipline of non-violence
Unlike kisan sabha movement which was almost solely on tenants, Eka movement included in
its ranks many small zamindars.
By March 1922, severe repression on the part of authorities succeeded in bringing the eka
movement to its end.

Mappila Rebellion

August 1921 peasant discontent erupted in the Malabar district of Kerala

Mapilla (muslim) tenants rebelled
Grievances lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents, and other oppressive
landlord exactions.
Impetus for resistance had first come from the Malabar District Congress Conference held at
Manjeri in April 1920. Conference was followed by the formation of a tenants association at
Kozhikode, and soon others were set up in other parts of the district.
Khilafat movement was also extending its sweep. In fact, there was hardly any way one could
distinguish between khilafat and tenants meetings, leaders and the audience were the same.
Two movements were inextricably merged into one.
Social base Mapilla tenants (Hindus were quite conspicuous by their absence)
After Govt. prohibitions on khilafat meetings on Feb 5 1921, all prominent leaders were
arrested.
Leadership passed into the hands of local mapilla leaders
First phase of rebellion targets were unpopular jenmies (landlords) mostly hindu, symbols of
Government authority and British planters
Mapilla leaders tried to not give it a communal colour
Character of rebellion underwent a definite change after govt. repression and martial law was
declared.
Hindus were either pressurized into helping the authorities or voluntarily gave assistance and
this helped to strengthen the already existing anti-Hindu sentiment among the poor and
illiterate mappilas
Forced conversions, attacks on and murders of Hindus increased as the sense of desperation
mounted.
What had been largely an anti-government and anti-landlord affair acquired strong communal
overtones.
Communalization of rebellion isolated the Mapillas from the Non-cooperation movement.
British repression did the rest and by Dec. 1921 all resistance had come to stop.
24

Bardoli Satyagraha Gujarat

Also a child of the Non-cooperation days.

Bardoli Taluq had been selected in 1922 as the place from where Gandhiji would launch the civil
disobedience campaign, but events in Chauri Chaura had changed all that.
After withdrawal of Non-cooperation movement, the Bardoli Congressmen had settled down to
intense constructive work
Kunverji Mehta and Keshavji Ganeshji worked towards upliftment of Kalipraja low caste
untouchables.
Several ashrams established and began working with peasants as well
30% increase in land revenue
Congress leaders were quick to protest
Under Vallabhai Patels leadership peasants resolved to refuse payment until Government
appointed an independent
Finally the Bardoli peasants won
Enquiry, conducted by judicial offier, Broomfield, and a revenue officer, Maxwell, came to the
conclusion that the increase had been unjustified and reduced the enhancement to 6.03%.

No-Changers and Swarajists

No-Changers - Ansari, Rajagopalachari, Kasturiranga Iyengar, and staunch Gandhians like

Vallabhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad
o Advocated concentration on the Gandhian constructive rural work
Swarajists Motilal Nehru, Vitthalbhai Patel and Hakim Ajmal- supported by CR Das Presided of
Gaya Congress (1922)
o Put forward a radical justification for the proposal of Council entry
o To obstruct their proceedings from within
Gaya Session, - Rejected Council entry
However, Das and M. Nehru went ahead to set up Swaraj Party in March 1923 to contest the
coming elections in November
Gandhi released from jail in Feb 5, 1924 (health ground)
o Balance tilted in favour of no changers
o Fearing a split of 1907, Gandhi forced them towards mutual accommodation
Nov 6, 1924 Gandhi brought strife between the two groups by signing a joint statement with
Das and Nehru
o Swarajists would carry on work in the councils on behalf and as an integral part of
congress
o Decision endorsed in Belgaum Session, 1924
Success of Swaraj Party
o Defeat of Public safety Bill 1928
25

o Exposure of hollowness of the reform of 1919.

Limits of politics of obstruction from within were soon realized and the main leadership of the
party finally withdrew from the Councils in 1930.
Work of No- Changers
o Grassroot constructive work of promotion of spinning and khadi
o National education, Hindu-Muslim Unity
o Struggle against untouchability, boycott of foreign goods
o Hundreds of Ashrams
Activities led to strengthening of the forces of nationalism, culminating in the civil disobedience
Movement following announcement of all-white Simon Commission in November 1927.

Separatist Trends II

Unprecedented growth of communalism was in fact the most serious negative development of
the post 1922 years
Alliance between Khilafat and congress lingered on till early 1925.
Mohammad Ali, who had presided over the Kakinda Congress, as late as Dec. 1923, finally split
from Gandhi in the wake of reported riots
Post 1919 political structure was itself designed to create divisions among Indians
Huge unemployment- scramble for scarce jobs
Spread of Tabligh (propaganda) and Tanzim (organization) among muslims from 1923 and the
Arya Samajists Shuddhi and Sangathan started after Moplah conversions and extended in 1923
by Shraddhananda to western UP to win back Hindus
Muslim League was once again active (devoid of radical and nationalist elements)
Ali brothers shifted towards adopting communal outlook
Lahore Session of League Presided by Jinnah and the first since 1918 to meet separately from
Congress, the League raised the demand for federation with full provincial autonomy to
preserve Muslim majority areas from domination of hindus.
Hindu Mahasabha started at Haridwar Kumbh Mela by Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1915 was
revived in 1923.
Founding of RSS at Nagpur by K B Hedgewar in 1925
In this Hindu-muslim tussle, the real winners were the British.

Emergence of Communists

Successful Russian revolution of 1917 aroused the interest of many

They were dissatisfied with the outcome of Non-cooperation movement and Gandhian political
ideas
OCT 20, 1920 M N Roy, Abani Mukherjee, some muhajirs (khilafat enthusiasts who had joined
the Hijarat in 1920 and crossed over through Afghanistan to Soviet) like Mohammad Ali and
Moohammad Shafiq, set up a Communist Party of india in Taskent
26

Roy shifted to Berlin when his hopes of penetrating India through Afghanistan failed
Started Vanguard of Indian Independence and later published India in Transition
By the end of 1922, through Nalini Gupta and Shaukat Usmani Roy established contacts with
emerging communist groups in India especially in Bombay (Dange)
Dange brought out the weekly Socialist from Bombay (1922) first ever communist journal to
be published in india
Roy in a letter to Dange, Nov 2, 1922, outlined a plan for dual organization - one legal and
another illegal a secret communist nucleus working within a broad front Workers and
Peasants Party
British panicked of a Bolshevik Revolution
o Arrested (May, 1922) Muzaffar Ahmad, SA Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalini Gupta
Communist Party of India was founded in 1925
No. of organizations were set up between 1925-27, embodying the idea of broad front WPP to
serve as a legal cover
Basic objective of WPP was to work within congress to give it a more radical orientation, make
it party of people
Little penetration in countryside.

Industrial unrest and the Communists

1928-29 massive labour upsurge (railways, cotton textiles, jute) accompanied by

communist penetration into the trade unions.

Triggers for the labour unrest

o Public Safety Bill Summarily deport anyone

o Trade Disputes act April, 1929, imposed system of tribubal and sought to ban
strikes undertaken for objects other than furtherance of trade dispute or if designed
to coerce govt. and/or inflict hardship on community.
o Congress officially opposed both
o The principle Govt. Move Meerut Conspiracy case March 1929 heavy sentences
imposed. Rounding up of 31 leaders, all of whom were, by no means, Communists.
Dange, Ghate, Mirakar, Muzaffar Ahmad, etc and 3 British communists who were
helping to organize the Bengal and Bombay workers.
o Communists made use of the opportunity to propagate their ideals through defence
speeches. The entire national movement condemned the Meerut prosecutions
1930 decline of labour movment
1928 communists reversed their policy of aligning with mainstream movments isolation
1929- worldwide depression

In 1928, J Nehru joined hands with Subhas C Bose to organize the Independence of India League to

27

fight for complete independence of India and a socialist revision of her economic structure

Simon Commission and Nehru Report

Simon Commission (Nov, 8 1929) to go into the question of constitutional reforms

All established political groups decided to boycott

Muslim League split on the issue, with Mohammad Ali Jinnah carrying the majority with him in
favour of boycott.
All national leaders began preparing for an All-Parties Conference to draw up an alternative
constitution.
Jinnahs persuasion of number of Muslim leaders, helped evolve a compromise formula called
Delhi Proposals 1927
o Doing away with separate electorates and favoring joint electorates with reserved seats
for minorities and 1/3rd muslim representation in the central assembly
o A representation in proportion to population in Punjab and Bengal
o Creation of three new Muslim majority provinces (Sind, Baluchistan and NWFP)
o Residual powers to provinces
o Section of league led by Mohammad Shafi refused to give up separate electorates and
cooperated with Commission
o Hindu Communalists bitterly opposed the creation of new Muslim majority provinces
and reservation of seats for majority in Punjab and Bengal (which would ensure muslim
control over legislatures)
Nehru Report finalized at Lucknow in 1928, was drafted mainly by Motilal Nehru and Tej
Bahadur Sapru,
o Formulated a dominion status constitution for india
o Joint electorates everywhere, reserved seats were to be conceded only at the center
and in provinces with muslim minority, but not where muslims had numerical majority.
o Unitary political structure
o First major Indian effort to draft a constitution framework for the country, complete
with lists of central and provincial subjects and Fundamental rights
o Did visualize a complete transfer of the paramountcy to the fundamentally unitary and
democratic center (Princely states)
o Nehru Report revealed its conservatism when in August 1928, it accepted an
amendment by M M Malviya guaranteeing all titles to private and personal property
Jinnah rejoined Shafi group in March 1929, and put forth his famous 14 points
o Repeated demands for new provinces, 1/3rd seats at centre and Federation with
complete provincial autonomy
28

o Later he traced the final parting of the ways back to the Nehru Report discussion of
1928-29
The process of constitution making raised the question of the future status of Princely states.
All India States Peoples Conference (Bombay, Dec, 1927) first
o Organized by politicians with congress leanings
o Demanded extension of responsible govt. to Princely states
Lord Irwin set up a committee to go into the question of paramountcy under Harcourt Butler
Butler Report (March, 1929)
o Reasserted that paramountcy must remain paramount but it was not automatically
transferrable from crown to any future self governing centre enjoying a dominion status
o Paramountcy would be exercised by the Viceroy and not by Governor General in the
Council
o This was clear attempt to take the subject of relations with prices away form the orbit of
a possible congress dominated central government and had an ominous portent for the
unity of the country

Simon Boycott

Feb 3, 1928 Simon commission landed at Bombay

Hartal, sea of black flags
1928 renewed movement for boycott of british goods
Lala Lajpat rai received fatal injuries
Student and Youth dominated urban demonstratioin

Revolutionary Terrorism
Hindustan Republican Association

Sachin Sanyal and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Bengalis settled in UP

Kakori train hold up Aug 1925 to raise funds
Most members arrested, however, the remaining members drew in new recruits, established
links with an emerging Punjab Group under a brilliant young leader Bhagat Singh and
constituted the famous HSRA in September 1928.

Surya Sen

Chittagong brought most spectacular coup in the history of terrorism

Seized the local armoury in April 18, 1930
Issued a proclamation of independence in the name of Indian Republican Army
When surrounded on Jalalabad hills on April 22, they fought a pitched battle with the police, in
which 12 of them were killed.
29

Hindustan Socialist Republican Army, Sept 1928

Deep commitment to Marxian socialism and militant atheism

Central committee
o Sukhdev and Bhagat Singh- Punjabg
o Chandrasekhar Azad, Kundanlal an Shiv Sharma United Provinces
o P N Ghosh - Bihar
Murder of Saunders Lahore December 1928 (Revenge for Lala Lajpat)
Bomb at assembly (Bhagat Singh and Battukeshwar Dutt) April 8, 1929
Attempt to blow up Irwins train near Delhi Dec. 1929
Jatin Das died in Jail Sept 1929 on 64th day of hunger strike for improvement in the status of
political prisoners

Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj

Jawaharlal Nehru as the president

Irwin Offer of Oct 31, 1929 dominion status to be natural issue of Indias constitutional
progress and promised a Round Table Conference after the Simon Report had been published.
Gandhi offered to accept the Viceroys offer, subject to conditions
a. RTC should discuss the details of dominions status and not the basic principle, which the
British should accept immediately
b. Congress must have majority representation at the Conference
c. There should be an amnesty and a policy of general concialiation
Negotiations broke down during Gnadhis meeting with Irwin on Dec. 23, as the viceroy flatly
rejected the congresss conditions
Session adopted Poorna Swaraj instead of Dominion Status
National Tricolor was unfurled on the Banks of Ravi.
January 26, was fixed as the first Independence Day
Decision to prepare for launching a Civil Disobedience campaign was taken

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31)

Salt Satyagraha Gandhis ultimatum to Irwin of Jan 31 contained demand in the form of 11
points
Gandhis statement evoked no response from govt.
The only way out was civil disobedience, including non payment of taxes
Initiated campaign by breaking salt laws
Dandi March, (March 12 April 6) from Sabarmati to Sea coast
Kamladevi Chattapadhyay persuaded Gandhi to not restrict the movement to men alone
30

It became the first national activity in which women participated in large numbers
Gandhi Arrested Mid May (1930)
Tamil Nadu C Rajagopalachari led a salt March from Tirichurapalli to Vedaraniyam on the
Tanjore Coast
Abbas Tyabji took Gandhis place
Sarojini Naidu took Tyabjis place after he was arrested
Peshawar Abdul Gaffar Khan (Badshah khan)
o Pakhtun first pushto political monthly
o Khudai Khidmatgar volunteer brigades (red uniform)
Working class partipation occurred despite the total exclusion of their specific grievances from
the 11 points and congress strategy in general
Communist aloofness as they considered INC as bourgeois
Civil disobedience did not stop inspite of violence
Low muslim participation
Gandhi at Lahore congress boycott of school and courts impractical
Merchants and Traders participated

First Round Table Conferene and Gandhi-Irwin Pact

After Simon report was published - no mention of dominion status

o Responsible govt. in provinces in place of diarchy but no changes at the center
in conciliatory gesture, the Viceroy suggested a RTC on July 9, under chairmanship of PM
Ramsay Macdonald
o Congress, along with most of the Indian business leaders kept away from the conference
o Several muslim leaders, Hindu Mahasabha leaders, liberal leaders and contingent of
princes were present
o at the conference some sort of a promise for a change at the centre became essential
o it was clear that if the Govt strategy of survival was to be based on constitutional
advance, then an olive branch to the Congress was imperative.
o Gandhi as goodwill gesture released on Jan 25, 1931
Gandhi Irwin Talk Feb 17 1931 March 5
Gandhi- Irwin Pact
o Immediate release of all political prisoners
o Right to make salt for consumption to villages in coast
o Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
Civil disobedience movement was showing signs of fatigue
Congress discontinued the movement

Karachi Session of Congress -1931

31

March 29, 1931

To endorse Gandhi Irwin pact/Delhi pact
Youth was angry as Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru had been executed 6 days earlier
Black flag demonstration against Gandhi
Congress reiterated the goal of Purna Swarag
Karachi session became memorable for its resolution on the Fundamental Rights and National
Economic Programme drafted by Dr. Rajendra Prasad

Truce Time
In Bengal terrorism surpassed all previous records
Dec 1931 RTC negotiations breakdown,

UP Congress authorized no-rent campaign in some districts

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

Irwin was replaced by Willingdon as Viceroy

Sept. 7, 1931
Gandhi Sole representative of Congress
Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women
Talks failed on minorities issue- with separate electorate now being demanded not only by the
muslims, but also by the depressed classes, Indian Christians, Anglo-indians and Europeans.
Ended on December 11, 1931

Civil Disobedience Resumed (1932-34)

Gandhi returned to India Dec 8, 1931

Nehru and Gaffar Khan arrested
Willingdon rudely turned down Gandhis request for an interview
Congress resumed Civil Disobedience
Jan 4, 1932- Govt. preemptive strike
Out manouevered and facing unprecedented repression congress fought for about a year and a
half

Gandhi and His Thought Communal Awared and Poona Pact

Macdonalds Communal Award of August 1932

o Creation of separate electorates for each minority
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Gandhis fast unto death Sept 20

Agreement between caste Hindus and untouchables (Poona Pact), by which the award was
modified
o Hindu joint electorate retained with reserved seats for untouchables
o System continued till 1947
Harijan upliftment became Gandhis primacy concern
Started All India Anti Untouchability League (Sept 1932) and

Harijan (a weekly Jan, 1933)
Civil disobedience gradually slipped into background
Formally withdrawn in April 1934

Untouchability

Gandhis effort dignified untouchables but failed to empower them

Ambedkar preferred political solution
o Charged Gandhi and Congress for obfuscating the real issue
o The untouchables, 1948

Cultural Encounter and Social Change: Caste Consciousness and Related Movements
Jotibha Phule

Satyasodhak Samaj, 1873

Book Ghulan Girl (1872)
Contributed to developing an anti-Brahmanical movement in Maharashtra
Spoke out against the Shetji-Bhatji (Money lenders and Brahmins) domination over the Bahujan
Samaj

Dravidian or Tamil Separatism

Justice Party (1920s and 30s)

Anti brahmin

Republican Party Ambedkar

Persuaded to adopt Buddhism

Return to Council Politics

Govt. withdrew the ban on Congress in June 1933

Satyamurti plans for re-entry into legislature through Swaraj Party, Oct, 1933
Taken up by Bhulabhai Desai, Ansari and B C Roy

33

mid 1930s were marked by a gradual coming together of orthodox Gandhian constructive
workers, i.e. no changers and advocates of council entry in a common front against a growing
challenge form the Left.

Growth of Socialist Forces

Idea of a distinct socialist group working under congress Nasik Jail Meeting 1923
Congress Socialist Party (CSP) formally set in Mat 1933 at a conference in Patna, chaired by
Narendra Dev
CSP activists were able to develop close connections with the emerging Kisan sabha Movement,
particularly in Bihar and Andhra.
Several Kisan Marches organized in coastal Andhra (1933-34)
Sahajananda in Bihar, revived the Kisan sabha and mobilized people around a radical
programme including abolition of zamindari

Communist revival

Significant labour revival- 1933-34 were associated with communist activity

Trade Union movements had been weakened by Meerut arrests and repeated splits in 1929
and 1931.
1930s saw formation of multiple mutually hostile groups and general isolation from nationalist
mainstream
M N Roy came back to India in 1930 and organized a strong group of Royists, who achieved
considerable success in trade union activities.
From 1934 onwards, renewed labour and communist militancy and of tendencies towards
reunion of communist and trade union factions.
Strikes in Sholapur (Feb May, 1934), Nagpur (May-July) and Bombay general strike (April)
Alarmed govt. formally banned CPI on 23 July 1934, remained effective till 1942
New spirit of unity among left nationalists, socialists and communists found expression also
through the formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936
Gandhi felt he was out of touch with the trends in congress
Fundamental disagreement with parliamentary politics and growing influence of socialist
(championed by J. Nehru)
Oct 1934 Gandhi announced his resignation from Congress

Government of India Act, 1935

Largely formal and unimportant third and last sessionof RTC was held in Nov-Dec 1932 with
only 46 delegates (as against 112 in 1931)
Act of 1935, curtailed whatever limited concessions were offered in 1930-31 under pressure of
Civil Disobedience
In provinces diarchy was replaced by responsible govt. but gave discretionary powers to
34

Governor.
Electorate increased
Kind of diarchy introduced at center
Criticized by all sections of Indian Public

Elections and Congress Ministries

Won 716 out of 1161 seats it contested

Majority in most provinces (except Assam, Bengal, NWFP, Sind and Punjab)
Wardha Meeting, July 7, 1937
o Congress decided- congressmen be permitted to accept office if invited
o Congress formed ministries in 6 provinces- Madras, Bombay, Central provinces, Orissa,
bihar and UP
Novel experiment- function as govt. in provinces and opposition at centre
Passed anti-usury and tenancy legislations
Promoted civil liberties
Release of political prisoners
Relaxation of police and secret service raj
Freedom of press enhanced

Separatist Trends: Muslim League Tactics and Growth of Communalism

League won 109 seats out of 482 seats allotted to Muslims

Did not gain majority in even muslim majority areas of Punjab and Bengal
In UP- congress rejected a demand for a coalition with the league, fuming the fires of Muslim
frustration
Congress Democracy, socialism and common Indian Nationality
League- promote interest of only muslims in India
Throughout the 27 months of congress rule in the provinces the league kept up intense
propaganda

Congress Crisis and Formation of Forward Bloc

Congress met a Vithal Nagar, Haripura (Gujarat) on Feb 19, 1939

S C Bose elected President unopposed- strengthened the radical trend
Passed resolution opposing imperialist war and Indias aloofness
Gandhi did not favour the resolution and the plan of Industrial development and
industrialization prepared by National Planning Committee on initiative of Bose
Breach between Gandhi and Bose widened
35

Next session to be held in Tripuri

Gandhi supported Pattabhhi Sitaramayya but Bose won
Congress resolved to achieve independence for India and condemned British Foreign policy
which helped fascist powers
Gandhi opposed and 12 members of working committee resigned leaving Nehru and Bose
Tripuri Session, March 8 1939
o Congress reiterated faith on Gandhian principles
o Bose was asked to constitute a new committee on principles of Gandhi
o Pant Resolution (Govind Vallabh Pant) passed- which was indeed a vote of censure
against the President
Bose resigned in Calcutta session, April 29, 1939
Bose founded the Forward Bloc in April, 1939
o Radical and progressive party within congress
o With a view a bring entire left wing under one banner
o Started a left consolidation committee in June, 1939
o In the end became just another splinter group within already fragmented left
Bose called an All-India Protest, on July 9 against a recent AICC resolution banning civil
disobedience by Congress without previous permission from PCCs
Aug 11, 1939 AICC removed Bose from the post of President PCC and debarred him from
holding any congress office for three years.

Congress Ministries Resign

World War broke out in September, 1939

Govt of India declared India to be at war with Germany without consulting congress
Congress after failed dialogues resigned in Nov 1, 1939 and 7 provinces passed under the
Governors rule
Jinnah Celebrated Dec 22, 1939, as a day of deliverance from the rule of Congress
Sharp differences over the question of immediate Satyagraha
Gandhi and the dominant leadership advanced 3 broad reasons
o Allies Britain and France was just, they should not be embarrassed in the persecution
of war
o Lack of Hindu-Muslim Unity
o Neither mass nor congress was ready
Ramgarh Session of Congress (March 1940)
o Decided to launch civil disobedience as soon as the Congress organization was
considered fit enough for the purpose

Jinnahs Two Nation Theory

League Session March 1940

36

Muslims are not a minority but a nation and they must have their separate homeland

August Offer, 1940

Change of govt. in Britain (May 1940)

Winston Churchill PM
Fall of France softened attitude of Congress
Britain was in immediate danger of Nazi occupation
Gandhi wrote in June 1, 1940 we do not seek our independence out of british ruin
Congress offered to join if
o At least a provisional National govt. was constituted at centre
o The right of india to complete independence was acknowledged
Govts response statement of Viceroy on Aug 8, 1940 (August Offer)
o Referred to need to consult representatives of several committees and was made clear
that the British would not transfer responsibility to any system of govt whose authority
is directly denied by a large and powerful elements in Indias national life
o Nationalists shocked Gandhi sanctioned civil disobedience
Congress started Individual Satyagraha
Vinobha Bhave first to court arrest
Nehru, Vallabhai Patel, Maulana Azad, 20000 congressmen courted arrest (1940-41)
Movement petered out by the autumn of 1941
It was decided that if the govt. did not arrest a satyagrahi, s/he would not only repeat the
performance but would also move into the villages and start a trak towards Delhi, thus
participating in a movement that came to known as Delhi Chalo Movement.
Aims were not to cause any serious embarrassment to the British, but merely to register the
presence of the Congress and hostility to a war being waged without consulting Indians
At the same time, giving British Govt. further opportunity to peacefully accept the Indian
demands

Economic Scene

On average brought more gains than losses for substantial section of the population
Employment went up by 31% betweein 1939 and 1942.
Rise in agricultural prices
Labour unrest was kept in check by substantial dearness allowances and supply of essential
goods at subsidized rates in the big cities.
Traders made quick profits
This probably explained the relative weakness of the national movement between 1931
1941

New Phases of War

37

Two major developments in the latter half of 1941 transformed the Indian situation.
o Hitlers invasion of Russia, and
o the dramatic drive through South-East Asia from Dec 1941, which in four months swept
the British out of Malaya, Singapore and Burma
German invasion of Russia confronted Indian communists with an agonizing choice. After six
months of hesitations and internal debate, the CPI in January 1942 lined up with the rest to
support the anti-fascist Peoples War

Cripps Mission

Labour members of war Cabinet Cripps and Attlee

Persuaded the war cabinet in the first week of March 1942 to agree to a draft declaration that
promised post-war dominion status
Declaration was not published immediately but Cripps went to India on March 23 to negotiate
on its basis with Indian leaders
Negotiations broke down
Congress objected to
o Dominion status instead of complete independence
o Representatives of princely states in the constituent assembly not by the people of the
state but nominees of ruler
o Provision for the partition of India
Churchill, Secretary of State; Amery, the Viceroy and Linlithgow, the commander in chief did
not want Cripps to succeed and sabotaged his efforts to accommodate Indian opinion
Cripps left behind a frustrated and embittered Indian people

Quit India Movement

Gandhi in militant mood

Quit India resolution passed in Bombay Session of AICC on Aug 8, 1942
Mass struggle on the non-violent liens on the widest possible scale under Gandhis leadership
Do or Die
Quit India resolution only opposed by Communist members of ACII
Common people demonstrated unparalleled heroism and militancy
Repression was the most brutal
Apart from British obduracy other factors underlying the popular mood of 1942 were; Price rise
and shortages everywhere (particularly rice and salt)
Famine of 1943, in Bengal
In the early hours of Aug 9, 1942, Gandhi and members of congress arrested

Three Broad phases of Quit India Movement

38

a. Massive and violent but quickly suppressed, mostly urban (hartals, strikes and clashes with the
police)
Ahmedabad Stalingrad of India Textile strike (3 and half months)
Urban middle class prominent spearheaded by students
b. Middle of August focus shifted to countryside
Militant students fanned into villages, leading peasant rebellion against authorities
reminiscent of 1857
Installation of a number of national govts (short lived)
c. End of September longest and least formidable
Terrorist strikes by educated youth against communications and police and army
installations
By the end of 1942 British victorious in confrontation with Indian Nationalism
War conditions allowed a ruthless use of force
Remaining 2 and half years passed without any serious political challenge
Against Congresss Quit India, Muslim Leagues new slogan Divide and Quit
Gandhi released in May 6, 1944 made efforts for communal harmony. Jinnah, however,observed in
March 1045 Pakistan is our irrevocable and unalterable National Demand.

Mohammad Ali Jinnah

Two Jinnahs - one of pre 1940 and quite another subsequently

Started political career in 1906
Joined Muslim League in 1913 but did not resign from Congress
Remained an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity until 1920 (resigned from congress, 1920)
Played crucial role in making of Lucknow pact
Reorganized Muslim League in 1934
Major spokesperson for the demand of Pakistan after 1927
Two nation theory 1940
Appeared secular in famous opening speech at Pakistans constituent assembly in 1947.

Left Alternative

Weakened left due to repression and divison

Socialists and followers of Bose on side and Communists on other
The Peoples War had certainly isolated and discredited the CPI. They added to their own
trouble by adopting, in Aug-Sept 1942, the Adhikar Thesis on Pakistan and National Unity,
which emphasized on India as a multilingual and, therefore multinational country, with a right
of secession.
Legalized communists in July 1942.
Campaign against communists for their wartime role was launched by Congress (Nehru)
39

Communist members resigned on October 5

Formal expulsion of communist AICC members in Dec 1945.

Indian National Army and Netaji

Azad Hind Fauj/Free India Legion/INA, Singapore 1943

Subhas Chandra Bose gave his famous call Delhi Chalo
Rashbehari Bose, who had been living in exile in Japan since 1915 joined Netaji
Indian prisoners of war in Japanese camps provided a ready recruiting ground for INA
Financial aid and volunteers came from trading communities settled in South-East Asia
Non-communal
Women detachment Rani of Jhansi
1944 appeared on the borders of Assam
March June 1944, INA was in action on India soil
Besieging Imphal along with Japanese troops in a campaign which ended in total failure
Japanese collapse made INA men prisoners again
Bose mysteriously disappeared
Nov 1945 British move to put INA men on trial immediately sparked off massive
demonstrations

INA Trials

British decided to hold public trials of 20,000 INA prisoners

First trial in Red Fort, Delhi, Nov 1945 and putting on the dock together a Hindu, a muslim and a
sikh.
Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Nehru appeared in defence and Muslim League also
joined in the countrywide protest
Court martial held INA prisoners guilty but the govt. felt it expedient to set them free

Developments Under Wavell

Succeeded Linlithgow as the Viceroy of India -1943
Emphasized the need to set up a provisional political govt. at centre based on a Congress- League
coalition

Rajaji Formula and Gandhi-Jinnah Talks

Sept 9-27, 1944 Gandhi Jinnah talks

Raja Gopalachari devised a formula which formed the basis of the talks
If the muslims endorsed the demand for independence, Congress would agree to the
40

demarcation of contiguous muslim majority areas in the north-west and north-east

Inhabitants should be allowed to decide by plebiscite whether they would remain in India or
form a separate state of their own
Jinnah rejected the Rajaji Formula
Formula offered Jinnah only a shadow and a husk, Jinnahs concept of Pakistan was not a
bundle of contiguous areas but comprised the whole of six provinces.
Gandhi insisted partition after and Jinnah before

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference

Wavell visited London in March 1945

Wavell plan announced simultaneously in London and New Delhi June 14, 1945
Related to the formation of a provisional interm govt. at the centre
Viceroys executive council equal representation of Hindus and Muslims executive would
work within the existing institutions
June 25, 1945 Simla Conference
o 22 Political leaders
o conference broke down on the issue of reconstitution of the Viceroys executive council
o Jinnah demanded all Muslims should belong to the League and in the executive council
so formed, the muslim members should have a veto on all important decisions.

Eve of Independence
September 19, Announcement

Labour govt. came to power in England in 1945

Clement Attlee as the PM
Fresh elections to the Central and Provincial legislatures to be held during the winter of 1945-
46
Viceroys executive council would be reconstituted in consultation with the principal Indian
parties

1945-46 Elections

Congress won the general seats and muslim league, the muslim ones (except in NWFP)
League formed govt. in Bengal and Sind, but was defeated in Punjab
In 1937 League had won only 25% of muslim seats
In 1946 90%

Revolt of RIN Ratings

Feb 18, 1946 ratings of the RIN in Bombay and Karachi openly revolted
41

Indian sailors, complaining of bad food and racial discrimination, hoisted the congress and the
League flags on their ships
By Feb 22- the strike had spread to naval bases all over the country involving 20,000 ratings
Demands
o Release of INA and other political prisoners
o Withdrawal of Indian troops from Indonesia
o Acceptance of Indian officers as superiors
Violent street fighting on Feb 22 and 23.
Clashes took place in Karachi throughout February
Sardar Patel, helped for once by Jinnah, managed to persuade the ratings to end their strike on
Feb 23
The strike committee issued a bulletin to say that they had surrendered to their national
leaders and not the Govt.

Cabinet Mission Plan

Comprising
o Lord Pethick Lawrence (Secretary of state for India)
o Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade)
o A V Alexander (First Lord of the Admirality)
Came to India on March 19, 1946
Could not reach agreement about the formation of an interim Govt. and the machinery for
formulating the constitution after discussions with the Congress and Muslim League
Cabinet issued a statement on May 16, 1946, formulating a plan for the future Govt. of India
India to be divided into three groups
o A Madras, Bombay, Central and United Provinces
o B- NWFP, Punjab and Baluchistan
o C- Bengal and Assam
Scheme for formulating constitution, to be framed by the constituent assembly, members of
which were to be elected on a communal basis by the provincial legislative assembly and
representatives to states joining the union
Cabinet mission plan was not considered satisfactory by any section
League accepted on June 6 1940, in as much as the basis of foundation of Pakistan were
inherent in the missions plan by virtue of the compulsory groupings of the six muslim majority
provinces in Group B and C
Congress accepted in June 25 with a view to framing constitution, but did not agree on the
proposal for an interim govt.
Mission left on June 29, 1046, Viceroy formed a care-taker govt. comprising nine officials.

Direct Action Day and Interim Govt.

42

Members of the constituent assembly were elected by the legislative assemblies of various
provinces in the month of July, 1946.
It resulted in an overwhelming majority of congress
League withdrew its assent to the Cabinet Mission plan and expressed its determination to
resort to direct action to achieve Pakistan.
Aug 16 Direct Action Day by the League
Lekar Rahenge Pakistan, Ladke leke Pakistan
Communal frenzy 5000 lives lost
On Muslim Leagues refusal to cooperate, the interim govt. with Nehru as its Vice President took
office on Sept. 2 1946
Later 5 Muslim League nominees were added on Oct. 26, 1946

Constituent Assembly

Met on Dec 9, 1946 under Nehru boycotted by elected members of the League
Met again in the third week of Jan 1947 Rajendra Prasad as President
o Nehru moved the crucial Objectives Resolution on 13 December 1946, that outlined
the defining ideals of the constitution of Independent India and provided the framework
within which the work of constitution making was to proceed
o Objective was to fuse the liberal ideas of democracy with socialist ideas of economic
justice
o Proclaimed India to be Independent Sovereign Republic
On 14th August 1947, constituent assembly would take over as an independent Indias
Legislative assembly

Attlees Annoucement

Feb 20, 1947 pronounced the British decision to quit India

Date of withdrawal June 30, 1948 and appointed Lord Mountbatten as the new Viceroy

Mountbatten Plan

After Series of interviews with political leaders March 23-26, decided that Cabinet mission
framework had become untenable
April 1, 1947 Gandhi met Mountbatten
o Suggested that the running of the Intern Govt. be handed over to the leader of Muslim
League, Jinnah, to avoid partition
o Did not find favour and Mountbatten formulated an alternative PLAN BALKAN
o Envisaged transfer of power to separate provices, with Bengal and Punjab Assemblies
being given the option to vote for partition of their provinces.
Plan quickly abandoned after Nehru reacted violently in Simla, May 10, (Mountbatten had
informed him privately)
43

V P Menon and Patel suggested a transfer to two central govt. India and Pakistan on the basis
of grant of Dominion status (with the right to Secession)
Accepted by congress
Sikh and ML accepted June 2 and announced on June 3
Became the basis of India Independence Act
Ratified by British Parliament and crown on July 18 and implemented on August 15, 1947.

Independence and Partition

Punjab and Bengal was divided by two boundary commissions led by Sir Cyril Radcliff
East Bengal, West Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan opted for Pakistan
West Bengal and East Punjab opted for India
Sylhet threw its lot with Pakistan
In NWFP Abdul Gaffar Khan and Red shirts demanded an independent Pakhtoonistan
o Red shirts did not participate in the plebiscite which went in favour of joining Pakistan

Integration of Princely states

Indian independence Act, 1947 declared that British paramountcy over the Indian states was to
lapse on Aug 15, 1947
States were allowed to join either India or Pakistan
Sardar Patel, charge of states dept. in July 1947, tackled the situation with great statesmanship,
ably assisted by V P Menon
Asked 565 princely states to hand over authority in 3 areas
o External affairs
o Defence
o Communications to Indian Dominion,
Pointing out that during the British Rule , they had exercised little authority on these 3 subjects
Accession of Junagarh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur proved more difficult than the rest
Manipur
o Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed the instrument of accession on the assurances
that internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained
o However, under pressure of public opinion, Maharaja held elections in June 1948, (thus
becoming the first part of India to hold and election on universal adult franchise), and
the state became a constitutional monarchy
o Later in Sept. 1949, Maharaja was pressurized by GoI into signing a Merger agreement
without consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur. This bred
anger and resentment, which festers till now.

44