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EffectsofDifferentMineralAdmixturesonthePropertiesofFreshConcrete

ScientificWorldJournal.20142014:986567.

PMCID:PMC3948672

Publishedonline2014Feb18.doi:10.1155/2014/986567

EffectsofDifferentMineralAdmixturesonthePropertiesofFreshConcrete
SadaqatUllahKhan,MuhammadFadhilNuruddin,TehminaAyub, *andNasirShafiq
CivilEngineeringDepartment,UniversitiTeknologiPETRONAS,Block13,LevelIII,31750Tronoh,Perak,Malaysia
*TehminaAyub:Email:tehminaa@hotmail.com
AcademicEditors:O.S.B.AlAmoudiandK.Z.Elwakeel
Received2013Aug30Accepted2013Nov19.
Copyright2014SadaqatUllahKhanetal.
ThisisanopenaccessarticledistributedundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense,whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproduction
inanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited.

ThisarticlehasbeencitedbyotherarticlesinPMC.

Abstract

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Thispaperpresentsareviewofthepropertiesoffreshconcreteincludingworkability,heatofhydration,setting
time,bleeding,andreactivitybyusingmineraladmixturesflyash(FA),silicafume(SF),groundgranulatedblast
furnaceslag(GGBS),metakaolin(MK),andricehuskash(RHA).Comparisonofnormalandhighstrength
concreteinwhichcementhasbeenpartiallysupplementedbymineraladmixturehasbeenconsidered.Ithasbeen
concludedthatmineraladmixturesmaybecategorizedintotwogroups:chemicallyactivemineraladmixturesand
microfillermineraladmixtures.Chemicallyactivemineraladmixturesdecreaseworkabilityandsettingtimeof
concretebutincreasetheheatofhydrationandreactivity.Ontheotherhand,microfillermineraladmixtures
increaseworkabilityandsettingtimeofconcretebutdecreasetheheatofhydrationandreactivity.Ingeneral,small
particlesizeandhigherspecificsurfaceareaofmineraladmixturearefavourabletoproducehighlydenseand
impermeableconcretehowever,theycauselowworkabilityanddemandmorewaterwhichmaybeoffsetby
addingeffectivesuperplasticizer.
1.Introduction

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Admixturesareaddedinconcretetoimprovethequalityofconcrete.Mineraladmixturesincludeflyash(FA),silica
fume(SF),groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBS),metakaolin(MK),andricehuskash(RHA)which
possesscertaincharacteristicsthroughwhichtheyinfluencethepropertiesofconcretedifferently.Thereported
benefitsofmineraladmixturesareoftenassociatedwiththehardenpropertiesofconcretehowever,mineral
admixturesmayalsoinfluencethepropertiesofwetconcretebetweenthetimeofmixingandhardeninginoneor
moreofthefollowingwayssuchastheymayaffectwaterdemand,heatofhydration,settingtime,bleeding,and
reactivity.Intheauthors'view,thereisnoliteraturethatsummarizestheeffectofthesemineraladmixturesonthe
propertiesoffreshconcrete.Moreover,effectofmineraladmixturesonthedurabilityandonthemechanical
propertiesofconcreteremainedafocusofinterest.Nevertheless,effectofmineraladmixturesonthepropertiesof
freshconcreteisveryimportantasthesepropertiesmayaffectthedurabilityandmechanicalpropertiesofconcrete.
Comparativestudieshavebeendonesuchastheeffectofblastfurnaceslagandflyashonthehydrationoffresh
cementpaste[1],effectofsilicafume(SF),metakaolin(MK),flyash(FA),andgroundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag
(GGBS)onthesettingtimesofhighstrengthconcrete[2].Thispaperhasbeenwrittentosummarizetheavailable
literatureandprovidethereaderwithadistinctivecomparativeanalysisontheeffectofmineraladmixturesonwater
demand,heatofhydration,settingtime,bleeding,andreactivityofconcrete.Alsotheeffectofphysicaland
chemicalcharacteristicsofflyash(FA),silicafume(SF),groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBS),metakaolin
(MK),andricehuskash(RHA)onthefreshconcretehasbeenreviewed.
2.Background
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McMillanandpowerswerethefirstwhousedcoalFAinconcretein1934[3].Afterthem,basedontheresearch
workconductedduringthe1950sbyFultonandMarshall[4],Lednock,ClatworthyandLubreochDamshadbeen
constructedintheUKusingFAasapartialcementitiousmaterial,andsincethen,thesestructureshavebeen
reportedinexcellentconditions[5].FAorPulverizedfuelash(PFA)fromcoalisapozzolan,whichresultsinlow
permeableandmoredurableconcrete,whichisabletoresisttheingressofdeleteriouschemicals.Thispozzolan
wasfirstreportedasacontrollerofdamagingalkalisilicareaction(ASR)in1949byBlanks[6].Alkalisavailable
inFAconcreteareusuallyhigherthantheconcretewithoutFAwhichconfirmsthatFAplaysapreventiverole
againstASRthatisanaddedadvantageofFA[3].TwodamsNantyMochDam(centralWales,UK)andthe
LowerNotchDam(Ontario,Canada)wereconstructedin1962and1969withFAconcrete.Thesestructureswere
inspectedin1991afterabout3540yearsoftheirconstruction.Theconditionalsurvey,petrographicexamination,
anddamageratingindex(DRI)showednosymptomsofASR[7].In2010,thesestructureswereonceagain
visuallyinspectedanditwasreportedthatbothdamsareinexcellentconditionafter40to50yearsinservice.This
reportindicatesastrongevidenceofthebenefitsofusingFA[3].
In1862,GGBSwasfirstdiscoveredinGermanybyEmilLangenhowever,commercialproductionoflime
activatedGGBSwasstartedin1865inGermany[5].ConcretecontainingGGBShasbeennamedintheliterature
asslagconcrete,whichisbeingusedsuccessfullyinmanycountriesduetoacceptedbenefitsofthismaterialand
theuseofslagconcretehasbeenrecommendedintheirnationalstandards[5].Around1880,GGBSwasfirstused
withPortlandcement(PC).SincethenithasbeenusedextensivelyinmanyEuropeancountries.IntheUK,the
firstBritishstandardforPortlandblastfurnacecement(PBFC)wasintroducedin1923[5].
In1947,SFwasfirstobtainedinNorway,duringfiltrationoftheexhaustgasesfromfurnacesasfumes.Thelarge
portionofthesefumescontainedveryfinepowderofhighpercentageofsilicondioxide.Sincethe1970s,filtration
ofgaseshasstartedatlargescaleand,in1976,firststandardNS3050wasgrantedtouseSFinfactoryproduced
cement,extensiveliteratureisavailableonSFandSFconcrete[5].Itisahighqualitymaterialusedinthecement
andconcreteindustry.IthasbeenreportedthatifatypicaldosageofSFof810%byweightofcementisaddedin
concrete,thenitseffectisbetween50,000and100,000microspherespercentparticlethatis,concretemixwillbe
denserandcohesiveduetofineparticlesofSF[3].
MKisaprocessedamorphoussilicamaterialanditisobtainedfromcalcinationofkaolintoatemperaturebetween
600and850C(1112to1562F)[811].Kaolinisnaturallyoccurringmaterialthechemicalandmineralogical
compositionsarehighlydependentontherockfromwhichitisformed[12].Kaoliniswidelyoccurringwhiteclay
resultingfromnaturaldecompositionoffeldsparandismainlyusedinthemanufacturingofporcelain,asafillerin
thepaperandtextiles,andasabsorbentinmedicines[5].Saadetal.,1982[13]Larbi,1991[14]Halliwell,1992
[15]andHewlett,2004[16]reportedthattheinclusionofMKinconcretehasnodrawbackshowever,in1995,
Martin[17]reportedthattheinclusionofMKinconcreteincreasesthecompressivestrengthupto110MPa(16ksi)
withsuperplasticizertoovercomethehigherwaterrequirementinMKconcrete.In1996,Wildetal.[18]foundthat
theoptimumOPCreplacementwithMKis20%byweightwithsuperplasticizerof2.4%ofbinderweight.
Recently,Duanetal.,2013[19],studiedtheporestructureandinterfacialtransitionzone(ITZ)ofconcreteusing
GGBS,SF,andMKandithasbeenfoundthatMKhaspositiveeffectsonporestructureandITZenhancementof
concretehigherthanSFandGGBS[19].
Ricehuskistheouterskinofthericegrainwithahighconcentrationofsilica,generallymorethan8085%[20].It
occupiesabout30%ofthegrossweightofaricekernelandnormallycontains80%oforganicand20%of
inorganicsubstances[21].RHAhashighpozzolanicactivityduetononcrystallinesilicaandhighspecificsurface
area.RHAhasbeenusedinlimepozzolanmixesforpartlyreplacementofPortlandcement[2227].
3.Manufacturing

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FAisproducedwhencoalisburntduringpowergenerationabout1600C(2912F)[28].Thisburningalsoresults
insomeincombustiblematerialswhichamalgamatetoformsphericalglassydropletsofsilica(SiO2),alumina
(Al2O3),ironoxide(Fe2O3),andotherminorconstituents.AccordingtoASTMC61805,therearetwoclassesof
FAbasedonthetypesofcoalfromwhichitoriginates.TheClassFisproducedbyburninganthraciteswhichis
mainlyasiliceousandpossessespozzolaniccharacteristics.TheClassCcontainslimeandhigherMgOcontentand
itisproducedbyburningligniteandsubbituminouscoal.ClassCflyashislighterincolourincomparisonwith
otherashesandmaycauseexpansionandtheirstrengthbehaviourathightemperatureisnotapparent[29,30].

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GGBScontainssilicatesandaluminosilicatesofcalciumandisabyproductofironmanufacturedinablast
furnace.Therearetwotechniques,granulationandpelletization,throughwhichGGBSisproduced.Ingranulation
technique,moltenslagisforcedoveraweirintohighpressurewaterjetswhichrapidlycoolstheslagasgranulesof
5mm(0.197in.)diameterhowever,inpelletizationtechnique,moltenslagispouredintocoldwaterrotatingdrum.
Thefinsinsidetherotatingdrumthrowmoltenslagintheairtowardsthewallsofthedrumwherewaterissprayed
tocoolitrapidly.Thisprocessproducesparticlesofsize100mm(3.94in.)todust,outofwhichparticlesizeofless
than6mm(0.236in.)insizeisusedtomanufacturetheGGBS.Thematerialsproducedfromthesetwotechniques
canbeusedasrawmaterialforglassstructuredGGBS[5].
SFisabyproductobtainedafterreducinghighpurityquartzwithcoalinelectricarcfurnacebyheatingupto
2000C(3632F)duringtheproductionofsilicon.ByoxidationandcondensationofexhaustgasSiO,veryfine
sphericalparticlesofSFareobtainedwhicharehighlyreactivewiththeCa(OH)2producedduringhydrationof
cement[5].SFconsistsofextremelyfineparticlesofaveragediameters0.1m(0.00000394in.),havingpozzolanic
characteristicsandtendencytodevelopplasticshrinkagecracks[29,30].
KaolinisconvertedintoMKwhenitisheatedtothetemperaturebetween600and850C(1112to1562F)[811].
MKisaveryreactivepozzolan,butitsphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsgreatlydependontherawmaterial
used,thetemperatureduringcalcinationandfinishingprocess(rapidcoolingaftercalcination)[5]however,MK
withahighlydisorganizedstructurehasbeenproducedbynormalcoolingaswell[811].Thetemperatureof
calcinationanddurationdependedonthemineralogicalcompositionofrawkaolin.Ithasbeenreportedthathigher
alunitecontentinkaolinrequireshighertemperatureofcalcinationandlowalunitecontentgivesgoodcalcined
kaolinonlowtemperature[10,11].
Ricehuskisproducedinmillionsoftonsperyearasawastematerialinagriculturalandindustrialprocesses.RHA
isproducedbyslowburningofricehuskatatemperaturebetween500and700C(932to1292F)[30].RHAmay
produceabout20%byweightofricehuskafterincineration[21].
4.ChemicalReactionofMineralAdmixtureswithOrdinaryPortlandCement

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FAreactionwithordinaryPortlandcement(OPC)isatwostageprocess.Inthefirststage,duringtheearlycuring,
theprimaryreactioniswithCaOH2however,thereactionratedependsonthecuringtemperature.Atroom
temperature,theslowerCaOH2activationminimizesthereactionrate.Theeffectivenessoftheuseofflyashin
concretedependsonmanyfactorsincludingthefollowing:
i.thechemicalandphasecompositionofFAandOPC
ii.Ca(OH)2concentrationofthereactionsystem
iii.themorphologyofFAparticles
iv.thefinenessofFAandOPC
v.thedevelopmentofheatduringtheearlyageofhydrationprocess
vi.thereductioninmixingwaterrequirementswithFA.
VariationsinchemicalcompositionandreactivityofFAaffectearlystagepropertiesandtherheologyofconcrete
[28].ItisadvisedtodeterminetheacceptabilityofFAthroughtrialmixesbyconsideringworkability,strength
development,anddurability[28].Inthesecondstage,withacontinuingsupplyofmoisture,thelimereacts
pozzolanicallywiththeFAandproducesadditionalhydrationproductsofafineporestructure.
Thepozzolanicreactionmayberepresentedas

Calciumhydroxide + silica = tricalciumsilicate + water

3Ca(OH)

(1)

+ SiO2 = 3CaO SiO2 + 3H2 O

CabreraandPlowman(1987)showedthatcalciumhydroxide(lime)depleteswithtimeanditsreactionaffectsthe
longtermgainofstrengthinFAconcreteascomparedtoordinaryPortlandcementconcretehowever,despitethis
reduction,thereissufficientlimetomaintainahighpH.Itisimportanttomentionthattheresultingproductsdueto
theadditionofFAaredifferentfromtheresultantproductsformedinOPCconcrete.FAproducesverymuchfiner
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porestructurewithtimepresumingthereisreachedtowatertomaintainthehydrationprocess[5].ApHmorethan
13at20C(68F)isrequiredwiththelimetostartthereactionbydecomposingtheSiOSilinkinFA[31].
UnlikeFAinwhichSiOSilinkhastobreaktomakeitreactivewithlime,GGBSrequirestobeactivatedtoreact
withlime.GGBSduetoitsglassystructurereactsveryslowlywithwaterinthepresenceofactivators.Commonly,
sulphatesand/oralkalisactasactivators,reactingchemicallywiththeGGBS.Theseactivatorsdisturbtheglassy
structureandreacttoincreasethepHofthesystemuptocritical.IncontrasttoFA,GGBSonlyneedsapHlevel
lessthan12andactivators.Inconcrete,duetohydrationofcement,Ca(OH)2isproducedandactsasanactivator
[31].
SFasapozzolanreactswithCa(OH)2andabout25%ofSFcanconsumemostoftheCa(OH)2at28days.Thisis
veryimportantastheCa(OH)2crystalsarerelativelyweak,brittle,andnotcementitiousandcrackscaneasily
propagatethroughregionsconcentratedwithCa(OH)2crystals,thatis,theaggregatecementpastematrixinterface
[32].
Thecalcinationprocess(dehydroxylation)ofkaolinisactuallyatransformationfromcrystallinetoamorphous
phase.Theamountandtypeofamorphousphaseinfluencetheactivityoftheadditives[16].Therearetwo
propertiesthatcomprisetheactivityofadditives:chemicalactivity(usuallypozzolanic)andmicrofillereffect.The
formerissturdilylinkedtothecrystallinityofthesourcekaolin[8]thatis,wellstructuredkaoliniteischangedinto
lessreactiveMK[33].Dehydroxylationofkaoliniteatatmosphericconditioncostsmasslossof13.76%,andin
resultchangesSiO22Al2O32H2OintoSiO22Al2O3[8].Itisalsoreportedthat,afterdehydroxylationat570C
(1058F),kaolincompletelychangestoamorphousphaseandthechemicalactivityisalinearfunctionof
amorphousphasecontentinitsrangeof50100%[8].MKofamorphousphasecontentlessthan20%canbe
consideredasinertmaterialsinpozzolanicactivityviewpoint[8].AmorphousphasecontentsinMKhavealso
influencedtheactivitystrengthindex(theratioofthecompressivestrengthofstandardmortarcubes,preparedwith
80%referencecementplus20%additivebymass,tothecompressivestrengthofthestandardmortarcubeprepared
withreferencecementonly,testedatthesameage)however,thereisnoincreaseinactivitystrengthindexbythe
increaseofamorphousphaseindexabove55%[8].
Yuetal.,1999[34],foundthatthereactionbetweenRHAandCa(OH)2solutionyieldsCSHgel.The
morphologyofCSHgelislikecongregate,havingalargespecificareaduetothehigherporousstructure.This
CSHgelanditslargespecificareaarethemainreasonimprovingtheconcretepropertieswiththeadditionof
RHA[34,35].
5.PhysicalandChemicalCharacteristicsofMineralAdmixtures

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ThephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofmineraladmixturesandOPChavebeenpresentedinTable1.Though
thesephysicalandchemicalpropertiesaregenerallyvarieddependingonthesourcefromwhichthesemineral
admixturesarederived,thevariationinthesepropertiesseldomtoolargeandcomprehensivecomparisonispossible
throughtheseproperties.Thefirstpropertyisthespecificgravity.ThemineraladmixturespresentedinTable1have
lesserspecificgravitythanOPC.Therefore,morevolumeisexpectedwhenanyoneofthesemineraladmixtures
replacesOPCbymass.Generallyreductioninfineaggregatecontentsisnecessarytoovercomethevolume
increase.
Table1
ComparisonofphysicalandchemicalpropertiesofOPCandmineral
admixtures.
Themostimportantconstituentsforanymineraladmixturearesilicaandaluminaoxides.IncomparisonwithOPC,
themineraladmixturespresentedinTable1havehigherquantityofsilicaoxideintheirconstituent.Themaximum
contentofsilicaoxideisinRHAandSFshowingtheirreactioncapabilitywiththeprimaryhydrateofcementto
producecalciumsilicatehydrate(CSH)whichisstrengtheninggelinconcretehowever,thecontentofalumina
oxideislesserinSFandRHA.Ontheotherhand,MKhassubstantialcontentsofsilicaandaluminaoxideshowing
itscapabilitytoproducecalciumsilicatehydrate(CSH)andcalciumaluminatehydrate(CAH)whichhasalso
bondingcharacteristicsintheconcrete.

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Theparticlesizeandsurfaceareaaretheutmostimportantformineraladmixtures.Asreportedintheliterature,
smallerparticlesizewithgreatersurfaceareaisfavourablewithinconcretetobemorereactivewiththealkaline
environment[3].InTable1,RHA,SF,andMKhavethesmallerparticlesizeandgreatersurfaceareashowingtheir
capabilitytoreactmoreeffectivelywithCa(OH)2intheconcrete.
ThemicrostructureofFA,GGBS,SF,MK,andRHAthroughfieldemissionscanningelectronmicroscope
(FESEM)hasbeenshowninFigures1,2,3,4,and5.ApparentlyGGBSandRHAhavemostunevenparticlesize
distributioneventhoughtheseFESEMimagesaretakenaftergrinding.Hence,itmayinferthatgrindingprocedure
anddurationareveryimportantincaseofGGBSandRHA.GGBS,MK,andRHAhaveparticlesofirregularshape
havingmultiplelayerstructure.Whereas,theFAandSFhavesphericalshapeparticlesshowingapossibleincrease
inflowabilitybypackingofmaterialonceusedintheconcrete.
Figure1
Microstructureofflyashthroughfieldemissionscanningelectron
microscope(FESEM)showingparticlesizedistribution.

Figure2
Microstructureofblastfurnaceslagthroughfieldemissionscanningelectron
microscope(FESEM)showingparticlesizedistribution[36].

Figure3
Microstructureofsilicafumethroughfieldemissionscanningelectron
microscope(FESEM)showingparticlesizedistribution.

Figure4
Microstructureofmetakaolinthroughfieldemissionscanningelectron
microscope(FESEM)showingparticlesizedistribution.

Figure5
Microstructureofricehuskashthroughfieldemissionscanningelectron
microscope(FESEM)showingparticlesizedistribution.
6.PropertiesofFreshConcrete

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6.1.WaterDemandorWorkability

AccordingtoOwens,1979[37],strengthperformanceofasinglesource/typeofFAcanberelatedtowaterdemand
andfineness.Foraspecificworkability,waterdemandcanbereducedbyvaryingparticleshapeandusingfiner
fractionsofFA[37].Dewar,1986[38],correlatedthemixdesignsystemwithwaterreductionsusingFAandfound
thatthehigherstrengthofFAconcretedependsonreducingthewatercontentandpozzolanicperformanceofthe
cement/FAcombination.ItisgenerallybelievedthatfinerFAsignificantlyimprovesstrengthwithtime[39].Monk,
1983,concludedthat,withrelativelycoarseFAof45m(0.0018in.)residue>12percent,thewaterrequirements
aregreatlyreduced[40].ThefluidityoffreshconcreteisincreasedduetosphericalparticlesofFA.
SimilartoFA,lesswatercontentisrequiredwhenGGBSisadded.Generally,25%to70%ofcementisreplaced
withGGBSintheconcrete[41].GGBSrequiresabout3%lesserwatercontentincomparisontoOPCfortheequal
slumprequirement.Thisisduetothesmoothsurfacetextureoftheslagparticlesthatdelaythechemicalreaction
andincreasethesettingtime[5].
SFascementreplacingbymassincreasedthecohesivenessofconcreteandrequiredhigherwatercontentto
maintainworkabilityhowever,throughvibrationorpumping,SFduetosphericalparticlesgivesconcretegreater
flowabilityascomparedtoordinaryconcrete[5].Thecohesivenessisalsoduetohighearlyreactivityandlower
settingtime.Mostly,plasticizerorsuperplasticizerisusedinordertomanufactureSFconcretewithoutincreasing
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thewater/binderratio,asitisimportanttouseSFwithoutstrengthloss.Asathumbrule,onepartofSFcanreplace
3to4partsofthecementbymasswithoutlossofstrength,providedthewatercontentremainsconstant[42].
MKincreasesthecohesivenessofconcrete[5,43].Therequirementofwatermaybeoffsetbyaddingplasticizer
[5].ThereasonforhigherwaterdemandinthecaseofSFandMKisthatbothmineraladmixtureshavehigh
reactivityandconsumewaterveryearly.
ThesuperplasticizercontentneedstobeincreasediffinerandhigherpercentageofRHAhastobeusedthisisalso
duetothehighspecificareaoffinerRHAwhichincreasesthewaterdemand.Thesuperplasticizercontenthasto
increasemorethan2.0%forRHAhavingaparticlesizeof11.5m(0.00045in.)andspecificsurfaceof30.4m2/g
(148533.6ft2/lb.)[44].
InFigure6,theslumpofconcretesincorporatingmineraladmixtureswithdifferentwater/binderratiohasbeen
plotted.Thevaluesofslumphavebeenobtainedfromtheliterature.Fiveexperimentalinvestigationshavebeen
chosentosummarizetheeffectofdifferentreplacementlevelsofFA,SF,MK,andRHAwithdifferentwater/binder
ratios.ZhangandMalhotra,1996[24],investigatedRHAandSFascementreplacingmaterial.Fromtheir
experimentalresults,theslumpsofconcretehavingwater/binderratio0.4,maximumbindercontent386kg/m3(24
lb/ft3),and10%cementreplacementhavebeentaken[24].HabeebandFayyadh,2009[44],investigatedRHAof
differentparticlesize(fineness)ascementreplacingmaterial.Fromtheirexperimentalresults,theslumpsof
concretehavingwater/binderratio0.53,maximumbindercontent391kg/m3(24.4lb/ft3),and20%cement
replacementhavebeenused[44].Nochaiyaetal.,2010[45],investigatedFAandSFascementreplacingmaterial.
Fromtheirexperimentalresults,theslumpsofconcretehavingwater/binderratio0.56,maximumbindercontent
360kg/m3(22.45lb/ft3),and10,15,20,30,and40%cementreplacementwiththeFAoracombinationofFAand
SFhavebeenplotted[45].WongandRazak,2005[46],investigatedSFandMKascementreplacingmaterial.
Fromtheirexperimentalresults,theslumpsofconcretehavingwater/binderratio0.23,0.3and0.33maximum
bindercontent500kg/m3(31.18lb/ft3)and5,10,and15%cementreplacementwithSFandMKhavebeen
shown[45].DingandLi,2002[47],alsoinvestigatedSFandMKascementreplacingmaterialwithfixed
water/binderratioof0.35.Fromtheirexperimentalresults,theslumpsofconcretehavingmaximumbindercontent
462kg/m3(28.82lb/ft3)and5,10,and15%cementreplacementwithSFandMKhavebeenused[45].
Figure6
Slumpofconcretewithmineraladmixtures.

FromFigure6,thereareseveralimportantaspectsofconcretethatcanbeidentifiedwithdifferentmineral
admixtures.Firstisthereplacementlevel.ThecontentofSFandMKis15%maximum,whereasFAandRHAhave
30%and20%maximumreplacementlevels,respectively.Withrespecttowater/binderratio,at5%replacement
level,themaximumslumpiswithMKconcretehavingwater/binderratio0.33(WongandRazakseries).Similarly,
themaximumslumpofSFconcreteiswiththewater/binderratioof0.3(WongandRazakseries).Furtherincrease
inwater/binderratiocausedreductioninslump.Moreover,MKconcretehasbetterslumpascomparedtoSF
concreteasshowninFigure6.At10%replacementlevelthemaximumslumpisagainwithMKconcretebutwith
water/binderratio0.3(WongandRazakseries).ThemaximumslumpofSFconcreteatthisreplacementlevelis
withwater/binderratioof0.4(Zhangetal.series).Atthisreplacementlevel,FAandRHAconcreteshavethesame
slumphavingwater/binderratioof0.4(Zhangetal.series)and0.56(Nochaiyaetal.series),respectively.At15%
replacementlevelthemaximumslumpisagainwithMKconcretebutwithwater/binderratio0.3(WongandRazak
series).TheslumpofSFconcreteatthisreplacementlevelisextraordinarilyreduced.Itisalsoevidentfrom
Figure6that,withtheincreaseinreplacementlevel,theslumpofMKconcreteislessaffectedhowever,SF
concreteisverysusceptiblewiththeincreaseinreplacementlevelspecificallyfrom10%to15%.Theslumpof
concretehavingcombinationofFAandSFascementreplacementhasalsobeeninfluencedbytheadditionofSF
andtheslumpisfurtherreducedwiththeincreaseinSFcontent.ThoughincreaseinFAcontentincreasetheslump
asshowninFigure6,affectsofSFontheslumparenotfullycanceledbyFA.FromFigure6,itisalsoevidentthat
increaseinfinenessofRHAcausedreductioninslump(HabeebandFayyadhseries)[44].Ingeneral,water
demandgreatlydependsontheparticlesize,specificsurfacearea,particleshape,replacementlevel,andreactivity
ofparticularmineraladmixtureusedinconcrete.Ingeneral,smallertheparticlesizeandhigherthespecificsurface
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ofmineraladmixtureincreasesthewaterdemandsofconcrete.Detailsofparticlesizeandspecificsurfaceof
mineraladmixtureshavebeenmentionedinTable1.Bycomparingtheparticlesizeandspecificsurfaceofmineral
admixturesandavailableliterature,itmayproposethatSFandMKrequiremorewatercontentduetosmallparticle
sizes,higherspecificsurfaceareaandhighreactivity.
6.2.HeatofHydration

AccordingtoWoolleyandConlin,1989[54],andKeckandRiggs,1997[55],useofFAiseffectiveinreducing
heatofhydration.TheexothermicreactionduringthehydrationofOPCliberatesenergyof500J/g(10455.8lb.
ft./oz).UseofFAbyreplacingsomecontentofcementinfluencestemperatureriseduringhydrationprocessand
increasespozzolanicreactionwithincreasingtemperaturehowever,thepeaktemperatureinFAconcreteis
significantlylowerthanequivalentordinaryPortlandcementconcrete.
SimilartoFA,astheproportionofGGBSisincreased,theheatofhydrationisreduced.Thisisbeneficialinlarge
concretepouringthatenablereducedtemperaturerisewhichwillreducetheprobabilityofthermalcracking[5].
ChengyiandFeldman,1985[56],havestudiedheatofhydrationofcementpastescontaining0,10,20,and30
percentSFbyusingconductioncalorimetry.ByincreasingthecontentofSF,higherheatofhydrationhasbeen
observed.Therateofheatliberation,expressedonacementbasis,isincreasedastheamountofSFincreases,but
thetotalheatliberated,expressedonatotalsolidbasisinthemixture,somewhatisdecreasedasSFissubstituted
forcement[42].
Ambroiseetal.,1994[57],pointedthetemperatureriseofMKmortarsrelativetotheplainOPCmortarshowingan
acceleratingeffectofMKonOPChydration.Notethatthemaximumobservedtemperatureriseoccursat10%
replacementofOPCbyMK.ThistemperaturerisehasalsobeenconfirmedbyZhangandMalhotra,1995[58].
ThehighreactivityofMKwithCa(OH)2isthecauseofincreaseintemperature.
SimilartoFAandGGBS,partialreplacementofcementwithRHAinconcreteslowsdowntherateofhydrationin
comparisonwithordinaryconcrete.Therateofhydrationremainsslowduringtheinitialthreedaysand
consequentlyaffectsthestrengthafter150days[59].Ingeneral,itiswellevidentthatfinelydividedhighlyreactive
pozzolanreactswithCa(OH)2supplytoearlyheatevolution,byacceleratingthehydrationofOPC[56,57]andby
rapidlyreactingwithCa(OH)2[18].
6.3.SettingTime

ThesettingtimeofconcreteinthecontextofFAdependsonambienttemperature,cementcontent,fineness,water
content,dosagesofchemicaladmixtures,contentofFA,fineness,andchemicalcompositionofFA[28].Testsof
concretecontainingClassFandClassCFAfrom10differentsourceshavebeenconductedtoestimatewater
requirement,settingtime,andbleeding[60].ThewaterrequirementwasreducedforconcreteswithClassCFA.
NosteadywaterreductionwasobservedinClassFFAconcrete.MinorincreaseinsettingtimewasobservedinFA
concretes[60].
SinceGGBSslowlyreactswithwaterascomparedtoPortlandcement,thereforestiffening/settingtimeofconcrete
ishigh.Thesettingtimewillbegreaterathighreplacementlevelsabove50%andatlowertemperatures(below
10C(50F))[5].SF,havingagreatersurfaceareaandhighersilicondioxidecontent,isfoundtobemorereactive
thanPulverizedflyash(PFA)orGGBS.ThehighreactivityincreaseshydrationrateoftheC3Sfractionofthe
cementinthefirstinstanceandthusdecreasesthesettingtime[5].
Initialandfinalsettingtimesofconcretecontaining10%MKareincreasedandareextendedfurtherwiththe
increaseinreplacementlevelhowever,byincreasingthereplacementlevelupto15%,minordropininitialsetting
timeparticularlyisobservedincomparisonwith10%MKconcrete[61].Thismightbeduetothegreaterwater
demandofMKatthehigherreplacementlevel.WithhigherMKcontent,concreteduetohigherbinderphase
becomesdenserandresultsinacceleratingthesetting[61]however,useofeffectivesuperplasticizeroffsetsthe
highwaterdemandandlowwatercontentandultimatelyincreasesthesettingtime[61].
IncomparisontoSFconcrete,theinitialandfinalsettingtimeofRHAconcretehasbeenobservedandinitialand
finalsettingtimeofRHAconcreteisabout29and60minuteslongerthanSFconcrete,respectively[24].Hence,
thecomparisonofvariousadmixturesshowedthatthereisadifferenceinthesettingtimeofSFandMKconcreteas
comparedtoplainconcrete.ThismaybeduetothefactthatSFandMKacceleratethehydrationofcementafter
initialset[61].Ingeneral,watercontent,initialandcuringtemperature,dosage,sourceandtypeofmineral
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admixturesandsuperplasticizer,andcompositionofcementinfluencethesettingtimeofconcrete[61].Thus,on
similarconditions,increaseinreplacementlevelsofmineraladmixturesinconcretecausesdecreaseinsettingtime
[61].
6.4.Bleeding

GeblerandKlieger,1986[60],reportedthatconcretewithFAshowedlessbleedingthanplainconcrete.Also,
concretewithClassCFAshowedlesserbleedingthanconcreteswithClassFFA.Thereductioninbleedingisdue
togreatersurfaceareaofparticlesofflyashandlowerwatercontentwithflyashforagivenworkability[28].On
thecontrary,concretecontainingSForRHAproducesnobleedingwater[24].Similarly,theuseofMKasapartial
replacementofcementinsuitablydesignedconcretemixesimprovescohesionandreducesbleedingoffresh
concrete[5].
6.5.Reactivity

ReactivityofpozzolanmaybecomparedwiththehelpofChapelletest.Thistestisperformedbythereactionof
calciumhydroxidewiththediluteslurryofthepozzolanatatemperatureof95C(203F)for18hours.After
reaction,theconsumedcalciumhydroxideisdetermined.Largent,1978[53],reportedtheresultsandshowedthat
thereactivityofMKishigherthantheotherpozzolan.TheauthorsconductedthesametestonSFandMKas
showninTable1andverifiedtheresultsreportedbyLargent,1978.Larbi,1991[14],demonstratedthatMKina
cementmatrixeliminatedthecalciumhydroxidecompletely.Nevertheless,MKreducesthecalciumhydroxidelevel
inconcretebutpHremainsstableabove12.5[62].
7.Conclusions

Goto:

Basedonthereview,itisquiteclearthatmineraladmixturesmaybecategorizedintotwogroups,namely,
chemicallyactivemineraladmixtures(highlyreactivepozzolan)andmicrofillermineraladmixtures(lowto
moderatereactivepozzolan).SFandMKarechemicallyactivemineraladmixtures,whereasFA,GGBS,andRHA
aremicrofillermineraladmixtures.Basedonthesetwogroups,thefollowinggeneralizedconclusionscanbedrawn
onthepropertiesoffreshconcrete.
1.Chemicallyactivemineraladmixtures(highlyreactivepozzolan)increasethecohesivenessofconcreteand
requiremorewatertomaintainworkabilityhowever,therequirementofwatermaybeoffsetbyadding
plasticizer.Thewaterdemanddependsontheparticlesize,specificsurfacearea,particleshape,replacement
level,andreactivityofparticularmineraladmixture.
2.Theworkabilityofconcretewithmicrofillermineraladmixtures(lowtomoderatereactivepozzolan)greatly
dependsontheparticlesize,specificsurfacearea,particleshape,andreplacementlevel.Ingeneral,smaller
theparticlesizeandhigherthespecificsurfaceofmineraladmixtureincreasesthewaterdemandsof
concrete.Thelowtomoderatereactivityandfillereffecthelptomaintaintheworkabilityandsometimes
increasetheworkability.
3.Heatofhydrationincreaseswiththeuseofchemicallyactivemineraladmixturesanddecreaseswiththeuse
ofmicrofillermineraladmixtures.
4.Initialandfinalsettingtimeofconcretedependsonwatercontent,initialandcuringtemperature,dosageof
superplasticizer,andthereactivityofmineraladmixture.Thus,onsimilarconditions,initialandfinalsetting
timesofconcretedecreasewiththeuseofchemicallyactivemineraladmixturesandincreasewiththeuseof
microfillermineraladmixtures.
5.Ingeneral,settingtimeofconcretedecreaseswiththeincreaseinreplacementlevelsofchemicallyactive
mineraladmixturesandincreaseswiththeincreaseofmicrofillermineraladmixtures.
6.Allmineraladmixturesstudiedreducebleedinginconcretewithcorrectproportionofallingredients.
7.BasedonChapelletest,thereactivityofmineraladmixturesisoftheorder:MK>SF>FA>GGBS.
8.Smallerparticlesizeandhigherspecificsurfaceareaofmineraladmixturesarefavourabletoproducehighly
denseandimpermeableconcretehowever,theycauselowworkabilityandmorewaterdemandwhichmay
beoffsetbyaddingeffectivesuperplasticizer.
ConflictofInterests

Goto:

Theauthorsdeclarethatthereisnoconflictofinterestsregardingthepublicationofthispaper.

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